UNIT 1 SHORT CONVERSATIONS Listening for Specific Information : WHO and WHAT

Speakers of short conversations in Part A of the Listhening Comprehension section usually talk about more than one person. This may be confusing since the questions may ask about who does what. Make sure that you remember which person does what, and do not be confused by the different people mentioned.

Strategieses

When there are two persons mentioned in the second speakers line, distinguish who does what.

Sample problem On the recording, you will hear : Man Woman Narrator : Do you theres a new member in the band now ? : Yes. I heard Doug recruited Ray as a new guitarist. : What does the woman say about the band ?

In your test book, you will read :

(A) Doug became a new member of the band. (B) Doug was fired from the band. (C) Ray replaced Doug in the band. (D) Ray was hired as the bands new guitarist.

The woman mentions two people (Doug and Ray), and they are used to confuse you in the options. Doug recruited Ray as a new guitarist means that Ray is the new member, hired by Doug. Therefore, the best answer is (D) Ray was hired as the bands new guitarist.

UNIT 2 SHORT CONVERSATIONS Listening for Specific Information : WHO, WHAT, and WHERE

Some question in Part A of the Listhening Comprehension section usually ask you to draw conclusions about who the speakers are, what will probably happen next, and where the conversation probably takes place. The answers to these question are not directly started in the conversations. However, there are clues that lead to the correct answers.

Strategieses 1. Listen for clues in the dialogs to identify who the speakers are. Draw a conclusion about the occupation of the speakers. Sample problem On the recording, you will hear : Man Woman : What did I miss during my absence ? : One assignment and a quiz.

Narrator : Who are the speakers ? In your test book, you will read : (A) Editors (B) Librarians (C) Teachers (D) Students The clues my absence, one assignment, and a quiz in the conversation tell you that the speakers are probably students. Therefore, the correct answer is (D) Students.

2. Listen to the second speaker to draw a conclusion about what he/she probably intends to do. Sample problem On the recording, you will hear :

Man

: Excuse me, you`re playing that music much too loud. I cant get to sleep ?

Woman

: Oh, sorry. I didnt realize.

Narrator : What will the woman probably do next ? In your test book, you will read : (A) Speak softly to the man. (B) Stop talking too much. (C) Turn down the volume of her music. (D) Play dofferent music. The man says that the woman is playing that music musch to loud. The woman says that she didnt realize, so she will probably turn the volume down. Therefore, the correct answer is (C) Turn down the volume of her music.

3. Listen for clues in the dialog to identify where the speakers are. Sample problem On the recording, you will hear : Man Woman : Hi, Jack. Is thus seat taken ? : Oh, hi Danielle. No, sit down. Looks like the whole dorm is here to have lunch today. Narrator : Where does this conversation probably take place ? In your test book, you will read : (A) In a cinema (B) In a dormitory cafetaria (C) In a college hall (D) In a departement store The clue Looks like the whole dorm is here to have linch tells you that this conversation probably takes place at the cafetaria of a dorm. Therefore, the correct answer is (B) In a dormitory cafetaria.

UNIT 3 SHORT CONVERSATIONS Understanding Statements and Negative Expressions

Many of the question in Part A of the Listening Comprehension section are about what the second spekaer says. The answers to such question are often the restatements of what is said. A restatement expresses the same idea as the statement. Examples Living in a big city is costly. expensive Kathy had her house painted last month asked someone to paint her house

The second speakers line may contain negative expressions are restatements of the expressions. Negative forms Not or t Examples Ben isnt happy about moving to Canada. sad Joe never talks much. is quiet Nothing went right. all went wrong Tanya dislikes swimming. doesnt like The report is really inaccurate. not accurate The door is unlocked. not locked

never none nobody no one nothing disinun-

Strategieses 1. Pay attention to the second speakers line to answer the question about its meaning. The answer is usually a restatement of what the second speaker says. Sample problem On the recording, you wil hear : Man Woman : I cant stand this weather. : We havent seen as much snow as this for years !

Narrator : What does the woman mean ? In your test book, you will read : (A) It has rarely snowed this much. (B) It hardly snowed this year. (C) It snows so much every year. (D) It is barely snowing this year. The correct answer to this question is (A). The statement We haven't seen as much snow as this for years means that It has rarely snowed this much. Notice that option (A) is the restatement of what the second speaker says. NOTES: a. Choose an option with a word or phrase that has the same meaning, or is a synonym of a word or phrase in the second speakers line. Sample problem On the recording, you will hear: Woman : Did you see the manager about the part-time fob in the bookstore? Man Narrator : Yes, and I had to fill out an application : What does the man mean?

In your test book, you will read : (A) He got a job as bookstore manager. (B) There is no vacancy in the bookstore. (C) He read a book about how to apply for jobs. (D) He was required to complete a form. The key word fill out means complete, and the key word application refers

to form. Therefore, the best answer is (D) He was required to complete a form. b. Do NOT choose an option with a word or phrase that sounds similar to a word or phrase in the second speakers line because it may have a different meaning. You should choose an option that has a different word or phrase with the same meaning as what has been said. Sample problem On the recording, you will hear : Woman Man Narrator : I heard that Jake has just moved to a new apartment. : That's impossible. He doesnt have a cent ! : What does the man mean ?

In your test book, you will read: (A) Jake has no sense of responsibility. (B) Jake has sent his friends to his apartment. (C) Jake cannot afford to rent an apartment. (D) Jake is on the set with the woman. The key word in the second speakers line of the conversation is cent Options (A), (B), and (D) have similar sounds to cent. They are incorrect. Therefore, the best answer is (C) Jake cannot afford to rent an apartment

2. Pay attention to the second speakers line containing negation. The answer to the question is usually an option with an affirmative sentence that means the same as the line. Sample problem On the recording, you will hear : Man Woman Narrator : How come if took them an extra hour to get to the cinema ? : They didnt drive fast enough. : What does the woman say about the trip ?

In your test book, you will read: (A) They drove rather slowly. (B) They could not have driven quickly.

(C) They wanted to drive quickly to the cinema. (D) They didnt drive to the cinema. The correct answer is (A). They did not drive fast enough to the cinema means that they drove rather slowly. Notice that the correct answer uses slowly the synonym of not fast enough.

UNIT 4 SHORT CONVERSATIONS Understanding Special Expressions, Idioms, and Phrasal Verbs

The second speaker of the short conversations in Part A of the Listening Comprehension section sometimes uses special expressions, idioms, or phrasal verbs. Questions in this part often ask about their meanings. Special Expressions Sounds like a good idea. You can say that again Dont look at me. Examples Man : We should see the painting exhibit tonight. Woman : Sounds like a good idea. Ill go with you. Man Woman : We must finish the report of this research quickly. : You can say that again. I agree with you . : May I borrow your notes on Professor Brody's lecture ? : Be my quest. Please do. : Jack, I cant lift this box myself. : Ill lend you a hand. Ill help you. : I plan to see the opera on Saturday. How about you? : Well, you can count me in. Ill join you. : I havent seen Dennis. : Hes been hospitalized. Hes come down with avion flu. suffered from

Idioms Be my guest. Lend you a hand. Enough is enough.

Man Woman

Woman Man

Phrasal verbs Count in Look into Come out Comedown with Put up with

Man Woman

Man Woman

Strategieses Listen carefully to the second speaker's line as it may contain a special expression, idiom, or phrasal verb that is tested.

Sample problem 1 On the recording, you will hear : Woman Man : Shouldnt someone pick up the clothes from the cleaners ? : Dont look at me !

Narrator : What does the man mean ? In your test book, you will read: (A) The clothes dont look clean to him. (B) He doesnt intend to get the clothes. (C) He can pick out his clean clothes. (D) The woman should stop staring at his clothes. The second line Dont look at me! is an expression that means that the man doesnt intend to do what the woman suggests. Therefore, the best answer is (B) He doesnt intend to get the clothes.

Sample problem 2 On the recording, you will hear : Woman Man : Larry, have you decided on the topic for your thesis ? : No, I havent. Im very much at loose ends right now and need some time to decide which topic I want. Narrator : What does the man mean ? In your test book, you will read : (A) He is going to quit school. (B) He is not sure of the topic he wants. (C) He has discussed the topic with his professor. (D) He has started writing his thesis. The phrase very much at loose ends in the mans line indicates that the man has no clear idea of what to do next. Therefore, the best answer is (B) He is not sure of the topic he wants.

Sample problem 3 On the recording, you will hear : Man Woman : Hey, you can swim very well now. : It seems that my practice is paying off.

Narrator : What does the woman mean ? In your test book, you will read : (A) The woman has had to spend a lot of money to learn to swim. (B) She has not practiced swimming for quite some time. (C) Her practice sessions have brought good results. (D) She cannot swim very well after her practice. The phrase my practice is paying off in the womans line indicates her practicing swimming has brought good results. Therefore, the best answer is option (C).

UNIT 5 SHORT CONVERSATIONS Making Inferences and Understanding Implied Meaning

Very common in Part A of the Listening Comprehension section are questions that ask you to make inferences from and understand the implied meaning of what is said. Questions of this type make use of the words likely, assume, infer, or imply to let you know that the answers are not explicitly mentioned in the conversations. To answer such questions, you need to go beyond what is said not only by the second speaker but sometimes also by both speakers.

Strategies Listen carefully to the second speakers line. Questions on inferences and implications are usually based on this line, although what the first speaker says may give a clue.

Sample problem 1 On the recording, you will hear : Woman Man : Ive heard Karen has had a terrible accident Let's visit her. : No need. Ifs not serious. She has recovered from her injuries.

Narrator : What can be inferred about Karen ? In your test book, you will read : (A) Karen is still in the hospital. (B) Karen has to undergo an operation. (C) Karen wants the speakers to visit her. (D) Karen is okay now. The correct answer to this question is (D). The man says that Karen has recovered from her injuries, so you can assume that Karen is okay now.

Sample problem 2 On the recording, you will hear: Man : Could you help me with my biology homework this afternoon ? Im really having a hard time with it. Woman : Sorry, Im busy this afternoon.

Narrator : What does the woman imply ? In your test book, you will read : (A) She doesnt like helping him. (B) Shell be busy with her biology homework. (C) She cant help him this afternoon. (D) Shell help him with his biology homework. The correct answer to this question is (C). It is implied that the woman can't help man this afternoon because she says she is busy this afternoon.

UNIT 6 LONGER CONVERSATIONS Identifying the Topic and Listening for Specific Information

The longer conversations in Part B of the Listening Comprehension section include academic conversations between students and professors or other academic personnels; class discussions; and informal conversations between friends, as well as between students and service personnel in places such as stores and restaurants.

