BASICS

TOPIC: (2) There Are Two Scinario We Will Encounter In the Network Theory
Scinario (1): In the presence of active sources: In the presence of sources, all the three passive lumped R1 L1 Cs will always absorbs the energy. Whenever they are absorbing the energy, the currents through them will always flows form positive (+ve) to the negative (-ve) termianals (i.e. Scinario (2): In the absence of active sources: In the absence of the sources, the stored energies in the memory elements (L & C) will be delivered to the memory less resistances. Whenever the L and C elements are delivering the energy, the currents through them will always flows from negative (-ve) to the positive (+ve) terminals (i.e. low level to high level). As the resistor is always absorbing the energy, the current through it will always flows from positive (+ve) to the negative (-ve) terminals. THEOREMS 01. The SPT Proof: 4A 3 4A 2A 20V 4 2A 60V 2A 4 12A 3 12A 6A 2A 4 6A 4

Fig. (a)

Fig. (b)

So here, the excitation is multiplied by 3 and hence the responses also. Note: When multiple sources are present, then the superposition theorem is applied first and later the homogeneity principle i.e. whenever the homogeneity principle is applied, always ensure only one source in the network.

IV. A.C. ANALYSIS (4) 2-Port Networks: Symmetrical Network The network looks the same from both the ports, then it is said to be symmetrical, other wise it is said to be asymmetrical A symmetrical network is a network which is divided into tow equal halves, with each as a mirror image of the other. In other words, if the network looks the same etc. Reciprocal Network: If the network obeys the reciprocity theorem, then it is said to the reciprocal, otherwise it is said to be non reciprocal All the passive networks are always reciprocal and all the active networks are always non-reciprocal V1 I1 V2 I2

So, from four variables we can select 2 variables as independent variables in 4c 2 = 6 different ways hence six sets of two port network parameters for a given network Eg: 3 4 1 2

Symmetrical & Reciprocal

Asymmetrical & Reciprocal

5.

Coupled Circuits (M): These are the Circuits in the presence of mutual inductance (M). This is due to the mutual flux between the Coils. The mutual flux may aid or may oppose the self fluxes based on the dot convention. If the currents enter the dots or leaves the dots simultaneously, then the mutual flux will aid to self fluxes, otherwise it will oppose. It is to note that, the mutual terms are because of the currents flowing through the other coils. Type of Couplings

Electrical Coupling Physical Connection exists

Magnetic Coupling No physical connection

Series Connection

Parallel Connection

Magnetic Aiding

Magnetic Opposition

Aiding

Opposition

Aiding

Opposition

Filters: ZR = R = 0 ZL = 0 L S.C ZL = j L
1

ZC = C O.C

ZL = j = ZL = 0 L O.C C ZC = 0 C S.C

The filtering action is due to the memory elements called the inductor and the capacitor as their impedances are function of the source frequency ( ). The resistor present circuit provides the attraction to the incoming signals. 09. The Average and RMS Values of the periodic signals: Let x(t) be the periodic signal of period T, then x(t T) = x(t).

1 Average value = D.C. value = Xavg = X d.c = T

Area of the Signal =

x ( t ). dt
0

Over One Period Period

RMS value = Xrms =

1 T

x
2

( t ) . dt

Peak factor =

x ( t ) max X max = X avg x ( t ) avg

X rms X avg

Form Factor = (a)

Sinusoidal signals: The average and r.m.s values of sine or cosine function of any phase and frequency are zero and
Maximum value 2

Problems: (b) 10. Non- sinusoidal signals of periodic nature Problems: Power Calculations: Let V(t) = Vm cos(t + )V I(t) = Im cos(t + )A 1. The true power = The active power = The real power = P = Vrms . Irms.cos(W) = ( ) = The angle between voltage and current 2. The reactive power = The imaginary power = Vrms.Irms.sin(VAR) 3. The complex power = The apparent power = S = Vrms . Irms (VA) S=
P 2 +Q 2

Case(i):

(VA)

Problems:

Case(ii): Let Z = R jx i(t) = Im cos(t+)A Irms2.Z = Irms2.R j Irms2.X |S| = S = P jQ

P 2 +Q 2

P = Irms2.R (W) = Pavg.

