SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

UNIT 1 MICRONUTRIENTS AND MACRONUTRIENTS Plants and animals require nutrients for a variety of processes. While some of these nutrients are required in large quantities (macronutrients or macroelements), others are needed in smaller quantities (micronutrients or microelements). Examples of macroelements are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulphur and calcium. Microelements include iron, copper, manganese, zinc and boron.

CELLULAR RESPIRATION (CATABOLISM) Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert glucose from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release carbon dioxide and water as waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions, which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy in the process as they break high-energy bonds. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell gains energy cellular to useful fuel that activity.

Organisms final acceptor respiration

use oxygen as a electron in are

described as aerobic, while those that do not are referred to as anaerobic. Oxygen is usually obtained through gaseous exchange between the surrounding air or water. Carbon dioxide and water are also released into the surrounding. The energy stored in ATP can then be used to drive processes requiring energy, including biosynthesis, locomotion or transportation of molecules across cell membranes.

COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

Aerobic and Anaerobic respiration Aerobic respiration requires oxygen in order to generate energy (ATP). Glucose is broken down to pyruvate in the process called glycolysis and requires that pyruvate enter the mitochondrion in order to be fully oxidized by the Krebs cycle. The product of this process is energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH2 C6H12O6 (aq) + 6 O2 (g) 6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l) + heat Simplified reaction: G = -2880 kJ per mole of C6H12O6 During glycolysis, glucose is oxidized to pyruvate. It takes place in the cytoplasm. 2 ATP molecules are produced, alongside 2 molecules of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) CITRIC ACID CYCLE This is also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle. When oxygen is present, acetylCoA is produced from the pyruvate molecules created from glycolysis. Once acetyl-CoA is formed, two processes can occur, aerobic or anaerobic
2 COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

respiration. When oxygen is present, the mitochondria will undergo aerobic respiration which leads to the Krebs cycle. However, if oxygen is not present, fermentation of the pyruvate molecule will occur. In the presence of oxygen, when acetyl-CoA is produced, the molecule then enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and gets oxidized to CO2 while at the same time reducing NAD to NADH. NADH can be used by the electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative phosphorylation. To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl-CoA must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle. Two waste products, H2O and CO2, are created during this cycle. The citric acid cycle is an 8-step process involving different enzymes and co-enzymes. Throughout the entire cycle, acetyl-CoA(2 carbons) + Oxaloacetate(4 carbons). Citrate(6 carbons) is rearranged to a more reactive form called Isocitrate(6 carbons). Isocitrate(6 carbons) modifies to become -Ketoglutarate(5 carbons), Succinyl-CoA, Succinate, Fumarate, Malate, and finally, Oxaloacetate. The net energy gain from one cycle is 3 NADH, 1 FADH2 (flavin adenine dinucleotide), and 1 GTP; the GTP may subsequently be used to produce ATP. Thus, the total energy yield from one whole glucose molecule (2 pyruvate molecules) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP.

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION This is the breakdown of food substances with the release of small amounts of energy in the absence of oxygen. In unicellular organisms such as the yeast, glucose is broken down to release ethanol and carbon dioxide as waste products. This is also known as alcoholic fermentation. In muscle cells, anaerobic respiration may occur when there is a shortage of oxygen supply especially during rigorous exercise. There is increased heart rate and breathing to provide and to pump more oxygen to the exercising muscles. To produce more energy, anaerobic respiration begins. Glucose is broken down to lactic acid. Lactic acid which is also toxic, accumulates in the muscle tissues. This leads to fatigue and muscle cramps.

ENERGY RELEASE DURING RESPIRATION About 40% of energy in glucose is used in birds and mammals to maintain their body cells, and fluids at a constant temperature. The rest are used to power:
3 COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

Biosynthesis or anabolic processes such as the synthesis of enzymes, proteins,

hormones, pigments and lipoproteins; mechanical work such as muscle cell contraction; movements like active transport and phagocytosis; and Electrical work such as the transmission of nerve impulses.