A. Identifying the Topic The topics of the conversations include research, papers, courses, trips, student activities and problems, sports, as well as current news like natural disasters, environment issues, etc. To identify the topic of a longer conversation, you should listen carefully to the first exchange. Strategieses Pay attention to what the speakers say in the beginning of the conversation. The topic is usually mentioned in the first exchange. Sample problem On the recording, you will hear : Narrator Woman : Listen to a conversation between two students. : Okay, I think we understand how rain is formed. Now, we need to discuss the formation of acid rain. Man : What is acid rain exactly ?

... (The conversation continues.) Narrator : What is the topic of the conversation?

In your test book, you will read: (A) Advanced physics (B) The causes of acid rain (C) The formation of acid rain (D) The effects of acid rain

The topic of the conversation is (C) Formation of acid rain.

B. Listening for Specific Information Other questions in Part B of the Listening Comprehension section deal with specific information in the conversations. Strategieses 1. Briefly preview the options given in the test book before the listening. 2. Try to anticipate the question for every problem: who, what, when, why,how, etc. 3. Try to determine the answer while listening. Sample problem On the recording, you will hear : Narrator : Questions 1 through 3 are based on the following conversation. Woman : Hi, Clark. I called you this morning but nobody picked up the phone. I just wanted to ask you about the introduction to psychology course that you took last semester. Man : Are you taking Professor Palmers course this coming semester ? Woman Man : Yes. And I heard he's very demanding. : Yes, youre right. Dont expect that hell tolerate students coming late for his class. He gives a lot of assignments and hes strict about deadlines. Woman Man : Wow! That's discouraging. : Aw, cmon. If I can do it, so can you.

On the recording, you will hear : Narrator : 1. Why did the woman call the man?

In your test book, you will read : (A) To ask about a course (B) To introduce Professor Palmer (C) To ask for an assignment

(D) To complain about Professor Palmer On the recording, you will hear : Narrator : 2. What do the speakers say about Professor Palmer ?

In your test book, you will read : (A) He makes his students work hard. (B) He is an encouraging lecturer. (C) He comes late for his own class. (D) He is lenient with his students. On the recording, you will hear : Narrator : 3. How does the woman feel about taking the course ?

In your test book, you will read : (A) Enthusiastic (B) Angered (C) Disappointed (D) Pessimistic

Explanation 1. Question 1 asks why the woman called. The reason mentioned is ... to ask you about the Introduction to psychology course .... Therefore, the best answer is (A) To ask about a course. 2. Question 2 asks about Professor Palmer. The woman in the conversation says that ... he is very demanding. Therefore, the best answer is (A) He makes his students work hard. 3. Question 3 asks about the womans feeling. Mentioned in the conversation is Wow! Thats discouraging. Therefore, the best answer is (D) Pessimistic.

UNIT 7 SHORT TALKS Identifying the Topic and Listening for Spresific Information

The short talks in Part C of the Listening Comprehension section consist of short academic lectures and reports, radio programs, orientations for academic courses and procedures, or talks given by tour guides, etc.

A. Identifying the Topic The topics of the short talks include introduction to a course, transportation, community service, trips, animals and their habits, research projects, popular science, famous people, etc. The question about the topic of a short talk usually comes immediately after the talk. To understand what the topic is, you should not miss the first few lines of the talk. 1. Briefly preview the options of the first question of the talk before the talk is read out. 2. Listen carefully to the first two or three lines of the talk because the topic is usually mentioned then. Sample problem On the recording, you will hear : Narrator : Questions 1 through 4 are based on the following talk in a meeting. Woman : Id like to welcome all candidate members of the Rotary Club of Tunkhannock, Pennsylvania. The Tunkhannock Rotary Club is part of Rotary International which is an organization that offers humanitarian intercultural, and educational programs. ... (The talk continues.) Narrator : 1. What is the main topic of the talk?

In your test book, you will read : (A) Candidate members of the Rotary Club

(B) Humanitarian activities of the Rotary Club (C) The Rotary Club International (D) Programs of the Tunkhannock Rotary Club The topic of the talk is (D) Programs of the Tunkhannock Rotary Club.

B. Listening for Specific Information Other questions in Part C of the Listening Comprehension section are questions about specific information in the talks. Strategieses 1. If you have time, preview the options given in the test book. 2. Try to anticipate the question for every problem: who, what, when, why, how, etc. 3. Try to determine the answer while listening. Sample problem On the recording, you will hear : Narrator Woman : Questions 1 through 4 are based on the following talk. : ld like to welcome all candidate members of the Rotary Club of Tunkhannock Pennsylvania. The Tunkhannock Rotary Club is part of Rotary International which is an organization that offers humanitarian and educational programs. As you probably have known. Rotary International was established by an attorney named Paul P. Harris on February 23, 1905. Since that time, the club's activities have always been designed to reach the goal of the organization: to improve the human condition. So far, the Tunkhannock Rotary Club has been raising money to support local community efforts to make Tunkhannock and its surroundings a more productive and more enjoyable place to live and to help the communities in many ways. The club sponsors a youth baseball team,

supports the Envirothon raises money to help eradicate contagious disease/provides a community fireworks display every Independence Day, and donates money to children and youth organizations. ... (This is the continuation of Question 1 in A.Identifying the Topic) On the recording, you will hear : Narrator : 2.According to the speaker, what is the main objective of Rotary International ? In your test book, you will read : (A) To provide job opportunities for prospective lawyers (B) To design universal educational programs (C) To make the human condition better (D) To make its members more productive workers On the recording, you will hear : Narrator : 3.When was Rotary International founded?

In your test book, you will read : (A) Prior to the 1900s (B) In the Late 1900s (C) In the early 1900s (D) In the mid 1900s On the recording, you will hear: Narrator : 4.How does the Tunkhannock Rotary Club help the community? In your test book, you will read: (A) By sponsoring local organizations (B) By forming sports teams (C) By opening job vacancies in town (D) By building schools for local children Explanation 1. Question 2 asks about the objective of Rotary International. In the talk, the speaker mentions ... the goal of the organization: to improve the human

condition. Therefore, the best answer is (C) To make the human condition better. 2. To answer Question 3, you have to focus on the question when Rotary International was founded, and thespeaker mentions February 23, 1905. Therefore, the best answer is (C) In the early 1900's. 3. Question 4 asks how the Tunkhannock Rotary Club helps the community. The talk mentions the club sponsors a youth baseball team, supports the Envirothon, raises money to help eradicate polio, provides a community fireworks show for every Independence Day and donates money to children and youth organization. Therefore, the best answer 1s (A) By sponsoring local organizations.

UNIT 8 PARTS OF SPEECH Nouns and Articles

A. Nouns There are various types of nouns. Some nouns may fall under more than one type. This unit takes up the following types of nouns: 1. Countable Nouns 2. Uncountable Nouns

1. Countable Nouns Countable nouns can take a singular or plural form. Singular a cat a man a tooth an egg an elephant an axe Plural cats men teeth eggs elephants axes Examples There is a man outside the building. There are two men outside the building. An elephant has a trunk. Elephants have trunks.

a. Singular Nouns When a noun refers to one person or thing, it is singular. Singular Examples a girl or one girl I need to buy a book. a book or one book a report or one report One reports missing from the file cabinet. an insect or one insect An insect is a type of very small animal an orange or one orange with six legs. an icon or one icon Strategies 1. Do NOT end singular nouns with -s/-es. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the articles and numbers and underline the nouns they modify. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes.

1. They took a long, enjoyable trips to the country on their vacation. 2. Kathy has finished reading one chapter of the book. 3. Carlo is only one of the many outstanding students in our school. 4. One cup of coffee will be perfect to ward off sleepiness. 5. There is one empty chair in the back row for you to sit on. Sample item Mohandas Gandhi was in charge of a Red Cross units during the A Boer War. D You should choose option B because a is used with a singular noun. It should be a Red Cross unit. 2. Use singular nouns after the words below. a/an one this that a single another each every B C

Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the above words and underline the nouns they modify. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. There was,not a single cars in the parking lot. 2. The school needed another baseball coaches. 3. She needs every penny she earns to support her family. 4. This math problem is not easy to solve, even for a bright student like Erwin. 5. The professor always comes up with a quiz to work on at the end of each class.

Sample item In every living organisms, complex chemical reactions occur A among thousands of substances. C D B

You should choose option A because the word every should be followed by a singular noun. It should be every living organism. 3. Singular countable nouns usually need articles. Use the with singular countable nouns when referring to things in general or to specific things; use a/an with singular countable nouns when referring to nonspecific things. Examples The lion is called the king of the beast. (The lion means all lions general meaning) The university needs a lion to conduct research on wildlife. (The university needs any one lion.) The lion that the zoo has lent to us is now in a cage in the university lab. (The lion is the one lent by the zoo, a specific lion, not other lions.) Check your understanding Directions : Circle the articles if there are any, and underline the nouns. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. A zebra belongs to the horse family. 2. Toyota is a Japanese car. 3. There was the sparrow that fell out of its nest. 4. The rain forest usually contains exotic animals. 5. Siberian flying squirrel is commonly called the flying mitten. Sample item Edwin Hubble, the discoverer of the red shifting of galaxies, was_____

(A) the American astronomer (B) an American astronomer (C) American astronomers (D) an American astronomers The phrase American astronomers a singular countable noun and doesnt represent all astronomers in general. Thus, it needs the article an. So, the correct answer is (B) an American astronomer. b. Plural Nouns When a noun refers to more than one person or thing, it is plural. The plural form of most nouns is made by adding s/es to the singular form; however, there are some exceptions. Examples Singular owl lecturer buzz bus dish church box baby party daisy calf wife leaf sheep species datum ox Plural owls lecturers buzzes buses dishes churches boxes babies parties daisies calfes wives leaves sheep species data oxen Examples Five lecturers from this university will attend the international conference in San Francisco next week. We have to do the dishes before going to the movie. Some exceptions 1. Plural form of nouns ending in consonant y Example Most students look forward to attending graduation parties. 2. Plural form of nouns ending in -f(e) Example The color of the autumn leaves is usually yellow. 3. Irregular plural forms of nouns. Example The researchers need more data to finish the project. 4. Plural forms of man, woman, and gentleman Example We will recruit more men for the project.

man men woman women gentleman gentlemen

Strategieses 1. Do NOT use a/an with plural nouns. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the articles and underline the nouns they modify ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. An about twenty calves are grazing In the field. 2. An enthusiastic spectators applauded the clowns. 3. There are beautiful birds of paradise in the zoo. 4. A rainbow is a display of the spectrum colors of sunlight. 5. They used on axes to cut the trees. Sample item UNESCO is headquartered in Paris, France, with an over 50 field A offices and several institutes and centers throughout the world. B C D

You should choose option A because field offices is a plural noun and does not take the article an. It should be over 50 field offices. 2. Use plural nouns after the words below. a// some some (of the) a few(of) many (of) a lot of lots of various these those every one of each one of each of one of both other dozens of hundreds of thousands of a number of the number of a couple of several (of the)

Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the words mentioned on the list above and underline their nouns. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. The institution gave scholarships to a number of student.

