3G LTE Tutorial - 3GPP Long Term Evolution

- information, overview, or tutorial about the basics of the 3GPP / 3G LTE, the long term evolution plans for the next generation of cellular telecommunications services

3G LTE technology tutorial includes: Tutorial Introduction OFDM and OFDMA / SC-FDMA MIMO TDD and FDD duplex schemes Frame and subframe structure Physical logical & transport channels Frequency bands and spectrum UE category definitions SAE system architecture evolution Voice over LTE, VoLTE Security See also: 4G LTE Advanced 3G LTE is now being deployed and is the way forwards for high speed cellular services. There has been a rapid increase in the use of data carried by cellular services, and this increase will only become larger in what has been termed the "data explosion". To cater for this and the increased demands for increased data transmission speeds and lower latency, further development of cellular technology have been required. The UMTS cellular technology upgrade has been dubbed LTE - Long Term Evolution. The idea is that 3G LTE will enable much higher speeds to be achieved along with much lower packet latency (a growing requirement for many services these days), and that 3GPP LTE will enable cellular communications services to move forward to meet the needs for cellular technology to 2017 and well beyond. Many operators have not yet upgraded their basic 3G networks, and 3GPP LTE is seen as the next logical step for many operators, who will leapfrog straight from basic 3G straight to LTE as this will avoid providing several stages of upgrade. The use of LTE will also provide the data capabilities that will be required for many years and until the full launch of the full 4G standards known as LTE Advanced.

3G LTE evolution
Although there are major step changes between LTE and its 3G predecessors, it is nevertheless looked upon as an evolution of the UMTS / 3GPP 3G standards. Although it uses a different form of radio interface, using OFDMA / SC-FDMA instead of CDMA, there are many similarities with the earlier forms of 3G architecture and there is scope for much re-use.

LTE can be seen for provide a further evolution of functionality, increased speeds and general improved performance. WCDMA (UMTS) Max downlink speed bps Max uplink speed bps Latency round trip time approx 3GPP releases Approx years of initial roll out Access methodology 384 k 128 k 150 ms HSPA HSDPA / HSUPA 14 M 5.7 M 100 ms

HSPA+ 28 M 11 M 50ms (max) 100M 50 M ~10 ms Rel 8

LTE

Rel 99/4 Rel 5 / 6 Rel 7 2005 / 6 HSDPA 2003 / 4 2008 / 9 2007 / 8 HSUPA CDMA CDMA CDMA

2009 / 10 OFDMA / SCFDMA

In addition to this, LTE is an all IP based network, supporting both IPv4 and IPv6. There is also no basic provision for voice, although this can be carried as VoIP.

3GPP LTE technologies

LTE has introduced a number of new technologies when compared to the previous cellular systems. They enable LTE to be able to operate more efficiently with respect to the use of spectrum, and also to provide the much higher data rates that are being required.

OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex): OFDM technology has been incorporated into LTE because it enables high data bandwidths to be transmitted efficiently while still providing a high degree of resilience to reflections and interference. The access schemes differ between the uplink and downlink: OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access is used in the downlink; while SC-FDMA(Single Carrier - Frequency Division Multiple Access) is used in the uplink. SC-FDMA is used in view of the fact that its peak to average power ratio is small and the more constant power enables high RF power amplifier efficiency in the mobile handsets - an important factor for battery power equipment. Read more about LTE OFDM / OFDMA / SCFMDA MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output): One of the main problems that previous telecommunications systems has encountered is that of multiple signals arising from the many reflections that are encountered. By using MIMO, these additional signal paths can be used to advantage and are able to be used to increase the throughput. When using MIMO, it is necessary to use multiple antennas to enable the different paths to be distinguished. Accordingly schemes using 2 x 2, 4 x 2, or 4 x 4 antenna matrices can be used. While it is relatively easy to add further antennas to a base station, the same is not true of mobile handsets, where the dimensions of the user equipment limit the number of antennas which should be place at least a half wavelength apart. Read more about LTE MIMO SAE (System Architecture Evolution): With the very high data rate and low latency requirements for 3G LTE, it is necessary to evolve the system architecture to enable the

improved performance to be achieved. One change is that a number of the functions previously handled by the core network have been transferred out to the periphery. Essentially this provides a much "flatter" form of network architecture. In this way latency times can be reduced and data can be routed more directly to its destination. Read more about LTE SAE These technologies are addressed in much greater detail in the following pages of this tutorial.

3G LTE specification overview

It is worth summarizing the key parameters of the 3G LTE specification. In view of the fact that there are a number of differences between the operation of the uplink and downlink, these naturally differ in the performance they can offer. Parameter Peak downlink speed 64QAM (Mbps) Peak uplink speeds (Mbps) Data type Channel bandwidths (MHz) Duplex schemes Mobility Latency Spectral efficiency Access schemes Modulation types supported Details 100 (SISO), 172 (2x2 MIMO), 326 (4x4 MIMO) 50 (QPSK), 57 (16QAM), 86 (64QAM) All packet switched data (voice and data). No circuit switched. 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 FDD and TDD 0 - 15 km/h (optimised), 15 - 120 km/h (high performance) Idle to active less than 100ms Small packets ~10 ms Downlink: 3 - 4 times Rel 6 HSDPA Uplink: 2 -3 x Rel 6 HSUPA OFDMA (Downlink) SC-FDMA (Uplink) QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM (Uplink and downlink)

These highlight specifications give an overall view of the performance that LTE will offer. It meets the requirements of industry for high data download speeds as well as reduced latency - a factor important for many applications from VoIP to gaming and interactive use of data. It also provides significant improvements in the use of the available spectrum.

LTE OFDM, OFDMA and SC-FDMA

- overview, information, tutorial about the basics of LTE OFDM, OFDMA and SC-FDMA including cyclic prefix, CP.

3G LTE technology tutorial includes: Tutorial Introduction OFDM and OFDMA / SC-FDMA MIMO TDD and FDD duplex schemes Frame and subframe structure Physical logical & transport channels Frequency bands and spectrum UE category definitions SAE system architecture evolution Voice over LTE, VoLTE Security See also: 4G LTE Advanced One of the key elements of LTE is the use of OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex) as the signal bearer and the associated access schemes, OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex) and SC-FDMA (Single Frequency Division Multiple Access). OFDM is used in a number of other of systems from WLAN, WiMAX to broadcast technologies including DVB and DAB. OFDM has many advantages including its robustness to multipath fading and interference. In addition to this, even though, it may appear to be a particularly complicated form of modulation, it lends itself to digital signal processing techniques. In view of its advantages, the use of ODFM and the associated access technologies, OFDMA and SC-FDMA are natural choices for the new LTE cellular standard.

OFDM basics
The use of OFDM is a natural choice for LTE. While the basic concepts of OFDM are used, it has naturally been tailored to meet the exact requirements for LTE. However its use of multiple carrier each carrying a low data rate remains the same.

Note on OFDM:
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) is a form of transmission that uses a large number of close spaced carriers that are modulated with low rate data. Normally these signals would be expected to interfere with each other, but by making the signals orthogonal to each another there is no mutual interference. This is achieved by having the carrier spacing equal to the reciprocal of the symbol period. This means that when the signals are demodulated they will have a whole number of cycles in the symbol period and their contribution will sum to zero - in other words there is no interference contribution. The data to be transmitted is split across all the carriers and this means that by using error correction techniques, if some of the carriers are lost due to multi-path effects, then the data can be reconstructed. Additionally having data carried at a low rate across all the carriers means that the effects of reflections and inter-symbol interference can be overcome. It also means that single frequency networks, where all transmitters can transmit on the same channel can be implemented. Click on the link for an OFDM tutorial

The actual implementation of the technology will be different between the downlink (i.e. from base station to mobile) and the uplink (i.e. mobile to the base station) as a result of the different requirements between the two directions and the equipment at either end. However OFDM was chosen as the signal bearer format because it is very resilient to interference. Also in recent years a considerable level of experience has been gained in its use from the various forms of broadcasting that use it along with Wi-Fi and WiMAX. OFDM is also a modulation format that is very suitable for carrying high data rates - one of the key requirements for LTE. In addition to this, OFDM can be used in both FDD and TDD formats. This becomes an additional advantage.

LTE channel bandwidths and characteristics

One of the key parameters associated with the use of OFDM within LTE is the choice of bandwidth. The available bandwidth influences a variety of decisions including the number of carriers that can be accommodated in the OFDM signal and in turn this influences elements including the symbol length and so forth. LTE defines a number of channel bandwidths. Obviously the greater the bandwidth, the greater the channel capacity. The channel bandwidths that have been chosen for LTE are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1.4 MHz 3 MHz 5 MHz 10 MHz 15 MHz 20 MHz

In addition to this the subcarriers are spaced 15 kHz apart from each other. To maintain orthogonality, this gives a symbol rate of 1 / 15 kHz = of 66.7 s. Each subcarrier is able to carry data at a maximum rate of 15 ksps (kilosymbols per second). This gives a 20 MHz bandwidth system a raw symbol rate of 18 Msps. In turn this is able to provide a raw data rate of 108 Mbps as each symbol using 64QAM is able to represent six bits. It may appear that these rates do not align with the headline figures given in the LTE specifications. The reason for this is that actual peak data rates are derived by first subtracting the coding and control overheads. Then there are gains arising from elements such as the spatial multiplexing, etc.