UNIT 2 ANABOLIC PROCESSES Anabolism deals with the building up of complex food substances: carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils, nucleic acids, vitamins, etc from simple inorganic substances. The food we eat contains nutrients. When our bodies break down food, it converts them to very simple absorbable forms. For instance: carbohydrates are broken down to simple sugars, proteins to amino acids while fats and oils are broken down to fatty acids and glycerol. It is with these that our cells build up body tissues via anabolic processes. Note that anabolic processes are energy consuming processes. An example of anabolic processes is photosynthesis. Cells of autotrophs capture the sun`s energy while heterotrophs take in ready-made, energy-rich organic compounds which only autotrophs can make. Anabolic processes enable cells to produce new protoplasm which is essential for cell repair, growth and reproduction; and as a source of energy.

AUTOTROPHY Autotrophy is a mode of nutrition whereby food is synthesized using sunlight or inorganic substances as a source of energy. Hence, the word autotrophic can be said to mean autos = self, trophien = to nourish. It is also known as the holophytic mode of nutrition. Autotrophs synthesize their food either via photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. Photosynthesis: involves the use of light energy from the sun to manufacture food. Autotrophs such as green plants and algae that carry out photosynthesis are called photoautotrophs.
4 COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

Chemosynthesis: involves the use of inorganic compounds as a source of energy. Certain bacteria breakdown inorganic compounds like hydrogen sulphide, methane, ammonia or iron salts and use the energy released for their anabolic processes. Example: Nitrifying bacteria.

HETEROTROPHY This is a mode of nutrition whereby food substances are obtained by feeding on plants and animal matter. Heterotrophs include animals, fungi, carnivorous plants and some bacteria. They are said to beheterotrophic meaning: heteros - other, trophien - to nourish. Heterotrophs eat ready - made complex organic food. From this they obtain energy for metabolism, atoms and molecules to build new protoplasm or repair worn - out parts, and ions, co-enzymes and vitamins vital for chemical processes. The types of heterotrophic nutrition include holozoic, saprophytic, parasitic, symbiotic (mutualistic) and carnivorous (insectivorous) plants. A. HOLOZOIC MODE OF NUTRITION:

Most animals are holozoic and thus ingest complex organic food. They either feed solely on plants (herbivores), flesh (carnivores) or both (omnivores). Carnivores that hunt other living animals (prey) for food are known as predators, while scavengers are those that feed only on dead animals. B. SAPROPHYTIC MODE OF NUTRITION:(sapros - rotten phyton - plant) Saprotrophs are decomposers and liberate energy for their own use by breaking down complex organic matter from the dead bodies of other organisms. At the same time this process releases vital chemical elements into the soil which are absorbed by autotrophs. Thus saprotrophs aid the recycling of materials from dead organisms to living ones. Fungal and bacterial saprotrophs are referred to as saprophyte, while animal saprotrophs are called saprozoites. Mucor hiemalis is a saprophyte and has their branched hyphae, providing a large absorptive surface. These penetrate dead, decaying matter and secrete enzymes into it. The food is digested extracellularly and is subsequently absorbed and transported to other parts of the fungal mycelium. C. PARASITIC MODE OF NUTRITION: Parasites are organisms that live in or on other living organisms (called the host) generally receiving shelter and deriving nutrients from it. The parasites may cause harm to the host
5 COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

plant. Those that stay on their host are called ectoparasites while those that live within their host are called endoparasites. Parasites include viruses, bacteria and fungi that cause disease to animals and plants. D. SYMBIOTIC OR MUTUALISTIC MODE OF NUTRITION: This involves 2 organisms that live together and benefit from each other. Examples are termites and the protozoa living in their gut. The protozoa receive protection and food. Termites feed on wood (composed of cellulose) which they are not able to digest. The protozoa help them to digest it. (On your own, study other examples of mutualism). E. INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS:

Insectivorous plants are autotrophic but obtain organic matter and animal nitrogen from insects, however not bigger than the size of a grasshopper. There are about 450 species of insectivorous plants. These plants have special devices or structural adaptation for trapping and digesting insects and other small organisms. Examples include: pitcher plants, bladderwort, sundew, and Venus flytrap.
Dionea or Venus Fly Trap The plant possess a rosette of large radical leaves. Petiole is winged and constricted at the point of union with lamina, tip is notched. The margin is slightly curved and bears 12 - 29 spiny teeth. On upper surface of lobe are present three highly sensitive spines called trigger hairs. Lamina consists of digestive glands. When an insect happens to alight on the surface of the lamina, the spines are touched and stimulated. The two lobes of lamina snap together. The marginal spines get interlocked and insects is trapped. The digestive glands secrete juice and digest the insects and absorbed. The leaf now opens and remains of insects fall down. Nepenthes or Pitcher Plant Leaves are large and alternate. Petiole is tendrillar. The lamina proper is modified into a large pitcher, the leaf apex serving as lid. The pitcher attracts insects due to its gaudy colour and nectar. The insects 6 COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

roam into neck of pitcher in search of more nectar. The lid closes and digestive glands digest the insects.