2. Teachers use various technique to make their lessons interesting. 3. It took them a couple of hours to finish their class project. 4. Law enforcement is a problem in some countries because of corrupt officials. 5. Each of the team member shared the same workload. Sample item The International Committee of the Red Cross reported a death toll A of thousands of man as a result of the tsunami in December 2004. B C D

You should choose option B because a plural noun should follow thousands of. It should be thousands of men. 3. When words such as hundred, thousand or million follow a number, do NOT put them in a plural form. Check your understanding, Directions : Circle the numbers that modify nouns. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. Two hundred more employees are being recruited for the growing company. 2. The project needs six thousands dollars. 3. Hundreds of volunteers from different countries came to the rescue of the earthquake victims. 4. About sixty thousands rupiah could be collected during the cultural night. 5. Tens of teenagers were arrested for fighting during the rock concert.

Sample item Six millions residents of New Jersey consider their region as A important as New York City. D You should choose option A because millions follows a number. It should be six million residents. 4. Be careful of irregular plural nouns. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the plural nouns. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. The research presented a lot of valuable datums. 2. Oxes are usually used as draft animals. 3. Most housewives prefer to have part-time jobs. 4. Some specieses of animals are endangered. 5. Auroras are natural phenomenons that can be seen in the far northern and southern hemispheres of the earth. Sample item Aoudads, wild horned sheeps of six subspecies, live in North Africa. A B C D B C

You should choose option A because the plural form of sheep is the same as its singular form. It should be sheep.

2. Uncountable Nouns Uncountable nouns are nouns that have only one form and take a singular verb. Food rice sugar fruit Fluids blood water oil Fields of study mathematics economics physics Other furniture news equipment Strategiess 1. Do NOT use uncountable nouns after the words/phrases below. a/an another one a single each every these those Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the words mentioned on the list above and underline their nouns. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. a few (of) many (of) every one of each one of each (of) one of both dozens of hundreds of thousands of a number of the number of a couple of several (of the) Examples The country produces much rice. The patient needs a lot of blood. Mathematics my favorite subject. The new office needs a lot of equipment. The furniture in this room is to be replaced.

Note: Though some uncountable nouns end in -s, they are singular.

1. There are dozen eggs in the refrigerator, 2. Much flowed from his wound. 3. The school issued regulations for students and teachers. 4. This furniture will have to be specially cleaned. 5. Money used for the relief of the refugees must be reported. Sample item The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development has taken a role in coordinating international action on a corruption by A B C D

creating Anti-bribery Convention. You should choose option D because corruption is an uncountable noun and does not take the article a It should be corruption. 2. Use uncountable nouns with the words below. much little a little all* some* a lot of*

an amount of lots of* plenty of* * They can also be used with countable plural nouns. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the articles, indefinite adjectives and quantifiers and underline their nouns. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. They have to live on whatever little money they earn. 2. She came up with plenty of ideas during the class. 3. There were quite a number students coming to the seminar on depression. 4. We did not see many houses in the area. 5. The institution has done a lot of research on the new drug. Sample item

Coming from a poor family, Lazaro Cardenas, the Mexican president A B

who made social and economic reforms during the 1930s, received few C education. You should choose option D because education is an uncountable noun and does not follow the quantifier few. It should be little education. 3. Do NOT put uncountable nouns into plural form. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the nouns. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. Physics is not his favorite subject. 2. This type of plant needs a lot of sunlight / cause its uncountables nouns. 3. He drinks a lot of coffee. 4. People say that no news is good news. 5. Cats cannot stand pepper. Sample item New York City is a center of international finance, politics, A communications, musics, fashion, and culture. C D B D

You should choose option C because musics uncountable. It should be music.

B. Articles A and an are called indefinite articles because they are normally used to refer to nonspecific person/thing, while the is called a definite article because it is used to refer to a specific person/thing or persons/things.

Indefinite articles Examples a The school board makes a decision concerning the students an every two years. Definite article the The school board makes an important decision concerning the students every two years. It is the chair prepared for our new teacher this semester.

Strategieses 1. Use a/an when the noun is newly introduced. Use the when the noun has been mentioned before, or when the noun is specific. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the articles and underline the nouns they modify. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. Henry lent me a book. A book is very interesting. 2. A woman sitting next to me was not my colleague. 3. We saw the funny-looking dog this morning. 4. The rightful heir has passed away, too. 5. The renowned professor has been assigned to be the tutor of a future king. Sample item Astronomy is a study of the universe, consisting of celestial bodies, gas, A and dust. D You should choose option A because study of the universe refers to Astronomy. It suggests something specific and does not take the article a It should be the study of the universe. 2. Use the with superlatives and with words like first, next, last, same and only. Check your understanding. B C

Directions

: Circle the articles if there are any, and underline the nouns. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes.

1. The only navigable river during the rainy season is not navigable now. 2. Next film produced will be about espionage. 3. Our institute will recruit same number of employees as it did last year. 4. The most complicated machine we have is not working. 5. The soccer match last night was most exciting of all matches during the World Cup matches. Sample item In ancient Egypt, first appearance of certain stars each year marked the A B

beginning of the seasonal flood, an important event for agriculture. C D

You should choose option A because the article the should be used with the word first It should be the first appearance. 3. Use the to refer to specific nouns such as : the sun, the moon/the world, etc. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the articles if there are any, and underline the nouns. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. The Hilton happens to be the biggest hotel in my town. 2. The moon revolves around the earth once every month. 3. Ground is wet after the rain last night. 4. We went to city's zoo last week. 5. In clear nights, we can see many stars in sky. Sample item Copernicus believed that the earth goes around sun, and not the other way A around. You should choose option B because there is only one sun in our solar B C D

system. It should be the sun. 4. Pay attention to when the article the is used. a. The is NOT used with names of the following : months, and days : January, December, Saturday, Sunday

chemical substances : hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen continents : Africa, Asia capes, bays, and points : Cape Canaveral, Cape Cod, San Francisco Bay, Tampa Bay, Point Dume, Point Mugu countries and states : Canada, France, California, Wisconsin EXCEPTIONS : the Netherlands, the Philippines cities: Melbourne, New York EXCEPTION : the Hague streets/roads/squares/parks : Yale Street, Wiltshire Boulevard, Trafalgar Square, Yosemite National Park individual islands : Easter Island, Stanton Island individual mountains and lakes: Mount Everest, Mount Whitney lakes : Lake Toba, Lake Michigan EXCEPTION: the Great Salt Lake airports : Kennedy Airport, Heath row Airport universities : Yale University, Harvard University

b. The is used with names of the following: regions, especially those beginning with compass direction : the North of England, the southern hemisphere, the Crimea, the Caucasus groups of islands : the Bahamas, the Canaries groups of lakes : the Great Lakes, the Finger Lakes mountain ranges : the Rocky Mountains, the Andes deserts: the Sahara, the Mojave peninsulas: the Monterey peninsula, the Iberian peninsula oceans, seas, rivers, gulfs, and canals: the Atlantic, the Indian Ocean, the Black Sea, the Mediterranean, the Amazon, the

Mississippi, the Gulf of Mexico, the Persian Gulf. The Panama Canal, the Suez Canal Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the articles if there are any, and underline the nouns. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. The oxygen makes up about 70 percent of the atmosphere. 2. The Australia is a continent in the southern hemisphere of the earth. 3. The highest mountain is located in the Himalayas. 4. Mount Fuji is famous for its snow-capped peak. 5. Niagara Falls has become a tourist attraction. Sample item The Carlisle is a quiet college and light-manufacturing town in the A B C

Cumberland Valley of southern Pennsylvania. D You should choose option A because Carlisle [ka:(r)lail] is a name of a place and cannot take the article the. It should be Carlisle. 5. Use the with some adjectives to denote a group of people having the condition described by the adjectives, such as the rich (rich people), the deaf (deaf people), etc. This construction is always plural in meaning. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the articles if there are any, and underline the nouns. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. The rich get richer and the poor get poorer. 2. The donation will go to needy. 3. Fear of a man can make a person do evil things. 4. This kind of computer game is suitable for young. 5. Deaf should be sitting in a special section of the hall. Sample item

Disabled demanded that public facilities, such as train and bus stations and A B C

libraries be constructed to accommodate them. D You should choose option A because the word Disabled refers to all disabled people. It should be The disabled. 6. Use the with all nationality adjectives when you mean the people of that country. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the articles and underline the nouns they modify. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. British still believe in monarchies. 2. Life could be very difficult at times for the Sudanese. 3. French joined the Alliance during World War II. 4. The brave people are willing to take risks. 5. Javanese know that Javanese is difficult for foreigners to learn. Sample item Some people in the world, such as Japanese, still uphold their traditions A B C

even in modern days. D You should choose option C because the word Japanese refers to the people of Japan. It should be the Japanese. 7. Use a/an with a person or thing that is nonspecific. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the articles if there are any^ and underline the nouns. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. The police are looking for a man in the brown sweater. 2. After the shocking earthquake, people found that there was the crack in

the ground. 3. I met a girl who was a student here. 4. A man who employed me was very generous. 5. He needed a pair of gloves. Sample item Born in the family fond of tennis, the tennis champion Christine Evert was A B

the most famous woman athlete in the United States. C D

You should choose option A because the word family refers to any family fond of tennis. It should be a family. 8. Use a with a noun starting with a consonant sound and aw with a noun starting with a vowel sound. an herb an hour an honor an SMA student BUT a herbal remedy a half hour a unit a university student

Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the articles and underline the nouns they modify. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. Which came first, a chicken or a egg ? 2. The platypus is an unique creature in the animal kingdom. 3. An exciting movie might become a blockbuster. 4. As a avid reader, John is a self-educated man. 5. Teenagers have the tendency to consider an famous actor or actress an icon.

Sample item 1 Chemistry arose from attempts to transform base metals into gold, a effort A B C D

that became known as alchemy. You should choose option D because effort starts with a vowel sound. It should be an effort. Sample item 2 In 1900 George Eastman invented an small camera, the Kodak Brownie. A B C D

You should choose option C because small camera starts with a consonant sound. It should be a small camera. 9. Do NOT use articles with plural nouns used to represent a class. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the articles and underline the nouns they modify. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. The African-Americans have served in every American military action. 2. The best football team usually has the best blockers. 3. The rugby players wear heavy gym shorts, thick jerseys, socks rugby shoes and protective mouthpieces. 4. There are more the European football fans than there are American fans. 5. Short-beaked common dolphins of the Mediterranean face threats from human activity. Sample item Many people considered the roses a symbol of romance. A B C D

You should choose option B because roses represents all roses. It should be roses or the rose. 10. Use articles according to the rules. Check your understanding.