LTE OFDM cyclic prefix, CP

One of the primary reasons for using OFDM as a modulation format within LTE (and many other wireless systems for that matter) is its resilience to multipath delays and spread. However it

is still necessary to implement methods of adding resilience to the system. This helps overcome the inter-symbol interference (ISI) that results from this. In areas where inter-symbol interference is expected, it can be avoided by inserting a guard period into the timing at the beginning of each data symbol. It is then possible to copy a section from the end of the symbol to the beginning. This is known as the cyclic prefix, CP. The receiver can then sample the waveform at the optimum time and avoid any inter-symbol interference caused by reflections that are delayed by times up to the length of the cyclic prefix, CP. The length of the cyclic prefix, CP is important. If it is not long enough then it will not counteract the multipath reflection delay spread. If it is too long, then it will reduce the data throughput capacity. For LTE, the standard length of the cyclic prefix has been chosen to be 4.69 s. This enables the system to accommodate path variations of up to 1.4 km. With the symbol length in LTE set to 66.7 s. The symbol length is defined by the fact that for OFDM systems the symbol length is equal to the reciprocal of the carrier spacing so that orthogonality is achieved. With a carrier spacing of 15 kHz, this gives the symbol length of 66.7 s.

LTE OFDMA in the downlink

The OFDM signal used in LTE comprises a maximum of 2048 different sub-carriers having a spacing of 15 kHz. Although it is mandatory for the mobiles to have capability to be able to receive all 2048 sub-carriers, not all need to be transmitted by the base station which only needs to be able to support the transmission of 72 sub-carriers. In this way all mobiles will be able to talk to any base station. Within the OFDM signal it is possible to choose between three types of modulation: 1. QPSK (= 4QAM) 2 bits per symbol 2. 16QAM 4 bits per symbol 3. 64QAM 6 bits per symbol The exact format is chosen depending upon the prevailing conditions. The lower forms of modulation, (QPSK) do not require such a large signal to noise ratio but are not able to send the data as fast. Only when there is a sufficient signal to noise ratio can the higher order modulation format be used.

Downlink carriers and resource blocks

In the downlink, the subcarriers are split into resource blocks. This enables the system to be able to compartmentalise the data across standard numbers of subcarriers. Resource blocks comprise 12 subcarriers, regardless of the overall LTE signal bandwidth. They also cover one slot in the time frame. This means that different LTE signal bandwidths will have different numbers of resource blocks.

Channel bandwidth (MHz) Number of resource blocks

1.4 6

3 15

5 25

10 50

15 75

20 100

LTE SC-FDMA in the uplink

For the LTE uplink, a different concept is used for the access technique. Although still using a form of OFDMA technology, the implementation is called Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA). One of the key parameters that affects all mobiles is that of battery life. Even though battery performance is improving all the time, it is still necessary to ensure that the mobiles use as little battery power as possible. With the RF power amplifier that transmits the radio frequency signal via the antenna to the base station being the highest power item within the mobile, it is necessary that it operates in as efficient mode as possible. This can be significantly affected by the form of radio frequency modulation and signal format. Signals that have a high peak to average ratio and require linear amplification do not lend themselves to the use of efficient RF power amplifiers. As a result it is necessary to employ a mode of transmission that has as near a constant power level when operating. Unfortunately OFDM has a high peak to average ratio. While this is not a problem for the base station where power is not a particular problem, it is unacceptable for the mobile. As a result, LTE uses a modulation scheme known as SC-FDMA - Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiplex which is a hybrid format. This combines the low peak to average ratio offered by single-carrier systems with the multipath interference resilience and flexible subcarrier frequency allocation that OFDM provides.

LTE MIMO
- overview, information, tutorial about the basics of how MIMO is used within 3G LTE.

3G LTE technology tutorial includes: Tutorial Introduction OFDM and OFDMA / SC-FDMA MIMO TDD and FDD duplex schemes Frame and subframe structure Physical logical & transport channels Frequency bands and spectrum UE category definitions SAE system architecture evolution Voice over LTE, VoLTE Security See also: 4G LTE Advanced MIMO, Multiple Input Multiple Output is another of the LTE major technology innovations used to improve the performance of the system. This technology provides LTE with the ability to

further improve its data throughput and spectral efficiency above that obtained by the use of OFDM. Although MIMO adds complexity to the system in terms of processing and the number of antennas required, it enables far high data rates to be achieved along with much improved spectral efficiency. As a result, MIMO has been included as an integral part of LTE.

LTE MIMO basics

The basic concept of MIMO utilises the multipath signal propagation that is present in all terrestrial communications. Rather than providing interference, these paths can be used to advantage.

Note on MIMO:
Two major limitations in communications channels can be multipath interference, and the data throughput limitations as a result of Shannon's Law. MIMO provides a way of utilising the multiple signal paths that exist between a transmitter and receiver to significantly improve the data throughput available on a given channel with its defined bandwidth. By using multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver along with some complex digital signal processing, MIMO technology enables the system to set up multiple data streams on the same channel, thereby increasing the data capacity of a channel. Click on the link for a MIMO tutorial

MIMO is being used increasingly in many high data rate technologies including Wi-Fi and other wireless and cellular technologies to provide improved levels of efficiency. Essentially MIMO employs multiple antennas on the receiver and transmitter to utilise the multi-path effects that always exist to transmit additional data, rather than causing interference. The schemes employed in LTE again vary slightly between the uplink and downlink. The reason for this is to keep the terminal cost low as there are far more terminals than base stations and as a result terminal works cost price is far more sensitive. For the downlink, a configuration of two transmit antennas at the base station and two receive antennas on the mobile terminal is used as baseline, although configurations with four antennas are also being considered. For the uplink from the mobile terminal to the base station, a scheme called MU-MIMO (MultiUser MIMO) is to be employed. Using this, even though the base station requires multiple antennas, the mobiles only have one transmit antenna and this considerably reduces the cost of the mobile. In operation, multiple mobile terminals may transmit simultaneously on the same channel or channels, but they do not cause interference to each other because mutually orthogonal pilot patterns are used. This techniques is also referred to as spatial domain multiple access (SDMA).

LTE FDD, TDD, TD-LTE Duplex Schemes

- information, overview, or tutorial about the LTE TDD and LTE FDD duplex schemes used with LTE and including TD-LTE.

3G LTE technology tutorial includes: Tutorial Introduction OFDM and OFDMA / SC-FDMA MIMO TDD and FDD duplex schemes Frame and subframe structure Physical logical & transport channels Frequency bands and spectrum UE category definitions SAE system architecture evolution Voice over LTE, VoLTE Security See also: 4G LTE Advanced LTE has been defined to accommodate both paired spectrum for Frequency Division Duplex, FDD and unpaired spectrum for Time Division Duplex, TDD operation. It is anticipated that both LTE TDD and LTE FDD will be widely deployed as each form of the LTE standard has its own advantages and disadvantages and decisions can be made about which format to adopt dependent upon the particular application. LTE FDD using the paired spectrum is anticipated to form the migration path for the current 3G services being used around the globe, most of which use FDD paired spectrum. However there has been an additional emphasis on including TDD LTE using unpaired spectrum. TDD LTE which is also known as TD-LTE is seen as providing the evolution or upgrade path for TDSCDMA. In view of the increased level of importance being placed upon LTE TDD or TD-LTE, it is planned that user equipments will be designed to accommodate both FDD and TDD modes. With TDD having an increased level of importance placed upon it, it means that TDD operations will be able to benefit from the economies of scale that were previously only open to FDD operations.

Duplex schemes
It is essential that any cellular communications system must be able to transmit in both directions simultaneously. This enables conversations to be made, with either end being able to talk and listen as required. Additionally when exchanging data it is necessary to be able to undertake virtually simultaneous or completely simultaneous communications in both directions. It is necessary to be able to specify the different direction of transmission so that it is possible to easily identify in which direction the transmission is being made. There are a variety of differences between the two links ranging from the amount of data carried to the transmission format, and the channels implemented. The two links are defined:

Uplink: the transmission from the UE or user equipment to the eNodeB or base station. Downlink the transmission from the eNodeB or base station to the UE or user equipment.

Uplink and downlink transmission directions In order to be able to be able to transmit in both directions, a user equipment or base station must have a duplex scheme. There are two forms of duplex that are commonly used, namely FDD, frequency division duplex and TDD time division duplex..

Note on TDD and FDD duplex schemes:

In order for radio communications systems to be able to communicate in both directions it is necessary to have what is termed a duplex scheme. A duplex scheme provides a way of organizing the transmitter and receiver so that they can transmit and receive. There are several methods that can be adopted. For applications including wireless and cellular telecommunications, where it is required that the transmitter and receiver are able to operate simultaneously, two schemes are in use. One known as FDD or frequency division duplex uses two channels, one for transmit and the other for receiver. Another scheme known as TDD, time division duplex uses one frequency, but allocates different time slots for transmission and reception. Click on the link for more information on TDD FDD duplex schemes

Both FDD and TDD have their own advantages and disadvantages. Accordingly they may be used for different applications, or where the bias of the communications is different.