UNIT 3 EXCRETION Excretion is the removal of waste products of metabolism from cells. This removal is essential as waste in very high amounts could be fatal in cases where they cannot be stored.

FORMS IN WHICH WASTES ARE EXCRETED Most wastes are present as aqueous solutions and are readily excreted by diffusion or active transport. Unicellular organisms like amoeba excrete excess water using their contractile vacuoles. Waste products exist in the following forms: a. Gaseous form: waste products which are excreted in gaseous form include: carbon

dioxide, oxygen, ammonia gas, etc b. Liquid form: waste products which are of liquid form include water, uric acid, sweat,

urine, urea, dissolved nitrogenous wastes, dissolved mineral salts, latex, gums, etc c. Solid form: wastes excreted in solid form includes; uric acid in some animals, tannis,

alkaloids, mucillages in plants.

WASTE PRODUCTS OF METABOLIC ACTIVITIES OF LIVING CELLS The main wastes include: Carbon IV oxide and water formed as by-products of cellular respiration. Oxygen in actively photosynthesizing cells, Nitrogenous wastes produced during the breakdown of excess amino acids, Excess water, salts and other unnecessary substances that enter the cell during its

metabolic activities.

COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

SOME LIVING THINGS AND THEIR EXCRETORY ORGANS ORGANISMS Protozoa, eg: Amoeba and paramecium Flatworms, eg: tapeworm Round worms, eg: earthworm Insects, eg: cockroach, housefly Vertebrate, eg: mammals Lungs, skin, liver, kidney Malphighian tubules EXCRETORY ORGANS Body surface and contractile vacuole Flame cells Nephridia WASTE PRODUCTS Carbon dioxide, water, excess mineral salts Water, urea, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes Carbon dioxide, urea, nitrogenous wastes Carbon dioxide, uric acid and water Water, carbon dioxide, mineral salts, sweat, nitrogenous wastes Flowering plants, eg: tannis Stomata, lenticels Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, alkaloids, gums, mucilage, lipids, latex, resin and oils UNIT 4 GROWTH Cells grow by increasing in mass and size (volume). Cells grow by increasing in protoplasmic materials and when the maximum size is attained, growth stops. In unicellular organisms, mature cells, divide into 2 daughter cells. While multicellular organisms begin life as a single cell that divides to 2, 4, 8, etc. Thus, multicellular organisms grow by an increase in the cell number. Note that while these cells divide continuously, some of them will assume certain functions to become specialized. This is known as differentiation in cells. Therefore, growth can be described as the increase in dry mass, increase in size or the increase in cell number also know as cell division. Cell division can either be mitosis or meiosis.

MITOSIS

COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

This type of cell division involves the formation of 2 identical daughter cells which have the diploid number of chromosomes. It consists of 5 stages. 1.

Interphase cells are not dividing chromosomes are decondensed (called chromatin) and their information is available to cells spend most of their time in this intermediate non-mitotic state during interphase, all the cell's DNA is duplicated -- resulting in 4 copies of each gene

the cell for synthesizing products

instead of the normal 2 in a diploid cell 2.

Prophase chromatin begins to coil and condense to each chromosome appears to have two each strand is called a chromatid each chromatid is attached to its sister at this stage, the number of chromosomes

form chromosomes

strands (each containing a single molecule of DNA)

chromatid at the centromere

(containing a pair of chromatids) is considered to be equal to the number of centromeres

the two chromatids are the result of DNA the nuclear envelope disappears the nucleolus disappears in cytoplasm, the spindle apparatus forms eventually the spindle guides the separation of sister chromatids into the two daughter

replication that takes place just before mitosis starts.

cells

COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

3.