Directions

: Circle the articles and underline the nouns they modify. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes.

1. Food shown in the movies, TV programs, or commercials may be just replicas. 2. The Hollywood has become a productive source of box-office films. 3. Haiti is an island nation with a large population. 4. In 2004, there were increasingly destructive hurricanes in the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. 5. The extreme poverty is an insult to humanity. Sample item The telescope enables an astronomers to confront scientific questions about A the birth of the universe. You should choose option B because the word astronomers is a plural indefinite noun that does not need the article an. It should be astronomers or an astronomer. B C D

UNIT 9 PARTS OF SPECH Subject, Object, Possessive, And Reflexive Pronouns; Possesive Adjectives; Relative Pronouns and Adverbs; Forms of Other; and Nonreferential it and There Subjects

A. Aubject and Object Pronouns Subeject pronouns are used as the subject of a verb and object pronous are used as the object of a verb or of a preposition. Subject Pronouns I we you you he they she it Object Pronous me us you you him them her it B. Possessive Pronouns Prossessive pronouns may function either as the subject of a verb or as the object of a verbb or of a preposition. Possessive Pronouns mine Yours truly, his Hers Ours theirs C. Reflexive Pronouns Reflexive pronouns are used as the object of a verb or of a preposition. They are used when the object of the verb or preposition refers to the subject. A Special use of reflexive pronouns is to intensify nouns or pronouns. Examples My roommate borrowed mine because his is broken OV S He promised to introduce a friend of his tomorrow. OP Examples Jason lent the novel to her after he finished reading it. OP S OV They gave him the money he asked for. S OV Note : S : Subjet OP : Object of preposition OV : Object of verb

Reflexive Pronouns myself yourself himself oneself itself ourselves yourselves themselves D. Possessive Adjectives

Examples Ron hurt himself. OV Children should be taught to depend on themselves OP rather than on others. The students themselves insisted on having a discussion. (intensifying S)

Possessive adjectives are also tested in the TOEFL Possessive adjectives function to modify nouns and must agree with the nouns they refer to. Possessive Pronouns Examples my All students must bring their IDs. your Poss. Adj. hisher He explained his plans to all of us. our Poss. Adj. their E. Relative Pronouns and Adverbs Relative pronouns are all used in adjective/relative clauses. Who or that is used as a subject referring to a person. Whom is used as an object referring to a person.used as a subject or on object referring to a thing. Whoseis used to replace a possessive adjective.

Relative adverbs, also used in adjective/relative clauses, substitute for an adverb. They are not pronouns and they can cause confusion in the TOEFL. When refers to a time. Where refers to a place. Why refers to a reason.

Relative Pronouns who/that whom which/that whose Relative Adverbs where when why F. Forms of Others

Examples My sister who graduated from college last month is rel.pron. thinking of having a business of her own. The book that I bought yesterday when I went to the new rel.pron rel.adv. mall is expensive.

Another refers to a nonspecific singular noun; others refers to a nonspecific plural noun; and the other refers to a specific singular noun; and the others refers to a specific plural noun. All of these pronouns are used as the subject or the object of a verb. Other Pronouns another the other other the others Examples The 705DG scanner was sold. Another is available next S week. Did you lose your copy ? I still have another. 0V Here is one of the two books. Im still reading the other. 0V Some people like reading; others prefer watching TV. S One student was playing the piano. The others were S singing along.

G. Nonreferential it and there subjects If and there, though classified as pronouns in most dictionaries and grammar books ditter from other pronouns. The main function of if and there is either to provide sentence with a subject or to anticipate a true subject in the predicate position. The nonreferential it introduces predicates with special meanings such as to sho identification, to express weather, time and distance, and to describe a situation. It is also used to anticipate the true subject.

The nonreferential there occurs most often with a linking verb and the verb agrees wi the subject that comes after it. Nonreferential subjects It to show special meanings: it Identification : Its Ane ther Weather : It was snowing yesterday. Time : Its Sunday. Distance : Its ten miles from the university to my house. Situation : Its lonely here. It to anticipate the true subject : It is important to be punctual. (To be punctual is important.) It is important that you be punctual. (That you be punctual important) It is incredible what scientists can do these days. (What scientists can do these days is incredible.) There to anticipate the true subject : There is a student in the library. (A student1s in the library) There seem to be two problems in the project. (Two problems seem to be in the project.) Strategieses 1. Make sure that the pronouns correctly refer to the nouns. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the nouns and underline the pronouns. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. Industries that use plastics have recycled their wastes for years. 2. When water, is heated, it changes into steam. 3. Plato was born in Athens and their family was one of the most distinguished in the city. 4. Sylvia Plaths works emphasize her sharp insights and ironic wit. 5. Platinum has unique qualities that make them precious. Sample item Coal is the major export of Queensland and large quantities of them are A B C

used for the production of electricity in Australia. D You should choose option C because them is not the right pronoun for coai It should be it. Sample item 2 After Andhra Pradesh served as Indias first ambassador to the Soviet A Union, his helped the smooth transfer of power in India in 1964. B C D

You should choose option B because his is put in the place of a subject. It should be he. 2. Make sure that possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives are in the correct form and are appropriate to the nouns or pronouns they refer to. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the noun and underline the possessive pronoun. Then decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. My sister Martha believes that she can do the job better than her friends can. 2. I suspected that John had taken my dictionary because he said he lost his yesterday. 3. My parents wanted me to drive my car because their is still under repair. 4. I think that his ideas are worse than mine. 5. Can I borrow your book ? I couldnt find mine. Sample item 1 Roosevelt introduced an idea of him, the New Deal, to overcome the A B C D

effects of the Great Depression. You should choose option C because him is not the correct form of possessive pronoun. It should be his.

Sample item 2 Stieglietz, one of the greatest American photographers, has been honored A for work of theirs in providing a basis for the development of C photography. You should choose option C because theirs is not the correct possessive pronoun. It should be his. 3. Make sure that reflexive pronouns are in the correct form and are appropriate to the nouns or pronouns they refer to. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the nouns and underline the reflexive pronouns. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. My daughter Dana always does her homework herself. 2. My teacher always encourages his students to have faith in himself. 3. Did you yourself clean the living room and the bedroom ? 4. He should not think too highly of himself. 5. We really want you to be able to solve the problem ourselves. Sample item 1 Charles Darwin herself wrote The Origin of Species during his five-year A voyage on the Beagle. You should choose option A because herself is not the correct reflexive pronoun. It should be himself. Sample item 2 Green turtles can find the way back theirselves to the same spot where A they were born. You should choose option B because theirselves is not the correct form of reflexive pronoun. It should be themselves. B C D B C D D B

4. Be careful of the wrong uses of relative pronouns. a. Do NOT put what place of which, and vice versa. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the nouns and underline the relative pronouns. Decides which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. In the Indus Valley, what is now Pakistan and western India, most dwellings had drains for waste disposal. 2. Edgar Allan Poes reviews included principles of literary analysis which affected later writers. 3. The Illiad describes events of the Trojan War, which was fought between fought between Greece and the city of Troy. 4. A species related to poison ivy is poisonous oak, which grows in the Pacific Northwest of the U.S. 5. Before World War II, Polands economy depended on agriculture which employed about 60% of Polish workers. Sample item Jericho, what is believed to be the earliest known town, started to A B

evolve from an area covering 10 acres into a town in 8000. C D

You should choose option A because what does not refer to Jericho. It should be which. b. Do NOT put who in place of which, and vice versa. Check your understanding Directions : Circle the nouns and underline the relative pronouns. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. Political parties are organized groups of people who control a government. 2. Thomas Aquinas, who a great scholar, wrote Summa Theologica.

3. Every grain has an outer shell which may be smooth or wrinkled. 4. Jackson Pollock was an American artist who had an important influence on modern painting. 5. Kublai Khan had a postal system which consisted of a network of courier stations. Sample item The history of modern architecture includes the technology and the A architects which designed buildings. C D B

You should choose option C because which cannot refer to people the architects. It should be who. c. Do NOT use the relative adverb if/we with a preposition. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the nouns and underline the relative pronouns. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. Polar bears hunt seals at holes in the ice the seals come up for air. 2. A meadow stream-pond develops a place in where a slowly moving stream widens as it flows over sloping land. 3. In the U.S., pontoons have been used as permanent bridges in places where deep water makes pier construction expensive. 4. In 1771, a porcelain industry developed near Limoges, where kaolin deposits had been found. 5. Postal workers take mail from post boxes offices where it is sorted. Sample item Worchester was the location of the battle of 1651 in where Oliver A B C

Cromwell defeated Charles II, ending the English Civil War. D

You should choose option C because which should be used instead of where. It should be in which. 5. Use the forms of other correctly. Another (singular) and others (plural) refer to nonspecific nouns. The other (singular) and the others (plural) refer to specific nouns. Note : While another and the other can be used as adjectives that modify nouns (another car, the other girl others and the others cannot (not others people, not the others house.) Check your understanding, Directions : Circle the forms of other. Then, decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. Some enjoy outdoor activities while others like indoor activities. 2. I need to do two things before leaving for school tomorrow : one is water the plant and is feed my cat. 3. Do you still have the another work to do today ? 4. The professor assigned us several math problems, but I could only solve few of them. Others are too difficult for me. 5. The design process often includes packaging, styling, retail displays, and ether devices for distribution of mass-produced goods, Sample item 1 Painting is one of the two techniques in decorating books in England in the A B C

10 th and 11th centuries; another is colored-outline drawing. D You should choose option D because another cannot refer to the specific noun technique. Therefore, it should be written the other.

Sample item 2 While millions of refugees driven by civil war, natural disaster and A B

persecution seek safety outside of their countries, millions of others people C leave for temporary work. D You should choose option C because others is followed by people. It should be millions of other people. 6. The nonreferential it may be confused with the nonreferential there. It emphasizes identification while there emphasizes existence. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the introductory words and underline the verbs. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. There is 150 breeds of dogs recognized by American Kennel Club (AKC). 2. It is clear that poverty occurs in nations with undeveloped resources. 3. It is clear that American philosophers were the first to develop pragmatism. 4. It is not known how humans and dogs first learned to coexist. 5. There is a social organization helping certain people to become members of the parliament. Sample item 1 _______ in physics that work has a much more specific definition. (A) There is clear (B) It is clear (C) Clear it is (D) Though it is clear The sentence needs a subject and the expletive it should be used since the sentence emphasizes identification. So, the correct answer is option (B) It .

is clear. Sample item 2 _______ no distinction between axons, the nerve fiber, and dendrites in invertebrates nerve net system, (A) It has (B) There has (C) There is (D) lt is The phrase no distinction is the subject of the sentence and the expletive there should be used since the sentence stresses the existence of no distinction. So, the correct answer is option (C) There is.