Advantages / disadvantages of LTE TDD and LTE FDD for cellular communications
There are a number of the advantages and disadvantages of TDD and FDD that are of particular interest to mobile or cellular telecommunications operators. These are naturally reflected into LTE. Parameter Paired LTE-TDD Does not require paired LTE-FDD Requires paired spectrum with

Parameter spectrum

LTE-TDD spectrum as both transmit and receive occur on the same channel Lower cost as no diplexer is needed to isolate the transmitter and receiver. As Hardware cost cost of the UEs is of major importance because of the vast numbers that are produced, this is a key aspect. Channel propagation is the same in both directions which Channel enables transmit and receive to reciprocity use on set of parameters

LTE-FDD sufficient frequency separation to allow simultaneous transmission and reception

Diplexer is needed and cost is higher.

Channel characteristics different in both directions as a result of the use of different frequencies UL / DL capacity determined by frequency allocation set out by the regulatory authorities. It is therefore not possible to make dynamic changes to match capacity. Regulatory changes would normally be required and capacity is normally allocated so that it is the same in either direction. Guard band required to provide sufficient isolation between uplink and downlink. Large guard band does not impact capacity.

UL / DL asymmetry

It is possible to dynamically change the UL and DL capacity ratio to match demand

Guard period required to ensure uplink and downlink transmissions do not clash. Guard period / Large guard period will limit capacity. Larger guard period guard band normally required if distances are increased to accommodate larger propagation times. Discontinuous transmission is required to allow both uplink Discontinuous and downlink transmissions. transmission This can degrade the performance of the RF power amplifier in the transmitter. Base stations need to be synchronised with respect to the uplink and downlink transmission times. If neighbouring base stations use Cross slot different uplink and downlink interference assignments and share the same channel, then interference may occur between cells.

Continuous transmission is required.

Not applicable

LTE TDD / TD-LTE and TD-SCDMA

Apart from the technical reasons and advantages for using LTE TDD / TD-LTE, there are market drivers as well. With TD-SCDMA now well established in China, there needs to be a 3.9G and later a 4G successor to the technology. With unpaired spectrum allocated for TD-SCDMA as well as UMTS TDD, it is natural to see many operators wanting an upgrade path for their technologies to benefit from the vastly increased speeds and improved facilities of LTE. Accordingly there is a considerable interest in the development of LTE TDD, which is also known in China as TD-LTE. With the considerable interest from the supporters of TD-SCDMA, a number of features to make the mode of operation of TD-LTE more of an upgrade path for TD-SCDMA have been incorporated. One example of this is the subframe structure that has been adopted within LTE TDD / TD-LTE. While both LTE TDD (TD-LTE) and LTE FDD will be widely used, it is anticipated that LTE FDD will be the more widespread, although LTE TDD has a number of significant advantages, especially in terms of higher spectrum efficiency that can be used by many operators. It is also anticipated that phones will be able to operate using either the LTE FDD or LTE-TDD (TD-LTE) modes. In this way the LTE UEs or user equipments will be dual standard phones, and able to operate in countries regardless of the flavour of LTE that is used - the main problem will then be the frequency bands that the phone can cover.

LTE Frame and Subframe Structure

- information, overview, or tutorial about the LTE frame and subframe structure including LTE Type 1 and LTE Type 2 frames.

3G LTE technology tutorial includes: Tutorial Introduction OFDM and OFDMA / SC-FDMA MIMO TDD and FDD duplex schemes Frame and subframe structure Physical logical & transport channels Frequency bands and spectrum UE category definitions SAE system architecture evolution Voice over LTE, VoLTE Security See also: 4G LTE Advanced In order that the 3G LTE system can maintain synchronisation and the system is able to manage the different types of information that need to be carried between the base-station or eNodeB and the User Equipment, UE, 3G LTE system has a defined LTE frame and subframe structure for the E-UTRA or Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access, i.e. the air interface for 3G LTE. The frame structures for LTE differ between the Time Division Duplex, TDD and the Frequency Division Duplex, FDD modes as there are different requirements on segregating the transmitted data.

There are two types of LTE frame structure: 1. Type 1: used for the LTE FDD mode systems. 2. Type 2: used for the LTE TDD systems.

Type 1 LTE Frame Structure

The basic type 1 LTE frame has an overall length of 10 ms. This is then divided into a total of 20 individual slots. LTE Subframes then consist of two slots - in other words there are ten LTE subframes within a frame.

Type 1 LTE Frame Structure

Type 2 LTE Frame Structure

The frame structure for the type 2 frames used on LTE TDD is somewhat different. The 10 ms frame comprises two half frames, each 5 ms long. The LTE half-frames are further split into five subframes, each 1ms long.

Type 2 LTE Frame Structure (shown for 5ms switch point periodicity). The subframes may be divided into standard subframes of special subframes. The special subframes consist of three fields;

DwPTS - Downlink Pilot Time Slot GP - Guard Period UpPTS - Uplink Pilot Time Stot.

These three fields are also used within TD-SCDMA and they have been carried over into LTE TDD (TD-LTE) and thereby help the upgrade path. The fields are individually configurable in terms of length, although the total length of all three together must be 1ms.

LTE TDD / TD-LTE subframe allocations

One of the advantages of using LTE TDD is that it is possible to dynamically change the up and downlink balance and characteristics to meet the load conditions. In order that this can be achieved in an ordered fashion, a number of standard configurations have been set within the LTE standards. A total of seven up / downlink configurations have been set, and these use either 5 ms or 10 ms switch periodicities. In the case of the 5ms switch point periodicity, a special subframe exists in both half frames. In the case of the 10 ms periodicity, the special subframe exists in the first half frame only. It can be seen from the table below that the subframes 0 and 5 as well as DwPTS are always reserved for the downlink. It can also be seen that UpPTS and the subframe immediately following the special subframe are always reserved for the uplink transmission. Uplinkdownlink configuration 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Downlink to uplink switch periodicity 5 ms 5 ms 5 ms 10 ms 10 ms 10 ms 5 ms 0 D D D D D D D 1 S S S S S S S

Subframe number 2 U U U U U U U 3 U U D U U D U 4 U D D U D D U 5 D D D D D D D 6 S S S D D D S 7 U U U D D D U 8 U U D D D D U 9 U D D D D D D

Where: D is a subframe for downlink transmission S is a "special" subframe used for a guard time U is a subframe for uplink transmission Uplink / Downlink subframe configurations for LTE TDD (TD-LTE)

LTE Physical, Logical and Transport Channels

- overview, information, tutorial about the physical, logical, control and transport channels used within 3GPP, 3G LTE and the LTE channel mapping.

3G LTE technology tutorial includes: Tutorial Introduction OFDM and OFDMA / SC-FDMA MIMO TDD and FDD duplex schemes Frame and subframe structure Physical logical & transport channels Frequency bands and spectrum UE category definitions SAE system architecture evolution Voice over LTE, VoLTE Security See also: 4G LTE Advanced In order that data can be transported across the LTE radio interface, various "channels" are used. These are used to segregate the different types of data and allow them to be transported across the radio access network in an orderly fashion. Effectively the different channels provide interfaces to the higher layers within the LTE protocol structure and enable an orderly and defined segregation of the data.

3G LTE channel types

There are three categories into which the various data channels may be grouped.

Physical channels: These are transmission channels that carry user data and control messages. Transport channels: The physical layer transport channels offer information transfer to Medium Access Control (MAC) and higher layers. Logical channels: Provide services for the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer within the LTE protocol structure.

3G LTE physical channels

The LTE physical channels vary between the uplink and the downlink as each has different requirements and operates in a different manner.

Downlink: o Physical Broadcast Channel (PBCH): This physical channel carries system information for UEs requiring to access the network. o Physical Control Format Indicator Channel (PCFICH) : o Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH) : The main purpose of this physical channel is to carry mainly scheduling information. o Physical Hybrid ARQ Indicator Channel (PHICH) : As the name implies, this channel is used to report the Hybrid ARQ status. o Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH) : This channel is used for unicast and paging functions. o Physical Multicast Channel (PMCH) : This physical channel carries system information for multicast purposes.

Physical Control Format Indicator Channel (PCFICH) : This provides information to enable the UEs to decode the PDSCH. Uplink: o Physical Uplink Control Channel (PUCCH) : Sends Hybrid ARQ acknowledgement o Physical Uplink Shared Channel (PUSCH) : This physical channel found on the LTE uplink is the Uplink counterpart of PDSCH o Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH) : This uplink physical channel is used for random access functions.

LTE transport channels

The LTE transport channels vary between the uplink and the downlink as each has different requirements and operates in a different manner. Physical layer transport channels offer information transfer to medium access control (MAC) and higher layers.

Downlink: o Broadcast Channel (BCH) : The LTE transport channel maps to Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) o Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH) : This transport channel is the main channel for downlink data transfer. It is used by many logical channels. o Paging Channel (PCH) : To convey the PCCH o Multicast Channel (MCH) : This transport channel is used to transmit MCCH information to set up multicast transmissions.