1 Q S = tan Q = Irms2.X(VAR) = Qavg P

Problems: Case (iii):

Let Z = R jX I(t) Imcos(t+ )V y=

1 = G jB Z

Vrms2.y = Vrms2.G j Vrms2.B S = P jQ |S| =

P 2 +Q 2

P = Vrms=2.G(W) = Pavg Q = Vrms2.B(VAR) =Qavg

1 Q S = tan P

Problems: 11. (1) NW synthesis: For the driving point LC impedance function, the poles and zeros are alternate and lies only on thej axis. j
(S 2 + 1)(S 2 + 3) eg: Z(S) = S(S 2 + 2)(S 2 + 4)

S-Plane

(2)

For the driving point RL impedance function, the poles and zeros are alternate, lies only on the negative real axis and nearest to the origin is the zero (the zero can be at the origin) j Eg: Z(S) =
(S +1)(S + 3) (S + 2)(S + 4)

S-Plane

(3)

For the driving point RC- impedance function, the poles and zeros are alternate lies only on the negative real axis and nearest to the origin is the pole (the pole can be at the origin) j eg: Z(S) =
(S + 2)(S + 4) (S +1)(S + 3)

S-Plane

(4)

For the driving point RLC impedance function, the poles and zeros are complex conjugate pairs and they are symmetric with respect to the negative real axis. Note: In the above cases instead of impedance functions if admittance functions are given, then they are converted into the impedance functions first and later the above tests are performed. RL- impedance function RC admittance function and vice versa. Immittance = impedance or admittance. Problems: = Impedance or Admittance. Principle of Duality: Two linear circuits are said to be duals of one another if they are described by the same characterizing equations with dual quantities interchanged Network and its dual are same only with respect to the performance, but the elements and connections points of view they are not equal. Dual pairs Resistance R Inductance L Impedance Z Voltage V Voltage Source Node Series path Open circuit KCL Thevenin Star network

Conductance G Capacitance C Admittance Y Current i Current source Mesh Parallel path Short circuit KVL Norton Delta network

Ri(t) di( t ) L dt
1 i( t )dt C

Gv(t) dv( t ) C dt
1 L

V( t ).dt

The number of mesh equations in the original network are equal to the number of nodal equations in its dual network and vice versa N nodal equations represents (N+1) principle nodes. 6. The Millmans Thearem: By the Millmans theorem we can replace n number of parallel thevenin equivalents into a single Thevenin equivalent

R1 V1 +

R2 V2 +

Rn + V n

R1 V1 +

V1 =

V1G 1 + V2 G 2 + ........Vn G n G 1 + G 2 + ..........G n

1 1 1 1 = + + ........ + 1 R1 R 2 Rn R

G1 = G1 + G2 + Gn R1 =
1 1 = 1 G 1 + G 2 .......G n G

Note: In the above case if polarities of the source V2 are reversed, then V2 is replaced by -V2 in the expression V1. Properties: Same Problems: The substitution Thearem: Def: (1) Any branch in a linear network can be substituted by a different branch with out disturbing the voltages and currents in the entire network provided the new branch has the same set of terminal voltage and current as the original network.

02.

An a linear network any passive element can be equivalently substituted by an ideal voltage source or an ideal current source, provided all the other branch currents and voltages are kept constant. This is possible only when the original passive element and the substituted active sources absorbs the same power. + I RI R I + V= RI

+ V

Where V = RI PR = PV = PI = V.I. = RI.I = I2.R (W) (abs) Properties: Same as SPT Problems: 2. DEFINITIONS: (a) Thevenins Thearem: Linear Two-terminal circuit IL RL Rth

IL Vth + RL

Thevenins states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source Vth in series with a resistor Rth, where Vth is the open circuit voltage at the terminals and R th is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off (b) Nortons Thearem: Linear Two-terminal circuit IL RL IL RL

IN

RN

Nortons theorem states that a linear two terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor R N, where IN is the short circuit current through the terminals and R N is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off

Procedure: IL RL

Vth Rth

Vth +

Vth R th

Rth

IRH IL RL IL + Vth RL Vth + R th IL Rth RL

Vth .R th Vth IL = R th = R +R A th L R th + R th
Vth IL = R +R A L th

The cases present in the Thevenins theorem (Nortons theorem) base on the sources: 1. 2. All are independent sources: Vth, Rth Atleast one independent source and atleast one dependent source: Vth, ISC Vth Vth Rth = ISC = = IN I SC R th All dependent sources: IL Rth RL Vth = 0v, ISC = 0A, but Rth 0 IL = 0A

03.

Thevenins equivalent = Nortons equivalent