UNIT 10 PARTS OF SPEECH Adjectives and Adverbs

A. Adjectives There are different types of adjectives and this unit takes up descriptive adjectives, participles, and noun adjuncts (nouns that modify other nouns, and so, they function as adjectives). Adjectives modify nouns, appearing before the nouns or after linking verbs. They also modify pronouns, usually appearing after linking verbs [be, become, remain, etc.). Descriptive Adjectives beatiful intelligent generous Examples He is intelligent Pron. Adj. James is a generous man. Participles Present intereting boring spoiling breaking selling grinding Adj. Past unterested bored spoiled broken sold ground They became bored Pron. Adj. N

The broken windows should be replaced. Adj. N

The teacher awarded some pencil cases to her N. Adjunct N

Noun Adjunct a school bag pencil cases a night cap

students. Note : Adj, : adjective N : noun Pron : pronoun

Strategieses 1. Do NOT use nouns in place of adjectives, and vice versa. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the nouns and underline the adjectives.

Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. Today, people are becoming more aware of the dangerous of smoking. 2. One of mans basic instincts is to build shelter. 3. The principal is facing student resistance to the new regulations. 4. There are so many technique terms in the article. 5. Nobody seemed amused listening to his jokes. Sample item It is the long of the rod that determines how fast the pendulum swings A B C D

back and forth. You should choose option B because the article the should be followed by a noun. It should be the length. Sample item 2 The canal in Panama has made tourism in that country an importance A business. You should choose option D because an adjective should precede the noun business. It should be an important business. 2. Use adjectives before nouns and after linking verbs. Linking verbs be look seem appear remain feel prove taste smell become keep sound B C D

Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the nouns and underline the adjectives. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes.

1. The scientist looked confused when he read the report of the research. 2. The student committee plans to hold an annual meeting this week. 3. A complete set of the books is necessary for the reference of the report. 4. He decided to visit the girl because she did not sound healthy on the phone. 5. They remained calm upon hearing the terrible news. Sample item 1 A hole small in the confer of the parachute canopy lessens the jolt when A B C

the parachute opens. D You should choose option A because the adjective smallshould occur before the noun hole. It should be small hole. Sample item 2 The egg of a penguin remains warmly in the pouch above its feet. A B C D

You should choose option C because the verb remains should be followed by the adjective warm. It should be remains warm. 3. Be careful of participles. Present participles are active in meaning but past participles are passive in meaning. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the nouns and underline the adjectives. Decide which ones are wrong: Correct the mistakes. 1. The students are assigned to read more about the amazed discoveries in physics. 2. We decided to write about the electing president for our student magazine. 3. Moral issues are always interesting to discuss. 4. Strongly motivated students usually succeed in their studies.

5. The teacher looked satisfied with her students performance in the speech contest. Sample item 1 Harold Ickes opposed the exploitation of his country's limiting natural A resources. You should choose option D because a past participle is needed instead of a present participle to modify the noun natural resources. It should be limited natural resources. Sample item 2 During World War II, all the fought nations transported troops behind A enemy lines by plane. D You should choose option A because a present participle is needed to modify the noun nations instead of the past participle fought It should be the fighting nations. 4. Be careful of the position of noun adjuncts. They are nouns but they function as adjectives. So noun adjuncts always precedes nouns they modify. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the nouns and underline the noun adjuncts. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. Our school will go on a trip field next week. 2. The weather forecast predicted that there will be a heavy rain tomorrow. 3. Show entertainments are mushrooming all over the worlds. 4. We need to go to a drug store to buy the medicine. 5. Some career women are taking post-graduate studies. Sample item Paris, located on the Seine, is the beautiful city capital of France. B C B C D

You should choose option D because the noun capitals used to modify the noun city. It should be capital city. B. Adverbs Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or the whole sentence. This unit discusses only the first three. The position of adverbs is flexible, depending on what is being emphasized. Adjectives fast hard high diligent careful attentive Adverbs fast hard high and highly diligenttly carefully attentively Examples The boys work diligently. V Adv. OR The boys diligently work. Adv. V The students ore studying hard V Adv. The students looked deeply impressed by Adv. Adj. the lecturer. They listened very attentively the Adv. Adv. explanation They are too young to be married. Adv. Adj. . Note : V : Verb Adv. : Adverb Adj. : Adjective

Other adverbs (not formed from adjectives) very too almost never often just merely recently really Strategieses

Do NOT use adverbs in place of adjectives, and vice versa. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the adjectives and underline the adverbs. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. The reference books are neat arranged in the library. 2. She talked very fast as she careless explained the problems to us. 3. The clothes are beautiful designed by the famous designer. 4. They danced well enough throughout the performance. 5. She quick became aware that he was looking at her.

Sample item 1 Clocks have special devices that give the pendulum a tiny push at regularly A intervals. You should choose option D because the word intervals is a noun and needs an adjective instead of an adverb to modify the noun. It should be regular intervals. Sample item 2 Only a canal pilot with years of experience can safe guide fast ships through A B C D B C D

narrow channels and locks. You should choose option C because the verb guide should be modified by an adverb instead of the adjective safe. It should be safely guide.

UNIT 11 SIMPLE SENTENSE

A simple sentence has one subject and one verb, although the subject and the verb may be compound. Examples Peru is the third-largest country in South America. S V

John and Marion have been studying and working in Tokyo for seven years. Compound s Compound V

There are certain structures that can cause confusion in finding the subject and the verb of a sentence. The structures taken up in this unit are prepositional phrases, appositives and participial phrases. Prepositional phrases are phrases that are preceded by prepositions like In, df, on, to, by, behind f and they contain nouns as the object of preposition (OP). These nouns are often mistaken for subjects. Examples The passengers on the bus were all sweating and restless. S Prep.Phr. V

Only one out of 50 interviewees was accepted. S Preposional Phr. V

OP = the bus 50 interviewees Appositives are words or phrases that provide more information about subjects or objects. Nouns in appositives are often mistaken for the subjects. Examples Carla, one of the brightest studei has been chosen to join the competition. S Appositive V

The workers, desperate over the company policy, are going on strike. S Appositive V

Participial phrases are phrases that are preceded by either present or past

participles. In this structure, the participle, which modifies a noun, can be mistaken for the verb of the sentence. Examples The children leaping out of their beds were screaming with fright. S Present participial phrase. V

Greats essays, praised by the teacher, were submitted for the writing S competition. Strategieses 1. Make sure that the sentence has a subject and a verb. Check your understanding. Directions : Find the subjects and the verbs. Decide whether any are missing. Supply the missing subjects and verbs, 1. Various people all over the world have practiced different forms of marriage. 2. The first experiences in the home mark the beginning of education. 3. Home life influenced by the way a family is organized. 4. In ancient Rome, had absolute authority over his children. 5. The members of a family may have certain responsibilities toward each other. Sample item 1 ________ was the patron and protector of the city of Athens. (A) The goddess Athena (B) That the goddess Athena (C) It is the goddess Athena (D) Being the goddess Athena The sentence needs a subject. So, the correct answer is (A) The goddess Athena. Sample item 2 Tens of thousands of Maoris ____ between 1815 and 1840 in intertribal wars. Past participial phrase. V

(A) when died (B) they died (C) dying (D) died The sentence needs a verb. So, the correct answer is (D) died. 2. Make sure that there are no double or repeated subjects or verbs in a sentence. Check your understanding. Directions : Find the subjects and the verbs. Decide whether there are repeated subjects or verbs. Correct the mistakes. 1. To curb waste of time at meetings, some executives they have resorted to the use of stopwatches, whistles, and uncomfortable chairs. 2. Repeated studies have shown that the length, texture and coarseness of one's hair they are not determined by how often it is cut. 3. Noisy toys register more than 100 decibels harm kids' hearing. 4. For many people, gardening can provide contentment in life. 5. Changes in earth's atmosphere and oceans caused by humans have contributed to more frequent and more severe natural disasters. Sample item In a good season, a bee hive it can produce about 60 pounds of honey. A B C D

You should choose C because there is a repetition of the subject. The sentence already has a subject a bee hive and does not need the extra subject it. It should be ..., a bee hive can .... 3. Do NOT confuse objects of prepositions with the subjects of sentences. Check your understanding. Directions : Find the subjects and the verbs. Circle the objects of prepositions. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. All the flowers in the garden is watered every day. 2. Many students in Room 204 come from different parts of the world.

3. Most information from the articles are inaccurate. 4. In this university, students with a lot of work experience have a greater chance of getting a part time job. 5. Farmers in this country still work by hand or with the help of animals. Sample item In the Middle Ages, _______ of Western music used a system for notating their compositions, so they couid be performed by musicians. (A) that composers (B) composers (C) composers who (D) composers they The sentence needs a subject. In the Middle Ages is a prepositional phrase and the middle ages is the object of preposition, not the subject. So, the correct answer is (B) composers. 4. Be careful of appositives that explain or identify subjects or objects. Make sure that there is no unnecessary verb or construction within a sentence. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the subjects or the objects that are explained or identified by appos! fives. Underline the apposi fives. Decide what is wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. The Adams-Omnis Treaty, a transcontinental treaty, is an agreement between the United States and Spain. 2. That the capital city of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, is an important convention center for international African conferences. 3. Joseph Addison is best known for his collaboration with Sir Richard Steele in writing and publishing The Spectator, is a series of popular essays in 1712. 4. Joy Adamson, was an author and painter, became famous for her book Born Free: A Lioness of Two Worlds. 5. A Welsh politician and trade union leader, William Abraham was elected to Parliament in 1885.