Metaphase spindle grows and forms attachments to the chromosomes at the centromeres chromosomes move to an equatorial plate (metaphase plate) which is formed along the chromosomes are at their most condensed state now metaphase chromosomes can be stained and will show distinctive banding patterns Anaphase centromeres divide to create two chromosomes instead of a pair of attached chromatids spindle fibers shorten and the sister chromosomes are drawn to the opposite poles of poles of the spindle apparatus are pushed apart as the cell elongates anaphase results in the exact division of chromosome, distributing one complete

midline of the cell between the poles

4.

the cell

diploid complement of genetic information to each daughter cell 5.

Telophase nuclear envelopes reassemble and surround each set of daughter chromosomes nucleoli reappear inside the newly formed nuclei in animal cell, a furrow appears around the cell that eventually pinches the cell into two in plants, a cell plate forms between the two daughter nuclei as the cell wall divides the chromosomes decondense in the daughter cells to become chromatin and the cells are

new cells. This is known as cytokinesis

cell

once again in Interphase

MEIOSIS In meiosis, the process is quite similar to mitosis. However, another cell division takes place in which there is no extra DNA replication step. Instead of having a pair of genes (as in a diploid cell), there is only one copy of each gene (a haploid cell). This one copy of genetic information
10 COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

produces gametes of either sperm or eggs. Thus, only one copy of a gene is passed on to each gamete. It is not until the sperm and egg join that there will be two halves of genetic information. This process is the basis for all of Mendel's laws.

REGULATION OF GROWTH BY HORMONES

11

COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

Organisms roduce growth hormones in small quantities which have profound effects on other parts of their body where they are needed for some form of growth or another. Examples are plant hormones like auxins, gibberellins, cytokinin, abscisic acid and florigens which help the plants in the following: a. b. c. d. e. Cell elongation Tropism Apical division Fruit growth Flower buds and lateral root initiation.

Animal hormones include adrenalin, insulin, thyroxine, pituitrin, testosterone, oestrogen, progesterone and are secreted during Fright or fight, Body metabolism, Reroductive functions and Growth of long bones respectively.

UNIT 5 CELL REACTION TO ITS ENVIRONMENT Irritability is the ability of living cells to respond to stimuli. Stimulus is a change in a cell`s environment. When stimulus is internal, it has occurred within the body while external stimulus occurs outside the body. Response to stimulus is a basic property of the protoplasm, thus it is characteristic of all living things. For survival, living organisms must respond adequately to the changes in their surroundings. These changes could be in the form of: change in light intensity, temperature, humidity; gravity, touch and chemicals in their environment including food and water. Organisms have the means of detecting stimuli. While animals have receptors and certain sense organs and respond quickly to external stimuli, plants have no special receptors. Response abilities are poorly developed in plants. Plants and animals continually adapt to their various environments. These adaptations are evolutionary processes that condition them to survive. Note that it is the environmental factors that evolve response, therefore, related organisms living in different environment do not respond in the same way to the same stimulus.

TYPES OF RESPONSES
12 COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

Animals respond quickly to external stimuli which usually involves the whole organism. Plants respond slowly and only certain organs are involved. These responses are usually in form of a movement away from the stimuli. These includes: nastic, tactic or tropic movements. NASTIC MOVEMENTS These are responses to non-directional stimuli such as changes in light intensity, temperature or humidity. The response movement is usually non-directional. Examples include: folding of the leaflets of the mimosa plant when it is touched and the closing of the flamboyant tree (sleep movements) due to low light intensity. TACTIC MOVEMENTS Tactic movement or taxis is the direct movement of an organism away from a stimulus. This movement is directional and is said to be positive if the organism moves towards the stimulus and negative if it moves away from it. Stimulus could be light, chemicals or heat; referred to as phototaxis, chemotaxis and thermotaxis respectively. Tactic movements occur in motile organisms such as earthworms, euglena and chlamydomonas. TROPIC MOVEMENTS When a plant responds to a directional stimulus, it shows a tropic movement or tropism. Direction of response is related to that of the stimulus and may be positive or negative. It is a very slow growth movement and are named according to the stimuli: phototropism (light), hydrotropism (water)

MOVEMENT Cells are very active metabolically, consequently, the protoplasm flows around the cell in one direction. This is known as cytoplasmic streaming or cyclosis. Cells are also, always in constant motion. Many unicellular organisms can move about while certain fixed cells in multicellular organisms have the ability to produce some form of motion. All these forms of movements shown by cell is due to the presence of special structures such as: flagella and cilia. Flagella are whiplike structures that helps propel the cell and occurs in little numbers. Cilia are hair-like structures, shorter than flagella and can occur in numerous quantities. The cilia beats about in

13

COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

a coordinated fashion to produce motion. While the paramecium has cilia, the euglena has flagella.