Uplink: o Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH) : This transport channel is the main channel for uplink data transfer. It is used by many logical channels. o Random Access Channel (RACH) : This is used for random access requirements.

LTE logical channels

Control channels: o Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) : This control channel provides system information to all mobile terminals connected to the eNodeB. o Paging Control Channel (PCCH) : This control channel is used for paging information when searching a unit on a network. o Common Control Channel (CCCH) : This channel is used for random access information, e.g. for actions including setting up a connection. o Multicast Control Channel (MCCH) : This control channel is used for Information needed for multicast reception. o Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH) : This control channel is used for carrying user-specific control information, e.g. for controlling actions including power control, handover, etc..

Traffic channels: o Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH) : This traffic channel is used for the transmission of user data. o Multicast Traffic Channel (MTCH) : This channel is used for the transmission of multicast data.

LTE Frequency Bands & Spectrum Allocations

- a summary and tables of the LTE frequency band spectrum allocations for 3G & 4G LTE - TDD and FDD.
3G LTE technology tutorial includes: Tutorial Introduction OFDM and OFDMA / SC-FDMA MIMO TDD and FDD duplex schemes Frame and subframe structure Physical logical & transport channels Frequency bands and spectrum UE category definitions SAE system architecture evolution Voice over LTE, VoLTE Security See also: 4G LTE Advanced There is a growing number of LTE frequency bands that are being designated as possibilities for use with LTE. Many of the LTE frequency bands are already in use for other cellular systems, whereas other LTE bands are new and being introduced as other users are re-allocated spectrum elsewhere.

FDD and TDD LTE frequency bands

FDD spectrum requires pair bands, one of the uplink and one for the downlink, and TDD requires a single band as uplink and downlink are on the same frequency but time separated. As a result, there are different LTE band allocations for TDD and FDD. In some cases these bands may overlap, and it is therefore feasible, although unlikely that both TDD and FDD transmissions could be present on a particular LTE frequency band. The greater likelihood is that a single UE or mobile will need to detect whether a TDD or FDD transmission should be made on a given band. UEs that roam may encounter both types on the same band. They will therefore need to detect what type of transmission is being made on that particular LTE band in its current location. The different LTE frequency allocations or LTE frequency bands are allocated numbers. Currently the LTE bands between 1 & 22 are for paired spectrum, i.e. FDD, and LTE bands between 33 & 41 are for unpaired spectrum, i.e. TDD.

LTE frequency band definitions

FDD LTE frequency band allocations

There is a large number of allocations or radio spectrum that has been reserved for FDD, frequency division duplex, LTE use. The FDDLTE frequency bands are paired to allow simultaneous transmission on two frequencies. The bands also have a sufficient separation to enable the transmitted signals not to unduly impair the receiver performance. If the signals are too close then the receiver may be "blocked" and the sensitivity impaired. The separation must be sufficient to enable the roll-off of the antenna filtering to give sufficient attenuation of the transmitted signal within the receive band. Width of Band (MHz) 1920 - 1980 2110 - 2170 60 1850 - 1910 1930 - 1990 60 1710 - 1785 1805 -1880 75 1710 - 1755 2110 - 2155 45 824 - 849 869 - 894 25 830 - 840 875 - 885 10 2500 - 2570 2620 - 2690 70 880 - 915 925 - 960 35 1749.9 - 1784.9 1844.9 - 1879.9 35 1710 - 1770 2110 - 2170 60 1427.9 - 1452.9 1475.9 - 1500.9 20 698 - 716 728 - 746 18 777 - 787 746 - 756 10 788 - 798 758 - 768 10 1900 - 1920 2600 - 2620 20 2010 - 2025 2585 - 2600 15 704 - 716 734 - 746 12 815 - 830 860 - 875 15 830 - 845 875 - 890 15 832 - 862 791 - 821 30 1447.9 - 1462.9 1495.5 - 1510.9 15 3410 - 3500 3510 - 3600 90 2000 - 2020 2180 - 2200 20 Uplink (MHz) Downlink (MHz) Duplex Band Spacing Gap (MHz) (MHz) 190 80 95 400 45 35 120 45 95 400 48 30 -31 -30 700 575 30 45 45 -41 48 100 180 130 20 20 355 20 25 50 10 60 340 28 12 41 40 680 560 18 30 30 71 33 10 160

LTE Band Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

LTE Band Number 24 25

Uplink (MHz)

Downlink (MHz)

1625.5 - 1660.5 1525 - 1559 1850 - 1915 1930 - 1995

Width of Band (MHz) 34 65

Duplex Band Spacing Gap (MHz) (MHz) -101.5 80 135.5 15

TDD LTE frequency band allocations

With the interest in TDD LTE, there are several unpaired frequency allocations that are being prepared for LTR TDD use. The TDD LTE allocations are unpaired because the uplink and downlink share the same frequency, being time multiplexed. Allocation (MHz) 1900 - 1920 2010 - 2025 1850 - 1910 1930 - 1990 1910 - 1930 2570 - 2620 1880 - 1920 2300 - 2400 2496 - 2690 3400 - 3600 3600 - 3800 20 15 60 60 20 50 40 100 194 200 200 Width of Band (MHz)

LTE Band Number 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43

There are regular additions to the LTE frequency bands / LTE spectrum allocations as a result of negotiations at the ITU regulatory meetings. These LTE allocations are resulting in part from the digital dividend, and also from the pressure caused by the ever growing need for mobile communications. Many of the new LTE spectrum allocations are relatively small, often 10 - 20MHz in bandwidth, and this is a cause for concern. With LTE-Advanced needing bandwidths of 100 MHz, channel aggregation over a wide set of frequencies many be needed, and this has been recognised as a significant technological problem. . . . . . . . . Additional information on LTE frequency bands.

LTE UE Category and Class Definitions

- summary and overview of the 3G LTE UE or User Equipment categories and the performance specifications of these LTE categories.

3G LTE technology tutorial includes: Tutorial Introduction

 OFDM and OFDMA / SC-FDMA MIMO TDD and FDD duplex schemes Frame and subframe structure Physical logical & transport channels Frequency bands and spectrum UE category definitions SAE system architecture evolution Voice over LTE, VoLTE Security See also: 4G LTE Advanced In the same way that a variety of other systems adopted different categories for the handsets or user equipments, so too there are 3G LTE UE categories. These LTE categories define the standards to which a particular handset, dongle or other equipment will operate.

LTE UE category rationale

The LTE UE categories or UE classes are needed to ensure that the base station, or eNodeB, eNB can communicate correctly with the user equipment. By relaying the LTE UE category information to the base station, it is able to determine the performance of the UE and communicate with it accordingly. As the LTE category defines the overall performance and the capabilities of the UE, it is possible for the eNB to communicate using capabilities that it knows the UE possesses. Accordingly the eNB will not communicate beyond the performance of the UE.

LTE UE category definitions

there are five different LTE UE categories that are defined. As can be seen in the table below, the different LTE UE categories have a wide range in the supported parameters and performance. LTE category 1, for example does not support MIMO, but LTE UE category five supports 4x4 MIMO. It is also worth noting that UE class 1 does not offer the performance offered by that of the highest performance HSPA category. Additionally all LTE UE categories are capable of receiving transmissions from up to four antenna ports. A summary of the different LTE UE category parameters provided by the 3GPP Rel 8 standard is given in the tables below.

Category Downlink Uplink

1 10 5

4 300 75

50 100 150 25 50 50 LTE UE category data rates

Category Downlink Uplink

3 4 5 QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM QPSK, QPSK, 16QAM 16QAM, 64QAM LTE UE category modulation formats supported 1 2 3 4 5 Assumed in performance requirements across all LTE UE categories Not Mandatory supported Not supported Mandatory LTE UE category MIMO antenna configurations

Category 2 Rx diversity 2 x 2 MIMO 4 x 4 MIMO

Note: Bandwidth for all categories is 20 MHz.

LTE UE category summary

In the same way that category information is used for virtually all cellular systems from GPRS onwards, so the LTE UE category information is of great importance. While users may not be particularly aware of the category of their UE, it will match the performance an allow the eNB to communicate effectively with all the UEs that are connected to it.

LTE SAE System Architecture Evolution

- information, overview, or tutorial about the basics of the 3G LTE SAE, system architecture evolution and the LTE Network

3G LTE technology tutorial includes: Tutorial Introduction OFDM and OFDMA / SC-FDMA MIMO TDD and FDD duplex schemes Frame and subframe structure Physical logical & transport channels Frequency bands and spectrum UE category definitions SAE system architecture evolution Voice over LTE, VoLTE Security See also: 4G LTE Advanced Along with 3G LTE - Long Term Evolution that applies more to the radio access technology of the cellular telecommunications system, there is also an evolution of the core network. Known as

SAE - System Architecture Evolution. This new architecture has been developed to provide a considerably higher level of performance that is in line with the requirements of LTE. As a result it is anticipated that operators will commence introducing hardware conforming to the new System Architecture Evolution standards so that the anticipated data levels can be handled when 3G LTE is introduced. The new SAE, System Architecture Evolution has also been developed so that it is fully compatible with LTE Advanced, the new 4G technology. Therefore when LTE Advanced is introduced, the network will be able to handle the further data increases with little change.