Sample item 1 A great Italian astronomer, _______ laid the foundations for modern experimental science. (A) That Galileo (B) Galileo is (C) Galileo (D) Galileo who The sentence needs a subject. So, the correct answer is (C) Galileo. Sample item 2 The Acropolis, _____ in ancient Greece, dominates the city of Athens. (A) a fortified natural stronghold (B) by fortifying a natural stronghold (C) to fortify a natural stronghold (D) fortifying a natural stronghold The sentence needs an appositive. So, the correct answer is (A) a fortified natural stronghold. 5. Be careful of the use of present and past participles. Present participles are active in meaning and past participles are passive in meaning. Directions : Underline the present and past participles. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. The furniture making by the carpenter is exported to many countries. 2. The lady taught English in this school is my aunt. 3. The first lesson taught by Professor Green was very difficult. 4. The fried noodle serving in this restaurant is one of the most delicious dishes. 5. The report written by Dr. Brown's secretary has many spelling mistakes. Sample item I Osteoarthritis is a chronic disease _______ deterioration of the joint cartilage. (A) causing (B) be caused (C) to cause

(D) caused The sentence needs a present participle to explain a chronic disease. So, the correct answer is (A) causing. Sample item 2 An allergic reaction is sensitivity to a specific substance __________ allergen. (A) be called (B) calling (C) called (D) to call The sentence needs a past participle to explain a specific substance. So/the correct answer is (C) called.

UNIT 12 AGREEMENT Subject-Verb

The basic concept of subject-verb agreement is that verbs must agree in person and in number with their subjects. This unit discusses subject-verb agreement in number since this is a very common problem in the TOEFL. Agreement in number means that singular subjects must be followed by singular verbs, and plural subjects by plural verbs. Examples The solution to the problems is quite simple. S Some of the ink was spilled. S V V

The girls have breakfast at 6 a.m. S V

Some of the students are Indians. S Strategieses 1. Be careful of verbs after collective nouns. Collective nouns family committee government team group public army navy flock colony audience council jury class band majority board enemy V

a. Collective nouns referring to the unit as a whole are followed by singular verbs. Directions : Circle the nouns and underline the verbs. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes.

1. The jury have finally come to a decision. 2. The class arpdoing an exam. 3. The board has agreed on the proposal. 4. The majority are opposing the new government policy on income tax. 5. The badminton team were one of the best in the world. Sample item In other words, the ant colony consist of the queen and her children - the A workers. You should choose option C because the verb following the subject the ant colony, a collective noun that refers to a unit as a whole, should be in singular form. It should be consists. b. Collective nouns referring to the different members comprising the unit are followed by plural verbs. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the nouns and underline the verbs. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. The family hds been arriving from different towns. 2. The band how tuning their musical instruments. 3. A second group are now rehearsing their parts in the play. 4. The committee jb<ds been blaming each other for the fatal decision. 5. The government have worked on various projects. Sample item The audience was asking many questions on the controversial issue. A B C D B C D

You should choose option B because the verb following the subject The audience, a collective noun that refers to the individual members of the audience, should be in plural form. It should be were. 2. Subjects starting with the following phrases can be singular or plural depending on the nouns that follow them.

some of the any of the most of the

all of the none of the

Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the subjects and underline the verbs. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. Most of the students know,s that there is going to be a test. 2. None of the workers wanri to quit their jobs. 3. All of the water has been used for the plants. 4. Hardly any of the magazines contain good articles. 5. Some of the journey was done by night. Sample item Because much of the state of Nevada is barren desert, some of the A B

governments nuclear bomb tests has been set off underground in this state. C D

You should choose option C because the verb of the subject some of the governments nuclear bomb tests, a plural noun, should be in plural form. It should be have been. 3. The words on the list below are grammatically singular, and should always take singular verbs. anybody everybody nobody somebody anyone everyone no one someone anything everything nothing something each (-h singular noun) every (+ singular noun)

Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the subjects and underline the verbs. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. Somebody is knocking at the door. 2. Nobody wants to be treated unfairly. 3. Everything seems to be working as planned.

4. Nothing in this world iscertain. 5. Each student in all of the classes isto write at least two papers in one semester. Sample item There is a basic tenet of law that says everyone are innocent until proven A guilty. D You should choose option B because the subject everyone is singular and it needs a singular verb. It should be is. 4. Be careful of prepositional phrases that come between subjects and verbs. The verb must agree with the subject of the sentence, NOT with the noun in the prepositional phrase. Check your understanding. Directions : Find the subjects and underline the verbs. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. The buildings behind our school are old. 2. The participants of the seminar are all teachers. 3. The students in the next classroom are all present. 4. The population of many towns owgrowing too fast. 5. The data of the poll show that many people still believe in the current government. Sample item Governments in times of need often switches to flat money, which is not A backed by reserves of another commodity. C D B B C

You should choose option A because the verb must agree with the plural subject Governments. It should be switch. 5. Be careful of the expletive there. The verb agrees with the subject that comes after the verb.

Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the verbs and underline the subjects. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. There are no cars in the parking lot. 2. There remains no doubt of his integrity. 3. There were a lot of campers on the site. 4. There were long lines of people when we arrived to buy the concert tickets. 5. You could see that there was grief in his face. Sample item There appear to be great confusion among the residents in the areas stricken A by the hurricane. You should choose option A because the subject great confusion is a singular noun and it requires a singular verb, not the plural verb appear. It should be appears. 6. Be careful of adverb phrases at the beginning of sentences. The verb that comes before the subject should agree with the subject, NOT with the noun in the adverbial phrase. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the subjects and underline the verbs. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. From the ceiling dangle a mass of spider webs. 2. In the box are the things aeeded by the students. 3. At the end of this street lies the church that is centuries old. 4. After winning the beauty contest come Endless activities for Miss Indonesia. 5. In between the rocks grows lichen. B C D

Sample item Among the childrens books published in the U.S. in 1944 were Esther A B C D

Forbess Johnny Tremaine. You should choose option D because the subject is Esther Forbes's Johnny Tremaine, a singular noun that needs a singular verb. It should be was. 7. Some nouns with -s endings are singular and take singular verbs. aerobics athletics billiards cards bowls physics economics mathematics linguistics obstetrics genetics mechanics statistics politics electronics measles diabetes mumps rabies shingles

Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the subjects and underline the verbs. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. Mumps is a viral disease. 2. Mathematics gives me a headache. 3. Athletics is popular in my country 4. Billiards is not so popular today 5. Politics play an important part in modern life. Sample item Mechanics, a branch of physics, concern the motions of objects and their A response to forces. You should choose option B because the subject Mechanics is a singular noun that needs a singular verb. It should be concerns. B C D

UNIT 13 PARALEL STRUCTURE

When you present information in a series, it must be stated in the same grammatical form or parallel structure. Words must be matched with words, phrases with phrases, and clauses with clauses. Nouns must be matched with nouns, adjectives with adjectives, and verbs with verbs. This unit focuses on parallel words and phrases in sentences. The conjunctions and, but and or are used to coordinate equally important pieces of information. Examples Words with words Nouns : Do the rich know about disease, hunger, and poverty Adjectives : Amanda is rich and intelligent, but unfriendly. Adverbs : She smiled sweetlyand politely.

Phrases with phrases Infinitives : Rita wants to teach in kindergarten or (to) write children's stories. Gerunds: Paul likes reading fiction, watching movies, and playing outdoor sports. Verbs : After dinner, she cleaned the table and washed the dishes. Prepositions : The reward rests not ^n the task but m, the pay. (John. K. Galbraith)

Strategieses Words or phrases in a series must be the same part of speech or a similar parallel form. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the connectives and underline the supposedly parallel parts. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes.

1. Human beings are often ignorant, pitiless, and show brutality. 2. A healthful diet should be rich in vegetables, fruit and cereals. 3. She wanted to do two things : to work part time to finish her studies. 4. Before acquiring language, babies detect differences in musical tones and charys in the tempo and the rhythm of the music. 5. Women should exercise regularly but not excessively because hard physical workouts can trigger hormone production.

Sample item 1 Dietary proteins are powerful compounds that build and _____ body tissues, from hair and fingernails to muscles. (A) repairing (B) repair (C) repaired (D) to repair The word and used to connect the verb another verb in the same forrm So the correct answer is (B) repair. Sample item 2 The earliest Roman art is generally associated with the overthrow of the Etrus can A B

kings and the establish of the Republic in 509 B.C. C D

You should choose option D because the word establish should be parallel with the noun overthrow. It should be establishment.

UNIT 14 WORD CHOICE

A number of words in English often cause problems because they have an apparently similar form, meaning, or sound. They are often used incorrectly in place of each other. Preposition Adverb near nearly Near is a preposition. It means close to. Nearly an adverb. It means almost

Verb like

Examples He lives near the campus. Prep. Adverb + Adjective Nearly all of the students in my doss participated in Adv. a like the outing. Like is a verb, meaning enjoy. It can also be a preposition followed by an object and mean similar. Unlike is a preposition, meaning not typical/similar. It appears after a linking verb or before a noun. Alike is an adverb meaning equally. It is also an adjective meaning similar and appears after a linking verb, but not before a noun. Examples Cathy likes ice cream. V Andy enjoys outdoor activities like jogging and Prep. hiking. It is unlike Carlo to be so quiet. Prep. Unlike his brother, John has a sense of humor. Prep. Our parents treat us all alike. Adv. The twins Maria and Myra look very much alike. Adj.

Prepositions like unlike

Verb live

Adjective hard

Verb make do

adjective Live [liv] is a verb. alive Alive [alaiv] is an adjective used after a linking verb. live Live [laiv] and living are adjectives used before a noun. living Examples My cousin lived in Surabaya but now he lives in Jakarta. Adverb hard V V The lady was still alive when I left her. hardly Linking V They staged a live performance Adj. A living creature needs oxygen Adj. Hard can be an adjective or an adverb depending on its function in the sentences. Hardly is an adverb, meaning barely or scarcely. Examples Clay becomes hard when it is heated. Adj. It rained hand last night. Adv. They could hardly blame him; he was not even there. Adv. The verb make means produce or create; the verb do means perform or act These verbs are not interchangeable and they are used in special collocations such as make war, make the bed, do homework, do research, etc. Examples They made me an offer of Rp 400,000. They made a lot of mistakes. Can you do repairs on my car ? He did his homework very well.

Strategieses 1. Be careful of near and nearly. They have different meanings and functions. Check your understanding, Directions : Circle the words near or nearly. Decide which uses are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. We are nearly finished this paper.

2. Ill be seeing you in the nearly future. 3. The detective solves the mystery nearly the end of the story. 4. Arnold nearly gave up on the difficult project. 5. The project is nearly completed. Sample item The strongest winds on Saturn are found nearly the equator. A B C D

You should choose option D because the sentence needs a preposition before the noun the equator. It should be near the equator. 2. The words like, unlike, and alike have different functions and meanings. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the words like, unlike or alike. Decide which ones are used wrongly. Correct the mistakes. 1. Unlike Oregon, Florida is a hot and humid state. 2. Brothers and sisters are usually like in character and habit. 3. Rita does not look like her mother., 4. This power plant, unlike the last one, is very huge and complicated. 5. Alike the previous one, the present math teacher is very strict. Sample item Alike most other mice, jumping mice hibernate. A B C D

You should choose option A because the word alike is an adjective that should come after a linking verb/not a noun. A preposition should be used before a noun. It should be Like. 3. The words live, alive and Hying are often interchangeably misused. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the words live, alive and living. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. Most teenagers like live rock concerts. 2. The dog run over by a bike is still living. 3. Doctors kept my grandpa live on a life-support machine.