Trichomonas vaginalis has numerous flagella while the sperm cell has one flagellum

Balantidium coli is a ciliated organism

UNIT 6 REPRODUCTION Reproduction (or procreation) is the biological process by which new organisms are produced from their "parents". It is the creation of a new individual or individuals from previously existing individuals. Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists as the result of reproduction. The known methods of reproduction are broadly grouped into two main types: sexual and asexual. In asexual reproduction, an individual can reproduce without involvement with another individual of that species. The division of a bacterial cell into two daughter cells is an example of asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is not, however, limited to single-celled organisms. Most plants have the ability to reproduce asexually and the ant species Mycocepurus
14 COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

smithii is thought to reproduce entirely by asexual means.

Sexual reproduction typically

requires the involvement of two individuals or gametes, one each from opposite type of sex.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION In asexual reproduction, one individual produces offspring/s that are genetically identical to itself. These offspring are produced by mitosis. Asexual reproduction ensures rapid increase in number and is absent in higher invertebrates and all vertebrates. Common forms of asexual reproduction include: Budding

This is unequal division of an organism in which one or more

offsprings.

In this form of asexual reproduction, an offspring grows out of the

body of the parent. Buds are usually formed internally or externally. In hydra, it develops as an outgrowth and when after maturation, it breaks off from the parent without causing any injury to become an independent organism.

Observe budding in Hydras as shown in the diagram. Budding also occurs in yeasts.

Spore formation (Gemmules or Internal Buds)

This is a method of multiple fission in which many cells are formed. In this form of asexual reproduction, a parent releases a specialized mass of cells that

can develop into offspring or a cyst-like structure called Sporangium.

The sporangium matures and bursts, the spores are released and each germinates into a

new individual. Spores are small light and easily dispersed by air.

Sponges, bacteria, algae, mosses and ferns exhibit this type of reproduction.
COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

15

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

Binary fission Fission is a form of asexual reproduction in which the cell simply divides. This type of

division is common in bacteria, protozoa and algae. During fission the parent cell divides into more or less equal parts and each part grows

into individuals similar to its parent. Fission may be transverse or longitudinal. When the cell divides into 2 daughter cells or organisms, it is called binary fission as in

Amoeba, Trypanosoma, Euglena and Bacteria. In some organisms, the nucleus undergoes repeated division before the cytoplasm

divides to form new individuals. This is called multiple fission and is also common among the protozoans like Plasmodium and Chlamydomonas. Advantages and Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction Asexual reproduction can be very advantageous to certain animals. Animals that remain in one particular place and are unable to look for mates would need to reproduce asexually. Another advantage of asexual reproduction is that numerous offspring can be produced without "costing" the parent a great amount of energy or time. Environments that are stable and experience very little change are the best places for organisms that reproduce asexually. A disadvantage of this type of reproduction is the lack of genetic variation. All of the organisms are genetically identical and therefore share the same weaknesses. If the stable environment changes, the consequences could be deadly to all of the individuals.

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION This is the production of new individuals from the vegetative parts of plants, such as stems, roots and leaves. Vegetative propagation could be artificial or natural.

NATURAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION: this involves the use of vegetative parts of plants.
16 COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

Use of underground stem: such as rhizomes (ginger), banana, plantain and pineapple Use of fleshy leaves: eg. Bryophyllum

ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION By cutting By layering By budding By grafting By marcotting

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION Sexual reproduction is a process by which organisms create descendants that have a combination of genetic material contributed from two (usually) different members of the species. It involves the fusion of male and female gamete to form a zygote which will later develop into a young offspring. Two parents are required. Each of two parent organisms contributes half of the offspring's genetic makeup by creating haploid gametes. The types of sexual reproduction are conjugation and fusion of gametes.