Reason for SAE System Architecture Evolution

The SAE System Architecture Evolution offers many advantages over previous topologies and systems used for cellular core networks. As a result it is anticipated that it will be wide adopted by the cellular operators. SAE System Architecture Evolution will offer a number of key advantages: 1. Improved data capacity: With 3G LTE offering data download rates of 100 Mbps, and the focus of the system being on mobile broadband, it will be necessary for the network to be able to handle much greater levels of data. To achieve this it is necessary to adopt a system architecture that lends itself to much grater levels of data transfer. 2. All IP architecture: When 3G was first developed, voice was still carried as circuit switched data. Since then there has been a relentless move to IP data. Accordingly the new SAE, System Architecture Evolution schemes have adopted an all IP network configuration. 3. Reduced latency: With increased levels of interaction being required and much faster responses, the new SAE concepts have been evolved to ensure that the levels of latency have been reduced to around 10 ms. This will ensure that applications using 3G LTE will be sufficiently responsive. 4. Reduced OPEX and CAPEX: A key element for any operator is to reduce costs. It is therefore essential that any new design reduces both the capital expenditure (CAPEX)and the operational expenditure (OPEX). The new flat architecture used for SAE System Architecture Evolution means that only two node types are used. In addition to this a high level of automatic configuration is introduced and this reduces the set-up and commissioning time.

SAE System Architecture Evolution basics

The new SAE network is based upon the GSM / WCDMA core networks to enable simplified operations and easy deployment. Despite this, the SAE network brings in some major changes, and allows far more efficient and effect transfer of data. There are several common principles used in the development of the LTE SAE network:

a common gateway node and anchor point for all technologies. an optimised architecture for the user plane with only two node types. an all IP based system with IP based protocols used on all interfaces.

a split in the control / user plane between the MME, mobility management entity and the gateway. a radio access network / core network functional split similar to that used on WCDMA / HSPA. integration of non-3GPP access technologies (e.g. cdma2000, WiMAX, etc) using client as well as network based mobile-IP.

The main element of the LTE SAE network is what is termed the Evolved Packet Core or EPC. This connects to the eNodeBs as shown in the diagram below.

LTE SAE Evolved Packet Core As seen within the diagram, the LTE SAE Evolved Packet Core, EPC consists of four main elements as listed below:

Mobility Management Entity, MME: The MME is the main control node for the LTE SAE access network, handling a number of features: o Idle mode UE tracking o Bearer activation / de-activation o Choice of SGW for a UE o Intra-LTE handover involving core network node location o Interacting with HSS to authenticate user on attachment and implements roaming restrictions o It acts as a termination for the Non-Access Stratum (NAS) o Provides temporary identities for UEs o The SAE MME acts the termination point for ciphering protection for NAS signaling. As part of this it also handles the security key management. Accordingly the MME is the point at which lawful interception of signalling may be made. o Paging procedure o The S3 interface terminates in the MME thereby providing the control plane function for mobility between LTE and 2G/3G access networks. o The SAE MME also terminates the S6a interface for the home HSS for roaming UEs. It can therefore be seen that the SAE MME provides a considerable level of overall control functionality.

Serving Gateway, SGW: The Serving Gateway, SGW, is a data plane element within the LTE SAE. Its main purpose is to manage the user plane mobility and it also acts as the main border between the Radio Access Network, RAN and the core network. The SGW also maintains the data paths between the eNodeBs and the PDN Gateways. In this way the SGW forms a interface for the data packet network at the E-UTRAN.

Also when UEs move across areas served by different eNodeBs, the SGW serves as a mobility anchor ensuring that the data path is maintained. PDN Gateway, PGW: The LTE SAE PDN gateway provides connectivity for the UE to external packet data networks, fulfilling the function of entry and exit point for UE data. The UE may have connectivity with more than one PGW for accessing multiple PDNs. Policy and Charging Rules Function, PCRF: This is the generic name for the entity within the LTE SAE EPC which detects the service flow, enforces charging policy. For applications that require dynamic policy or charging control, a network element entitled the Applications Function, AF is used.

LTE SAE PCRF Interfaces

LTE SAE Distributed intelligence

In order that requirements for increased data capacity and reduced latency can be met, along with the move to an all-IP network, it is necessary to adopt a new approach to the network structure. For 3G UMTS / WCDMA the UTRAN (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network, comprising the Node B's or basestations and Radio Network Controllers) employed low levels of autonomy. The Node Bs were connected in a star formation to the Radio Network Controllers (RNCs) which carried out the majority of the management of the radio resource. In turn the RNCs connected to the core network and connect in turn to the Core Network. To provide the required functionality within LTE SAE, the basic system architecture sees the removal of a layer of management. The RNC is removed and the radio resource management is devolved to the base-stations. The new style base-stations are called eNodeBs or eNBs. The eNBs are connected directly to the core network gateway via a newly defined "S1 interface". In addition to this the new eNBs also connect to adjacent eNBs in a mesh via an "X2 interface". This provides a much greater level of direct interconnectivity. It also enables many calls to be routed very directly as a large number of calls and connections are to other mobiles in the same or adjacent cells. The new structure allows many calls to be routed far more directly and with only minimum interaction with the core network.

In addition to the new Layer 1 and Layer 2 functionality, eNBs handle several other functions. This includes the radio resource control including admission control, load balancing and radio mobility control including handover decisions for the mobile or user equipment (UE). The additional levels of flexibility and functionality given to the new eNBs mean that they are more complex than the UMTS and previous generations of base-station. However the new 3G LTE SAE network structure enables far higher levels of performance. In addition to this their flexibility enables them to be updated to handle new upgrades to the system including the transition from G LTE to 4G LTE Advanced. The new System Architecture Evolution, SAE for LTE provides a new approach for the core network, enabling far higher levels of data to be transported to enable it to support the much higher data rates that will be possible with LTE. In addition to this, other features that enable the CAPEX and OPEX to be reduced when compared to existing systems, thereby enabling higher levels of efficiency to be achieved.

Voice over LTE - VoLTE

- operation of Voice over LTE VoLTE system for providing a unified format of voice traffic on LTE, and other systems including CSFB, and SV-LTE.

3G LTE technology tutorial includes: Tutorial Introduction OFDM and OFDMA / SC-FDMA MIMO TDD and FDD duplex schemes Frame and subframe structure Physical logical & transport channels Frequency bands and spectrum UE category definitions SAE system architecture evolution Voice over LTE, VoLTE Security See also: 4G LTE Advanced The Voice over LTE, VoLTE scheme was devised as a result of operators seeking a standardised system for transferring voice traffic over LTE. Originally LTE was seen as a completely IP cellular system just for carrying data, and operators would be able to carry voice either by reverting to 2G / 3G systems or by using VoIP. Operators, however saw the fact that a voice format was not defined as a major omission for the system. It was seen that the lack of standardisation may provide problems with scenarios including roaming. In addition to this, SMS is a key requirement. It is not often realised, that SMS is used to set-up many mobile broadband connections, and a lack of SMS is seen as a show-stopper by many. As mobile operators receive over 80% of their revenues from voice and SMS traffic, it is necessary to have a viable and standardized scheme to provide these services and protect this revenue.

Options for Voice over LTE

When looking at the options for ways of carrying voice over LTE, a number of possible solutions were investigated. A number of alliances were set up to promote different ways of providing the service. A number of systems were prosed as outlined below:

CSFB, Circuit Switched Fall Back: The circuit switched fallback, CSFB option for providing voice over LTE has been standardised under 3GPP specification 23.272. Essentially LTE CSFB uses a variety of processes and network elements to enable the circuit to fall back to the 2G or 3G connection (GSM, UMTS, CDMA2000 1x) before a circuit switched call is initiated. The specification also allows for SMS to be carried as this is essential for very many setup procedures for cellular telecommunications. To achieve this the handset uses an interface known as SGs which allows messages to be sent over an LTE channel. In addition to this CSFB requires modification to elements within the network, in particular the MSCs as well as support, obviously on new devices. MSC modifications are also required for the SMS over SGs facilities. For CSFB, this is required from the initial launch of CSFB in view of the criticality of SMS for many procedures. SV-LTE - simultaneous voice LTE: SV-LTE allows to run packet switched LTE services simultaneously with a circuit switched voice service. SV-LTE facility provides the facilities of CSFB at the same time as running a packet switched data service. This is an option that many operators will opt for. However it has the disadvantage that it requires two radios to run at the same time within the handset. This has a serious impact on battery life. VoLGA, Voice over LTE via GAN: The VoLGA standard was based on the existing 3GPP Generic Access Network (GAN) standard, and the aim was to enable LTE users to receive a consistent set of voice, SMS (and other circuit-switched) services as they transition between GSM, UMTS and LTE access networks. For mobile operators, the aim of VoLGA was to provide a low-cost and low-risk approach for bringing their primary revenue generating services (voice and SMS) onto the new LTE network deployments. One Voice / later called Voice over LTE, VoLTE: The Voice over LTE, VoLTE schem for providing voice over an LTE system utilises IMS enabling it to become part of a rich media solution.