4. Henry is the alive image of his father. 5. The concert was broadcast live. Sample item The sea fan consists of an alive colony of individual coral animals. A B C D

You should choose option B because the word alive cannot be used before the noun colony. You should use the adjective living. It should be a living colony. 4. Be careful of the words hare/and hardly. Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the words hard, and hardly. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. I hardly have enough time to finish the assignment. 2. He slammed the door hardly to express his anger. 3. I can hard understand the discussion in the seminar. 4. He hardly ever goes to the library. 5. The football team played hard to win the game. Sample item The cause of narcolepsy, a disease that causes excessive sleepiness, is hard A known. You should choose option D because the adverb hard\s not the right form to modify the verb known. It should be hardly. 5. Pay attention to the words make and do Check your understanding. Directions : Circle the words make and do. Decide which ones are wrong. Correct the mistakes. 1. It is important that students do their assignments. 2. Those two faculties do not like to make business with each other. 3. One must make his or her best to achieve his or her goals. 4. Fiona is happy because she has succeeded in making her research. 5. Good students learn from their experience when they make mistakes. B C D

Sample item Albert Einstein theories have done a great contribution to the development of A modern science. D You should choose option A because the word done does not collocate with a great contribution. It should be made. B C

UNIT 15 UNDERSTANDING WORD REFERENCE Reference of IT, THEY, ITS, THEIR, and THEM

The word reference comes from the verb to refer, which means to relate, A referenfs the noun that a pronoun or a possessive adjective refers to. The noun is generally used first, and the pronoun that it refers to comes after. Some questions in the Reading Comprehension section of the TOEFL ask you to point out the referent of a pronoun (it, the/or fhem) or of a possessive adjective (its or fhe//). The referent can be found in the phrase (s) or sentence (s) before the pronoun or the possessive adjective. In some cases, the referent might come after it. Example Line Many scientists think that dolphins, closely related to whales and porpoises, are among the most intelligent animals. Humans train in captivity these friendly creatures, which are eager to interact with them. When dolphins are well trained, they can jump through hoops, throw 5 balls through nets, and even walk backward on the water. Just as whales and porpoises are, dolphins are mammals. They feed their young with milk produced profusely in the mothers body. Unlike fish, dolphins have lungs and are warm-blooded. Regardless of the temperature of the surroundings, their temperature always stays about 10 the same. There are about 40 species of dolphins known to exist in Earths oceans and freshwater rivers. But the bottle-nosed dolphin and the common dolphin are much better known. Scientists have tried to understand dolphin intelligence and they have done research mainly with these two species. The bottle-nosed dolphin has a short beak. It makes 15 the dolphin Ipok like it is smiling. The common dolphin has a dark band down its long, narrow beak and around its eyes.
Adapted from The World Book Student Discovery Encyclopedia, Volume 4

Sample questions 1. The word them in line 3 refers to ________. (A) scientists (B) animals (C) humans (D) creatures 2. The phrase their temperature in line 9 refers to the temperature of (A) fish (B) dolphins (C) lungs (D) surroundings 3. The word they in line 12 refers to (A) dolphins (B) oceans (C) rivers (D) scientists 4. The word It in line 14 refers to (A) dolphin intelligence (B) research (C) the bottle-nosed dolphin (D) a short beak 5. The word its in line 15 refers to (A) the bottle-nosed dolphin (B) the common dolphin (C) a dark band (D) long, narrow beak

Explanation 1. Look for plural nouns before the pronoun them. The nouns creatures, humans, animals, and scientists are all plural nouns, but the logical noun that can be replaced by the pronoun them is humans. Therefore, (C) is the correct answer.

2. Do the same thing. You should look for plural nouns before the word their. The plural nouns before their are surroundings, lungs, dolphins, and fish. The noun that can correctly be replaced by the word their \r\ relation to temperature is dolphins. The right answer is (B). 3. The plural nouns before the/are scientists, rivers, oceans, and dolphins. The plural noun that can best be replaced by scients scientists, so the correct answer is (D). 4. Do the same thing, but this time, look for singular nouns. The singular nouns before the pronoun it are a short beak, the bottle-nosed dolphin, research, and dolphin intelligence. The noun that can best replace the pronoun it is a short beak. So, the right answer is (D). 5. The singular nouns that come before the word its are the long, narrow beak, a dark band, the common dolphin, and the bottle-nosed dolphin. The noun that can best be substituted by its is the common dolphin. Therefore, the answer is (B).

Strategieses 1. Find the pronoun in the passage in the line that is stated in the question. 2. The pronoun it and the possesive adjective its rfer to a singular noun such as a things, an animal or a plant. The pronouns they and them, and the possesive adjective their, refer to a plural noun such as things, animals, plants or people. 3. Read the phrase (s) oe sentence (s) before the pronoun. 4. Look carefully for only plural nouns oe singular nouns, depending on the pronoun or the possesive adjective. 5. Decide which of the nouns can correctly be replaced by the pronoun.

UNIT 16 FINDING SPECIFIC INFORMATION

One question type in the Reading Comprehension section asks you to find what line (s) in the passage a piece of information is written. Before checking the passage for all the lines listed as options, you should understand the key word or key idea of the question. The correct information in the passage is often a restatement of the key word or key idea of the question. Example Line Bioluminescence, defined as the emission of visible light by living organisms, is a characteristic of many near-surface ocean creatures. Most of these creatures produce light when they are irritated by something around them. Scientists have produced light the way these animals do, but the light which is produced by living creatures in the dark will 5 always be beautiful. There are about forty main kinds of organisms that produce bioluminescence. Of these organisms, fireflies are the best known as insects that have lights. Fireflies can control their lights so that they serve as signals between males and females. Other insects such as the cucujo beetle and the lantern fly, which are found in tropical forests, 10 produce a very intense light. It is so bright that an army surgeon once performed an operation under the light of a beetle.,
Adapted from 11963 Science Research Associates, Inc., Brown LAB IIIb

Sample questions 1. Where in the passage does the author give a definition ? (A) Lines T-2 (B) Lines 3-5 (C) Line 6 (D) Line 7

2. Where in the passage does the author mention the use of the insect light to illuminate surgery? (A) Lines 2-3 (B) Lines 7-8 (C) Lines 9-10 (D) Lines lO-ll

Explanation 1. Question 1 asks you to find a definition. In line 1, you find ... bloluminescence, defined ...i and you should recognize that it is the definition of bioluminescence. The correct answer is (A). 2. Question 2 asks you to find information about the use of the insect light in surgery. The words surgeon and operation in line 11 tell you that the light is used in surgery. So, the correct answer is (D).

Strategieses 1. Determine the key word or key idea of the question. 2. Find in the passage all the liness listed as options. 3. the lines that contain a similar thought to the key word or key idea are the correct answer. The information un the passage is a restatement of the question. 4. Choose the option that contains the line number (s) of the information.

UNIT 17 FINDING SPECIFIC INFORMATION Answering WHAT, WHEN, and WHERE Questions

Some of the questions in the TOEFL Reading Comprehension section are about stated specific information. This unit discusses how to answer what, when, and where questions. To answer those kinds of questions, you should find out what the key word or key idea of the question is, and find in the passage the piece of information that has a similar meaning to the key word or key idea. The answer is a restatement of what is stated in the passage.

Example Line The Maya were a large group of Indians who lived in Mesoamerica present-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, northern Belize and western Honduras. It is believed that these people came across the Bering Strait with the other Native Americans, but soon migrated south. Around the 5 year 5000 B.C., the Maya people settled on the coastlands, forming small fishing villages. By 2000 B.C., the Maya moved inland and began to raise maize and beans. These plants became their main source of food. Mayan harvests were large, and the people had food to spare. Good harvests and extra food helped make the Maya a wealthy and powerful 10 people. They created fine architecture, developed the art of making pottery and introduced the first known American systems of irrigation. A form of writing emerged, and the Maya began their first recorded history. About the year 1000, a heavy drought hit Mesoamerica. The Mayan crops failed, causing famine and death for many Mayas in the mountain areas. The Maya in the lowlands fared a little better. However, the 15 Spanish explorers of the 13th and 14th centuries came and brought new diseases that the Maya could not cope with. Diseases and Spanish conquerors finally caused the Mayan empires to collapse. The last

Mayan kingdom surrendered to the Spaniards in 1697. After the Spaniards conquered Mexico, much of the traditional Mayan culture was destroyed.

Sample questions 1. Where did the Maya live when they started to become farmers? (A) Bering Strait (B) North America (C) On the coastlands (D) Inland 2. When did the terrible natural disaster strike the Maya? (A) Around the year 5000 (B) In 2000 B.C. (C) Around the year 1000 (D) In 1697 3. What was NOT evidence of the advanced state of Mayan civilization ? (A) The setting up of fishing villages (B) The introduction of irrigation methods (C) The development of the art of making pottery (D) The emergence of .a writing form 4. What happening caused the Mayan empires to collapse? (A) A severe drought (B) Crop failure (C) Famine and death (D) Diseases and the Spanish conquest

Explanation 1. Question 1 asks where and the key idea is become farmers. Look in the passage for information about farmers. The similar idea is stated in line 6, moved inland and began to raise maize and beans. The correct answer is (D) Inland^ the place where the Maya began to farm.

2. Question 2 asks when and the key idea is natural disaster In the passage, the same idea is expressed as a phrase in line 12, a heavy drought The correct option is (C) Around the year 1000. 3. Question 3 asks what .., NOT. The key idea is NOT evidence of. The passage mentions introduced irrigation methods developed the art of making pottery, and a form of writing emergedas evidence that made the Maya a wealthy and powerful people. The phrase forming small fishing villages is not good evidence of advanced civilization. So, the correct answer is (A). 4. The last question asks about an event. The key idea is caused... to collapse. Look in the passage for similar idea. The information is in lines 15 and 16: Diseases and Spanish conquerors caused the Mayan empires to cave in. The correct answer is (D).

Strategieses 1. Choose the key word or key idea of the question 2. Find a similar idea in the passage. 3. Try to understand the information in the passage countaining the key word. 4. Look for an option that best restates the information in the passage.