CONJUGATION This is a simple type of sexual reproduction which occurs in some lower organisms such as Mucor, rhizopus, paramecium and spirogyra. It is a process of passing nuclear material from one cell to another. First, the partners known as conjugants come to lie side by side. Lateral outgrowth develops from opposite cell walls. These outgrowths meet and the cell walls separate to form a continuous channel from one cell to the other. This channel is called the conjugation tube. The cytoplasm of each cell shrinks away to form the gametes. One of the gametes regarded as the male migrates through the conjugation tube into the other cell. When the two gametes fuse, a zygote or zygospere is formed. This will germinate and form a new individual.
17 COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

FUSION OF GAMETES (FERTILIZATION) This is the union of the two haploid cells (male and female) to produce a diploid organism called a zygote. This process is called fertilization. In higher animals, gametes are formed in special organs known as the gonads by the process of gametogenesis. The male gamete is the spermatozoa or sperm and is produced in the testes by meiotic cell division called spermatogenesis; while the female gamete is the ova or eggs, produced in the ovary by meiotic cell division called oogenesis. During mating or copulation, these gametes unite and a new organism is formed. In higher plants, male and female gametes are also produced. The flowers are the reproductive units in plants. The male flowers are called pollen grains and are produced by the anthers while the female gametes called ovules are produced by the ovary of the flower. During fertilization, the pollen grains and ovules fuse to form a zygote. After fertilization, the ovules form the seeds while the ovary becomes the fruit.

MEIOSIS Meiosis is the cell division that takes place in the germ cells to generate male and female gametes, sperm and egg cells, respectively. Meiosis requires two cell divisions, meiosis I and meiosis II, to reduce the number of chromosomes to the haploid number of 23. As in mitosis, male and female germ cells (spermatocytes and primary oocytes) at the beginning of meiosis I replicate their DNA so that each of the 46 chromosomes is duplicated into sister chromatids. In contrast to mitosis, however, homologous chromosomes then align themselves in pairs, a process called synapsis. The pairing is exact and point for point except for the XY combination. Homologous pairs then separate into two daughter cells. Shortly thereafter meiosis II separates sister chromatids. Each gamete then contains 23 chromosomes. Crossovers are critical events in meiosis I, are the interchange of chromatid segments between paired homologous chromosomes. Each germ cell contains a haploid number of chromosomes, so that at fertilization the diploid number of 46 is restored.

18

COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE MALE AND FEMALE GONADS

ORGANS Testes Epididymus

FUNCTIONS Produce spermatozoa Site of sperm maturation; store and convey spermatozoa to the ductus deferens

Ductus deferens Ejaculatory ducts Seminal vesicles

Store spermatozoa; convey spermatozoa to the ejaculatory duct Receive spermatozoa and additives to produce seminal fluid Secretes alkaline fluid containing nutrients and prostaglandins; helps neutralize the acidic environment of the vagina

Prostate Penis Bulbourethral glands Scrotum

Secretes acidic fluid that enhances motility of spermatozoa Conveys urine and seminal fluid to outside of body; copulatory organ. Secrete fluid that lubricates the urethra and end of the penis Encloses and protects the testes; helps maintain constant temperature for spermatogenesis

19

COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.

SEAT OF WISDOM SECONDARY SCHOOL, TRANS EKULU, ENUGU

BIOLOGY MAKE-UP LESSONS: 1ST TERM SS1

ORGANS Ovaries Uterine tubes Uterus Vagina

FUNCTION/DESCRIPTION Produce female gametes (oocytes) and female sex hormones Conveys oocytes towards uterus; site of fertilization; conveys developed embryo to uterus Site of implantation, protects and sustains embryo and fetus during pregnancy, plays active role in parturition (childbirth) Conveys uterine secretions to outside of the body; receives the erect penis and semen during coitus and ejaculation; serves as a passageway for fetus during parturition

Labia minora Pudendal cleft Vaginal vestibule Vestibular glands Mammary glands

Forms margins of vaginal vestibule; protect openings of vagina and urethra Cleft between the labia majora within which labia minora and clitoris are located Cleft between labia minora within which vagina and urethral openings are located Secrete fluid that moistens and lubricates the vaginal vestibule and vaginal opening during sexual arousal and coitus Produce and secrete milk for nourishment of an infant

20

COMPILED BY UKWUMA M. C.