Issues for Voice services over LTE

Unlike previous cellular telecommunications standards including GSM, LTE does not have dedicated channels for circuit switched telephony. Instead LTE is an all-IP system providing an end-to-end IP connection from the mobile equipment to the core network and out again. In order to provide some form of voice connection over a standard LTE bearer, some form of Voice over IP, VoIP must be used.

The aim for any voice service is to utilise the low latency and QoS features available within LTE to ensure that any voice service offers an improvement over the standards available on the 2G and 3G networks. However to achieve a full VoIP offering on LTE poses some significant problems which will take time to resolve. With the first deployments having taken place in 2010, it is necessary that a solution for voice is available within a short timescale.

Voice over LTE, VoLTE basics

The One Voice profile for Voice over LTE was developed by a collaboration between over forty operators including: AT&T, Verizon Wireless, Nokia and Alcatel-Lucent. At the 2010 GSMA Mobile World Congress, GSMA announced that they were supporting the One Voice solution to provide Voice over LTE. VoLTE, Voice over LTE is an IMS-based specification. Adopting this approach, it enables the system to be integrated with the suite of applications that will become available on LTE.

Note on IMS:
The IP Multimedia Subsystem or IP Multimedia Core Network Subsystem, IMS is an architectural framework for delivering Internet Protocol, IP multimedia services. It enables a variety of services to be run seemlessly rather than having several disparate applications operating concurrently. Click for a IMS tutorial

To provide the VoLTE service, three interfaces are being defined:

User Network interface, UNI: This interface is located between the user's equipment and the operators network. Roaming Network Network Interface, R-NNI: The R-NNI is an interface located between the Home and Visited Network. This is used for a user that is not attached to their Home network, i.e. roaming. Interconnect Network Network Interface, I-NNI: The I-NNI is the interface located between the networks of the two parties making a call.

Work on the definition of VoLTE, Voice over LTE is ongoing. It will include a variety of elements including some of the following:

It will be necessary to ensure the continuity of Voice calls when a user moves from an LTE coverage area to another where a fallback to another technology is required. This form of handover will be achieved using Single Radio Voice Call Continuity, or SRVCC).

It will be important to provide the optimal routing of bearers for voice calls when customers are roaming. Another area of importance will be to establish commercial frameworks for roaming and interconnect for services implemented using VoLTE definitions. This will enable roaming agreements to be set up. Provision of capabilities associated with the model of roaming hubbing. For any services, including LTE, it is necessary to undertake a thorough security and fraud threat audit to prevent hacking and un-authorised entry into any area within the network..

In many ways the implementation of VoLTE at a high level is straightforward. The handset or phone needs to have software loaded to provide the VoLTE functionality. This can be in the form of an App. The network then requires to be IMS compatible. While this may appear straightforward, there are many issues for this to be made operational, especially via the vagaries of the radio access network where time delays and propagation anomalies add considerably to the complexity.

LTE Security
- overview, about the basics of LTE security including the techniques used for LTE authentication, ciphering, encryption, and identity protection.

3G LTE technology tutorial includes: Tutorial Introduction OFDM and OFDMA / SC-FDMA MIMO TDD and FDD duplex schemes Frame and subframe structure Physical logical & transport channels Frequency bands and spectrum UE category definitions SAE system architecture evolution Voice over LTE, VoLTE Security See also: 4G LTE Advanced LTE security is an issue that is of paramount importance. It is necessary to ensure that LTE security measures provide the level of security required without impacting the user as this could drive users away. Nevertheless with the level of sophistication of security attacks growing, it is necessary to ensure that LTE security allows users to operate freely and without fear of attack from hackers. Additionally the network must also be organised in such a way that it is secure against a variety of attacks.

LTE security basics

When developing the LTE security elements there were several main requirements that were borne in mind:

LTE security had to provide at least the same level of security that was provided by 3G services. The LTE security measures should not affect user convenience. The LTE security measures taken should provide defence from attacks from the Internet. The security functions provided by LTE should not affect the transition from existing 3G services to LTE. The USIM currently used for 3G services should still be used.

To ensure these requirements for LTE security are met, it has been necessary to add further measures into all areas of the system from the UE through to the core network. The main changes that have been required to implement the required level of LTE security are summarised below:

A new hierarchical key system has been introduced in which keys can be changed for different purposes. The LTE security functions for the Non-Access Stratum, NAS, and Access Stratum, AS have been separated. The NAS functions are those functions for which the processing is accomplished between the core network and the mobile terminal or UE. The AS functions encompass the communications between the network edge, i.e. the Evolved Node B, eNB and the UE. The concept of forward security has been introduced for LTE security. LTE security functions have been introduced between the existing 3G network and the LTE network.

LTE USIM
One of the key elements within the security of GSM, UMTS and now LTE was the concept of the subscriber identity module, SIM. This card carried the identity of the subscriber in an encrypted fashion and this could allow the subscriber to keep their identity while transferring or upgrading phones. With the transition form 2G - GSM to 3G - UMTS, the idea of the SIM was upgraded and a USIM - UMTS Subscriber Identity Module, was used. This gave more functionality, had a larger memory, etc. For LTE, only the USIM may be used - the older SIM cards are not compatible and may not be used.

4G LTE Advanced Tutorial

- overview, information, tutorial about the basics of LTE Advanced, the 4G technology being called IMT Advanced being developed under 3GPP.

4G LTE Advanced technology tutorial includes: LTE Advanced Tutorial Carrier Aggregation Coordinated Multipoint - CoMP Relay See also: 3G LTE With the standards definitions now available for LTE, the Long Term Evolution of the 3G services, eyes are now turning towards the next development, that of the truly 4G technology named IMT Advanced. The new technology being developed under the auspices of 3GPP to meet these requirements is often termed LTE Advanced. In order that the cellular telecommunications technology is able to keep pace with technologies that may compete, it is necessary to ensure that new cellular technologies are being formulated and developed. This is the reasoning behind starting the development of the new LTE Advanced systems, proving the technology and developing the LTE Advanced standards. In order that the correct solution is adopted for the 4G system, the ITU-R (International Telecommunications Union - Radiocommunications sector) has started its evaluation process to develop the recommendations for the terrestrial components of the IMT Advanced radio interface. One of the main competitors for this is the LTE Advanced solution. One of the key milestones is October 2010 when the ITU-R decides the framework and key characteristics for the IMT Advanced standard. Before this, the ITU-R will undertake the evaluation of the various proposed radio interface technologies of which LTE Advanced is a major contender.

Key milestones for ITU-R IMT Advanced evaluation

The ITU-R has set a number of milestones to ensure that the evaluation of IMT Advanced technologies occurs in a timely fashion. A summary of the main milestones is given below and this defines many of the overall timescales for the development of IMT Advanced and in this case LTE Advanced as one of the main technologies to be evaluated.

Milestone Issue invitation to propose Radio Interface Technologies. ITU date for cut-off for submission of proposed Radio Interface Technologies. Cutoff date for evaluation report to ITU. Decision on framework of key characteristics of IMT

Date March 2008 October 2009 June 2010 October

Milestone Advanced Radio Interface Technologies. Completion of development of radio interface specification recommendations.

Date 2010 February 2011

LTE Advanced development history

With 3G technology established, it was obvious that the rate of development of cellular technology should not slow. As a result initial ideas for the development of a new 4G system started to be investigated. In one early investigation which took place on 25 December 2006 with information released to the press on 9 February 2007, NTT DoCoMo detailed information about trials in which they were able to send data at speeds up to approximately 5 Gbit/s in the downlink within a 100MHz bandwidth to a mobile station moving at 10km/h. The scheme used several technologies to achieve this including variable spreading factor spread orthogonal frequency division multiplex, MIMO, multiple input multiple output, and maximum likelihood detection. Details of these new 4G trials were passed to 3GPP for their consideration In 2008 3GPP held two workshops on IMT Advanced, where the "Requirements for Further Advancements for E-UTRA" were gathered. The resulting Technical Report 36.913 was then published in June 2008 and submitted to the ITU-R defining the LTE-Advanced system as their proposal for IMT-Advanced. The development of LTE Advanced / IMT Advanced can be seen to follow and evolution from the 3G services that were developed using UMTS / W-CDMA technology.

WCDMA (UMTS) Max downlink speed bps Max uplink speed bps Latency round trip time approx 3GPP releases Approx years of initial roll out 384 k 128 k 150 ms

HSPA HSDPA / HSUPA 14 M 5.7 M 100 ms

HSPA+ 28 M 11 M 50ms (max) Rel 7 2008 / 9

LTE 100M 50 M ~10 ms Rel 8 2009 / 10

LTE Advanced (IMT Advanced) 1G 500 M less than 5 ms Rel 10

Rel 99/4 Rel 5 / 6 2005 / 6 HSDPA 2003 / 4 2007 / 8 HSUPA CDMA

Access methodology CDMA

CDMA

OFDMA / SC- OFDMA / SCFDMA FDMA

LTE Advanced is not the only candidate technology. WiMAX is also there, offering very high data rates and high levels of mobility. However it now seems less likely that WiMAX will be adopted as the 4G technology, with LTE Advanced appearing to be better positioned.