UNIT 18 GUESSING WORD MEANING FROM CONTEXT Finding Clues from Punctuation, Restatement, and Examples

A number of questions in the TOEFL Reading Comprehension section test your understanding of English words. If the words tested are unfamiliar to you, you can use context clues to guess their meanings. Context clues help explain or clarify the meanings of particular words. Some clues come in the form of : 1. Punctuation 2. Restatements 3. Examples 1. Punctuation Punctuation marks such as parentheses [(...)], commas [, ... or ... and dashes [ ... or ...] indicates that a word is explained within the sentence itself. 2. Restatements An unknown word in a sentence may be explained in a phrase or a clause that means the same thing as the word. This clause or phrase may be introduced by these signal words : or that is or i.e. in other words that is to say

3. Examples The meaning of an unknown word can also be guessed from examples mentioned in the passage because examples usually give some idea of what the unknown word means. The following signal words may introduce examples : Such such as for instance for example like especially as e.g. including

Example Line Stress occurs when the pressure on a person seems to be overwhelming or out of control. Stress can create feelings of conflict and/or anxiety within an individual. Some kinds of stress, such as increased financial responsibilities, are easily recognized. Other kinds of stress, such as 5 trying to earn peer acceptance, may go undetected. If stress is not

identified and resolved, it can gradually deteriorate one's ability to function. Thus, stressful people experience an imbalance between the demands placed on them and their ability to meet these demands. Stress can cause physical symptoms like sweaty palms, fast heartrate, andchurning stomach. 10 Stress it self is not necessarily bad, but at times, is in fact, useful. Some stress is even inevitable. Take for example, if you experience a necessary change in your life. A certain amount of stress helps people focus and get things done. Stress helps people reach hard goals and do 15 their best. A degree of stress boosts performance. In short, stress keeps people going. It is the mindset the frame of thought though, which determines if the stress becomes uncontrollable anxiety or not.

Sample questions 1. The word overwhelming in line 1 is closest in meaning to __________. (A) unmanageable (B) influencing (C) worrying (D) unpredictable 2. The word symptoms in line 8 can best be replaced by _________. (A) illustrations (B) (C) (D) signs weaknesses declines

3. The word mindset in line 14 is closest in meaning to ________. (A) awareness (B) wisdom (C) self-discipline (D) way of thinking

Explanation 1. The clue that may help you to understand the word overwhelming is the word or a sign of restatement. The word overwhelming has a similar meaning to out of control. Out of control meow something beyond your capability, so the most logical answer is (A) unmanageable. 2. The clue like that comes after symptoms indicates that the words following the due are examples sweat / palms, fast heart rate and churning stomach. These are not kinds of diseases. Instead, they are signs that one may suffer from a disease. Therefore, the most logical answer is (B) signs. 3. To answer the last question, look at the clue near the tested word. The word mindset is followed by a dash (-) indicating that the following phrase the frame of thoughts a further explanation of the word mindset. The word that is closest in meaning to the word mindsets (D) way of thinking.

Strategieses 1. Find the word to be defined in the passage. 2. Read the sinrence in which the word is located. 3. Look for a clue in the form of parentheses, dashes or examples to help you understand the meaning of the word. 4. Choose the best answer based on the clue.

UNIT 19 GUESSING WORD MEANING FROM CONTEXT Finding Glues from Surrounding Words

Unit 18 explains how to find clues from punctuation, restatements and examples. This unit deals with how to find clues from the surrounding words as these words explain or clarify the meaning of unfamiliar words that are tested. Example Line Yeasts, especially those of the genus Saccharomyces, have long been of commercial importance. As the chief agents of alcoholic fermentation, they are essential to the making of beer, wine, and other alcoholic beverages and industrial alcohol. Wild yeasts, those found in nature and 5 probably carried by insects from the soil to fruits, are frequently active in the fermentation process. In bread making, yeasts act upon the carbohydrates in the dough to form carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol. They are driven off in the baking process. The escaping carbon dioxide then causes the bread to rise.
Adapted from www.encarfa.com

Sample questions 1. The word essential in line 3 can best be replaced by______. (A) important (B) expensive (C) suitable (D) applicable 2. The word driven off in line 7 is closest in meaning to ______. (A) modified (B) applied (C) initiated (D) removed

Explanation 1. The nearby phrase that helps you to understand the word essentials the chief agents, The word chief gives the idea that yeasts are important in the fermentation process in the making of alcoholic drinks. Therefore, (A) important'is the correct answer. 2. The surrounding words that may help you to understand the unfamiliar phrase driven off are the escaping carbon dioxide causes the bread to rise. The substance was driven off the bread during the baking process. The most probable answer is (D) removed. Strategieses 1. Find the word to be defined in the passage. 2. Read the sentence where the word or phrase is located, or the sentences before or after that sentence. 3. Use the context of nearby words to figure out the unknown word. 4. Choose the best answer based on the clue.

UNIT 20 FINDING THE MAIN IDEA

In the TOEFL Reading Comprehension section, there are questions about the topic, the title, or the main idea of a passage. All of these questions essentially ask about the same thing. The topic is what the passage discusses; the title represents what the passage is all about; and the main idea is the main point the writer wants to convey. The main idea of a passage can be either stated or unstated (implied) in the passage. This unit discusses explicitly stated main ideas. To answer questions about the main idea, you should carefully read the first line of each paragraph of the passage and look for a common theme throughout these lines.

Example 1 Line Of the various tribes living in the Ituri rain forest of Africa, Pygmies are the most unusual. They are perfectly formed people except that they weigh only about eighty pounds with a height of not more than four feet. Pygmies are great travelers, capable of moving in the treetops almost as expertly as monkeys. Often they travel great distances through tree 5 branches without touching the ground. Pygmies are also renowned as great hunters as they can shoot three or four arrows one after another so rapidly that often the last one leaves the bow before the first has reached its target. If an arrow misses its target, the impatient Pygmy may fly into a rage, breaking his arrows and 10 stamping on them. Regardless of their extraordinary little bodies, Pygmies can consume a large amount of food. One Pygmy can finish a stalk of sixty bananas at a single meal, in addition to quantities of meat. After eating, he will lie on his hard earth bed and groan in pain all night. In the morning, he is ready to eat the same amount of food all over again.

Sample questions 1. What is the main idea of the passage ? The Pygmy is (A) a unique tribe in the Ituri rain forest of Africa (B) a very skillful forest people (C) the African tribe best in hunting (D) a tribe in Africa living in isolation 2. Which of the following would be the best title for this passage? (A) Civilizing the Pygmy (B) Living in the Forest of Africa (C) The Wonders of Nature (D) The Incredible Pygmy

Explanation 1. The first sentence of paragraph one shows that the paragraph talks about how unusual the Pygmies are. The first sentence of paragraph two also supports the unusualness of the tribe. Option (B) is too general; option (C) is too specific, used in support of the main idea in the first sentence; and option (D) is not correct because the passage does not tell about isolation at all. Therefore, the correct answer is (A). 2. To answer question 2, find a common idea that covers all the details of the passage. Since the passage tells about the uniqueness of the Pygmies, the correct answer is (D) The Incredible Pygmy,

Example 2 Line Dew, the thin film of water that has condensed on the surface of objects near the ground, forms when radiational cooling of these objects during the night time hours also cools the shallow layer of overlying air 5 in contact with them. It then causes the condensation of some water vapor. This condensation occurs if the capacity of air to hold water vapor lessens as the air is cooled. Dew forms most readily on those surfaces

that lose heat through radiation most efficiently but are insulated from 10 external heat sources. Dew Ts easily formed if humidity in the lowest layers of air is high. The humidity either supplies the moisture or at least inhibits the evaporation of the dew already deposited. Strong winds reduce dew formation since they mix a larger layer of air, creating a more homogeneous distribution of heat and water vapor. Under such conditions, it is unlikely that a sufficiently cool and damp layer of air can form near the ground.
Adapted from The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedic 2003, Columbia University Press

Sample question What does the passage mainly discuss? (A) The condensation of water vapor (B) The impact of humidity on dew formation (C) How dew is formed (D) Where dew is formed

Explanation The question asks about the topic or subject of the passage. Read the first sentence that says Dew ...forms when .... The next sentences give details of how dew is formed. Options (A) and (B) refer to details and option (D) is also too specific, not reflecting the general idea of the passage. The correct answer is [C\ How dew is formed. Strategieses 1. Read the first line of the paragraph, or, if the passage consists of more than one paragraph, the first sentences of all the paragraph. 2. Look for a common theme or general idea that covers the supporting details. 3. Go over the rest of the passage to check if you found the correct common theme or idea. 4. Choose the answer that has the same idea as that found in the passage.

UNIT 21 MAKING INFERENCES

Some questions in the Reading Comprehension section require answers that are not directly or explicitly stated in the passage. Questions of this type use the words implied, inferred, likely, or probably. You must look for stated facts from which you can make an inference or draw a probable conclusion.

Example Line Louis Pasteur, a French scientist born in 1822, made major scientific contributions that have greatly benefited humanity. His discovery that germs are the cause of most infectious diseases is one of the most important discoveries in medical history. His work became the 5 foundation for the science of microbiology and the basis of modern medicine. Pasteurs exceptional works in microbiology and medicine can be summarized as follows. First, he championed changes in hospital practices to minimize the spread of diseases by microbes. Second, he 10 discovered that weakened forms of a germ could be used as a vaccine against stronger forms of the germ. Third, Pasteur found that rabies was transmitted by agents so small that they could not be seen under a microscope. These agents are later known as viruses. He then developed techniques to vaccinate dogs against rabies, and treat humans bitten by rabid dogs. And fourth, Pasteur introduced pasteurization, a process by which harmful microbes in food products are destroyed using heat, 15 without damaging the food.

Sample questions 1. What can be inferred about the advantage of Pasteur's findings about germs for humanity ? The findings have ______.

(A) stopped the spread of contagious diseases (B) made medical treatment cheap (C) led to the emergence of more diseases (D) prevented people from catching infectious diseases 2. It is implied in the second paragraph that _______. (A) hospitalization became more complicated (B) the stronger the germs, the more powerful the vaccines (C) Pasteur discovered the existence of the rabies virus (D) pasteurization is used for all food products

Explanation 1. To answer Question 1, you should find the stated fact that can lead to a probability stated in one of the options. The phrase to minimize the spread of diseases suggests that Pasteurs findings have prevented people from contracting infectious diseases. So, the correct answer is (D). The other options cannot be inferred from the passage. 2. The sentences (lines 10-12) ... rabies was transmitted by agents so small that coula not be seen under a microscope. These agents are later known as viruses, are the clue from which you can conclude that (C) is the correct answer. Options (A), (B), and (D) cannot be concluded from the passage.

Strategieses 1. Read all the choices carefully 2. Locate the clue or evidence or stated fact un the passage that can be used to make an inference or draw a probable conclusion. 3. Eliminate any definitely wrong answers. 4. Choose the best answer.