LTE Advanced key features

With work starting on LTE Advanced, a number of key requirements and key features are coming to light. Although not fixed yet in the specifications, there are many high level aims for the new LTE Advanced specification. These will need to be verified and much work remains to be undertaken in the specifications before these are all fixed. Currently some of the main headline aims for LTE Advanced can be seen below: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Peak data rates: downlink - 1 Gbps; uplink - 500 Mbps. Spectrum efficiency: 3 times greater than LTE. Peak spectrum efficiency: downlink - 30 bps/Hz; uplink - 15 bps/Hz. Spectrum use: the ability to support scalable bandwidth use and spectrum aggregation where non-contiguous spectrum needs to be used. Latency: from Idle to Connected in less than 50 ms and then shorter than 5 ms one way for individual packet transmission. Cell edge user throughput to be twice that of LTE. Average user throughput to be 3 times that of LTE. Mobility: Same as that in LTE Compatibility: LTE Advanced shall be capable of interworking with LTE and 3GPP legacy systems.

These are many of the development aims for LTE Advanced. Their actual figures and the actual implementation of them will need to be worked out during the specification stage of the system.

LTE Advanced technologies

There are a number of key technologies that will enable LTE Advanced to achieve the high data throughput rates that are required. MIMO and OFDM are two of the base technologies that will be enablers. Along with these there are a number of other techniques and technologies that will be employed. OFDM forms the basis of the radio bearer. Along with it there is OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access) along with SC-FDMA (Single Channel Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access). These will be used in a hybrid format. However the basis for all of these access schemes is OFDM.

Note on OFDM:
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) is a form of transmission that uses a large number of close spaced carriers that are modulated with low rate data. Normally these signals would be expected to interfere with each other, but by making the signals orthogonal to each another there is no mutual interference. This is achieved by having the carrier spacing equal to the reciprocal of the symbol period. This means that when the signals are demodulated they will have a whole number of cycles in the symbol period and their contribution will sum to zero - in other words there is no interference contribution. The data to be transmitted is split across all the carriers and this means that by using error correction techniques, if some of the carriers are lost due to multi-path effects, then the data can be reconstructed. Additionally having data carried at a low rate across all the carriers means that the effects of reflections and inter-symbol

interference can be overcome. It also means that single frequency networks, where all transmitters can transmit on the same channel can be implemented. Click on the link for an OFDM tutorial

One of the other key enablers for LTE Advanced that is common to LTE is MIMO. This scheme is also used by many other technologies including WiMAX and Wi-Fi - 802.11n. MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output enables the data rates achieved to be increased beyond what the basic radio bearer would normally allow.

Note on MIMO:
Two major limitations in communications channels can be multipath interference, and the data throughput limitations as a result of Shannon's Law. MIMO provides a way of utilising the multiple signal paths that exist between a transmitter and receiver to significantly improve the data throughput available on a given channel with its defined bandwidth. By using multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver along with some complex digital signal processing, MIMO technology enables the system to set up multiple data streams on the same channel, thereby increasing the data capacity of a channel. Click on the link for a MIMO tutorial

For LTE Advanced, the use of MIMO is likely to involve further and more advanced techniques with additional antennas in the matrix to enable additional paths to be sued, although as the number of antennas increases, the overhead increases and the return per additional path is less. In additional to the numbers of antennas increasing, it is likely that techniques such as beamforming may be used to enable the antenna coverage to be focused where it is needed. With data rates rising well above what was previously available, it will be necessary to ensure that the core network is updated to meet the increasing requirements. It is therefore necessary to further improve the system architecture. These and other technologies will be used with LTE Advanced to provide the very high data rates that are being sought along with the other performance characteristics that are needed. . . . . . . . . . .

4G LTE Advanced Carrier Aggregation

- information about 4G LTE Advanced carrier aggregation or channel aggregation being proposed as part of the overall 4G enhancements to LTE.

4G LTE Advanced technology tutorial includes: LTE Advanced Tutorial Carrier Aggregation Coordinated Multipoint - CoMP Relay See also: 3G LTE LTE Advanced offers considerably higher data rates than even the initial releases of LTE. While the spectrum usage efficiency has been improved, this alone cannot provide the required data rates that are being headlined for 4G LTE Advanced. To achieve these very high data rates it is necessary to increase the transmission bandwidths over those that can be supported by a single carrier or channel. The method being proposed is termed carrier aggregation, CA, or sometimes channel aggregation. Using LTE Advanced carrier aggregation, it is possible to utilise more than one carrier and in this way increase the overall transmission bandwidth. These channels or carriers may be in contiguous elements of the spectrum, or they may be in different bands. Spectrum availability is a key issue for 4G LTE. In many areas only small bands are available, often as small as 10 MHz. As a result carrier aggregation over more than one band is contained within the specification, although it does present some technical challenges. Carrier aggregation is supported by both formats of LTE, namely the FDD and TDD variants. This ensures that both FDD LTE and TDD LTE are able to meet the high data throughput requirements placed upon them.

LTE carrier aggregation basics

The target figures for data throughput in the downlink is 1 Gbps for 4G LTE Advanced. Even with the improvements in spectral efficiency it is not possible to provide the required headline data throughput rates within the maximum 20 MHz channel. The only way to achieve the higher data rates is to increase the overall bandwidth used. IMT Advanced sets the upper limit at 100 MHz, but with an expectation of 40 MHz being used for minimum performance. For the future it is possible the top limit of 100 MHz could be extended. It is well understood that spectrum is a valuable commodity, and it takes time to re-assign it from one use to another in view - the cost of forcing users to move is huge as new equipment needs to be bought. Accordingly as sections of the spectrum fall out of use, they can be re-assigned. This leads to significant levels of fragmentation. To an LTE terminal, each component carrier appears as an LTE carrier, while an LTE-Advanced terminal can exploit the total aggregated bandwidth.

RF aspects of carrier aggregation

There are a number of ways in which LTE carriers can be aggregated:

Types of LTE carrier aggregation

Intra-band: This form of carrier aggregation uses a single band. There are two main formats for this type of carrier aggregation:
o

Contiguous: The Intra-band contiguous carrier aggregation is the easiest form of LTE carrier aggregation to implement. Here the carriers are adjacent to each other.

Contiguous aggregation of two uplink component carriers

The aggregated channel can be considered by the terminal as a single enlarged channel from the RF viewpoint. In this instance, only one transceiver is required within the terminal or UE, whereas more are required where the channels are not adjacent. However as the RF bandwidth increases it is necessary to ensure that the UE in particular is able to operate over such a wide bandwidth without a reduction in performance. Although the performance requirements are the same for the base station, the space, power consumption, and cost requirements are considerably less stringent, allowing greater flexibility in the design. Additionally for the base station, multi-carrier operation, even if non-aggregated, is already a requirement in many instances, requiring little or no change to the RF elements of the design. Software upgrades would naturally be required to cater for the additional capability.
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Non-contiguous: Non-contiguous intra-band carrier aggregation is somewhat more complicated than the instance where adjacent carriers are used. No longer

can the multi-carrier signal be treated as a single signal and therefore two transceivers are required. This adds significant complexity, particularly to the UE where space, power and cost are prime considerations. Inter-band non-contiguous: This form of carrier aggregation uses different bands. It will be of particular use because of the fragmentation of bands - some of which are only 10 MHz wide. For the UE it requires the use of multiple transceivers within the single item, with the usual impact on cost, performance and power. In addition to this there are also additional complexities resulting from the requirements to reduce intermodulation and cross modulation from the two transceivers

The current standards allow for up to five 20 MHz carriers to be aggregated, although in practice two or three is likely to be the practical limit. These aggregated carriers can be transmitted in parallel to or from the same terminal, thereby enabling a much higher throughput to be obtained.

Carrier aggregation bandwidths

When aggregating carriers for an LTE signal, there are several definitions required for the bandwidth of the combined channels. As there as several bandwidths that need to be described, it is necessary to define them to reduce confusion.

LTE Carrier Aggregation Bandwidth Definitions for Intra-Band Case

LTE carrier aggregation bandwidth classes

There is a total of six different carrier aggregation, CA bandwidth classes which are being defined.

Carrier Aggregation Bandwidth Class A B C

Aggregated Transmission BW Configuration 100 100 100 - 200

Number of component carriers 1 2 2

NB: classes D, E, & F are in the study phase.

LTE aggregated carriers

When carriers are aggregated, each carrier is referred to as a component carrier. There are two categories:

Primary component carrier: This is the main carrier in any group. There will be a primary downlink carrier and an associated uplink primary component carrier. Secondary component carrier: There may be one or more secondary component carriers.

There is no definition of which carrier should be used as a primary component carrier - different terminals may use different carriers. The configuration of the primary component carrier is terminal specific and will be determined according to the loading on the various carriers as well as other relevant parameters. In addition to this the association between the downlink primary carrier and the corresponding uplink primary component carrier is cell specific. Again there are no definitions of how this must be organised. The information is signalled to the terminal of user equipment as part of the overall signalling between the terminal and the base station.

Carrier aggregation cross carrier scheduling

When LTE carrier aggregation is used, it is necessary to be able to schedule the data across the carriers and to inform the terminal of the DCI rates for the different component carriers. This information may be implicit, or it may be explicit dependent upon whether cross carrier scheduling is used. Enabling of the cross carrier scheduling is achieved individually via the RRC signalling on a per component carrier basis or a per terminal basis. When no cross carrier scheduling is arranged, the downlink scheduling assignments achieved on a per carrier basis, i.e. they are valid for the component carrier on which they were transmitted. For the uplink, an association is created between one downlink component carrier and an uplink component carrier. In this way when uplink grants are sent the terminal or UE will know to which uplink component carrier they apply. Where cross carrier scheduling is active, the PDSCH on the downlink or the PUSCH on the uplink is transmitted on an associate component carrier other than the PDCCH, the carrier

indicator in the PDCCH provides the information about the component carrier used for the PDSCH or PUSCH. It is necessary to be able to indicate to which component carrier in any aggregation scheme a grant relates. To facilitate this, component carriers are numbered. The primary component carrier is numbered zero, for all instances, and the different secondary component carriers are assigned a unique number through the UE specific RRC signalling. This means that even if the terminal or user equipment and the base station, eNodeB may have different understandings of the component carrier numbering during reconfiguration, transmissions on the primary component carrier can be scheduled.

4G LTE CoMP, Coordinated Multipoint

- information about 4G LTE Advanced CoMP, coordinated multipoint format to coordinate the transmission/reception for one UE from several points.

4G LTE Advanced technology tutorial includes: LTE Advanced Tutorial Carrier Aggregation Coordinated Multipoint - CoMP Relay See also: 3G LTE LTE CoMP or Coordinated Multipoint is a facility that is being developed for LTE Advanced. LTE Coordinated Multipoint is essentially a range of different techniques that enable the dynamic coordination of transmission and reception over a variety of different base stations. The aim is to improve overall quality for the user as well as improving the utilisation of the network. Essentially, LTE CoMP turns the inter-cell interference into useful signal, especially at the cell borders where performance may be degraded.

CoMP Advantages
Although LTE Coordinated Multipoint is a complex set of techniques, it brings many advantages to the user as well as the network operator.

Makes better utilisation of network: By providing connections to several base stations at once, using CoMP, data can be passed through least loaded base stations for better resource utilisation. Provides enhanced reception performance: Using several cell sites for each connection means that overall reception will be improved and the number of dropped calls should be reduced. Multiple site reception increases received power: The joint reception from multiple base stations or sites using LTE Coordinated Multipoint techniques enables the overall received power at the handset to be increased.

Interference reduction: By using specialised combining techniques it is possible to utilise the interference constructively rather than destructively, thereby reducing interference levels.

LTE CoMP basics

Coordinated multipoint transmission and reception actually refers to a wide range of techniques that enable dynamic coordination or transmission and reception with multiple geographically separated eNBs. Its aim is to enhance the overall system performance, utilise the resources more effectively and improve the end user service quality. One of the key parameters for LTE as a whole, and in particular 4G LTE Advanced is the high data rates that are achievable. These data rates are relatively easy to maintain close to the base station, but as distances increase they become more difficult to maintain. Obviously the cell edges are the most challenging. Not only is the signal lower in strength because of the distance from the base station (eNB), but also interference levels from neighbouring eNBs are likely to be higher as the UE will be closer to them. 4G LTE CoMP, Coordinated Multipoint requires close coordination between a number of geographically separated eNBs. They dynamically coordinate to provide joint scheduling and transmissions as well as proving joint processing of the received signals. In this way a UE at the edge of a cell is able to be served by two or more eNBs to improve signals reception / transmission and increase throughput particularly under cell edge conditions.

Concept of LTE Advanced CoMP - Coordinated Multipoint In essence, 4G LTE CoMP, Coordinated Multipoint allows two modes of operation:

Joint simultaneous transmission of user data from multiple eNBs to a single UE Dynamic cell selection with data transmission from one eNB

To achieve either of these modes, highly detailed feedback is required on the channel properties in a fast manner so that the changes can be made. The other requirement is for very close coordination between the eNBs to facilitate the combination of data or fast switching of the cells.

Downlink LTE CoMP

LTE CoMP generates the main issues within the downlink where a number of scenarios may arise:

UE responds as for single point transmission: Using this approach, the terminals are not aware of the fact that transmissions are emanating from several geographically different points, i.e. different eNBs. The UE receiver processing and reporting is the same as for a transmission emanating from a single eNB. The network determines which eNBs can be used to transmit to a given UE dependent upon path loss indications - these indications are gained using the reference signals from the UE that are available even in the earlier releases of LTE. This system provides diversity gains similar to those found in broadcast single frequency networks. As a result, RF power utilisation within the network is improved and this has the overall advantage of reducing interference. Terminals provide channel status information: The second alternative for downlink 4G LTE CoMP, coordinated multipoint is for the UE to provide channel status for all the downlink channels it can see, while retaining the processing as for a single point transmission. For the network, all the processing is accomplished by a single node to enable sufficiently fast processing to occur as well as coordination of the transmissions at the different points. Terminals have details of eNB transmissions: using this approach for 4G LTE CoMP, Coordinated Multipoint, the terminals or UEs are provided with details of the transmissions from the different ENBs. These details include from which eNBs and also information about the transmission details - from which eNBs, channel and transmission weights, etc.. This can be used to improve the signal processing, although it comes at the price of increased signal processing.

Uplink LTE CoMP

For the uplink, LTE CoMP, coordinated multipoint requires the application of the relevant signal processing within the receiver. It is very similar in concept and application to the macro-diversity schemes used in previous cellular systems. The concepts of this are well established. The signals received at multiple sites are jointly processed to provide enhanced overall reception performance. Maximum ratio combining and interference rejection combining can be used to combine the uplink transmission from the UE received at multiple points. In some ways this technique is similar to the softer handover capability used with CDMA2000 and HSPA+ systems, but rather than just being applied to sectors within a given site, they are applied across multiple sites / eNBs.

Overall requirements for LTE CoMP

One of the key requirements for LTE is that it should be able to provide a very low level of latency. The additional processing required for multiple site reception and transmission could add significantly to any delays. This could result from the need for the additional processing as well as the communication between the different sites. To overcome this, it is anticipated that the different sites may be connected together in a form of centralised RAN, or C-RAN.

4G LTE Advanced Relay

- information about 4G LTE Advanced relaying that is being proposed as part of the overall 4G enhancements to LTE and how LTE relay stations will operate.

4G LTE Advanced technology tutorial includes: LTE Advanced Tutorial Carrier Aggregation Coordinated Multipoint - CoMP Relay See also: 3G LTE Relaying is one of the features being proposed for the 4G LTE Advanced system. The aim of LTE relaying is to enhance both coverage and capacity. The idea of relays is not new, but LTE relays and LTE relaying is being considered to ensure that the optimum performance is achieved to enable the expectations of the users to be met while still keeping OPEX within the budgeted bounds.

Need for LTE relay technology

One of the main drivers for the use of LTE is the high data rates that can be achieved. However all technologies suffer from reduced data rates at the cell edge where signal levels are lower and interference levels are typically higher. The use of technologies such as MIMO, OFDM and advanced error correction techniques improve throughput under many conditions, but do not fully mitigate the problems experienced at the cell edge. As cell edge performance is becoming more critical, with some of the technologies being pushed towards their limits, it is necessary to look at solutions that will enhance performance at the cell edge for a comparatively low cost. One solution that is being investigated and proposed is that of the use of LTE relays.

LTE relay basics

LTE relaying is different to the use of a repeater which re-broadcasts the signal. A relay will actually receives, demodulates and decodes the data, apply any error correction, etc to it and then re-transmitting a new signal. In this way, the signal quality is enhanced with an LTE relay, rather than suffering degradation from a reduced signal to noise ratio when using a repeater. For an LTE relay, the UEs communicate with the relay node, which in turn communicates with a donor eNB. Relay nodes can optionally support higher layer functionality, for example decode user data from the donor eNB and re-encode the data before transmission to the UE. The LTE relay is a fixed relay - infrastructure without a wired backhaul connection, that relays messages between the base station (BS) and mobile stations (MSs) through multihop communication

LTE relay types

There are two types of LTE relay being proposed:

Type 1 LTE relay nodes: These LTE relays control their cells with their own identity including the transmission of their own synchronisation channels and reference symbols. Type 1 relays appear as if they are a Release 8 eNB to Release 8 UEs. This ensures backwards compatibility. Type 2 LTE relay nodes: These LTE relaying nodes do not have their own cell identity and look just like the main cell. Any UE in range is not able to distinguish a relay from the main eNB within the cell. Control information can be transmitted from the eNB and user data from the LTE relay.

There is still much work to be undertaken on LTE relaying. The exact manner of LTE relays is to be included in Release 10 of the 3GPP standards and specifications.