Fracture PDF

R&DE (Engineers), DRDO
Introduction to Fracture
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Ramadas Chennamsetti
Introduction to Fracture
Introduction
Design of a component
Yielding Strength
Deflection Stiffness
Buckling critical load
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2
Fatigue Stress and Strain based
Vibration Resonance
Impact High strain rates
Fracture - ???
Introduction
Design based on Strength of Materials /
Mechanics of Solids
Strength based design Check for allowable
stress
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3
Stiffness based design Check for allowable
deformation / deflection
Presence of defects in the material ideal
Imperfections Higher factor of safety
Introduction
Fracture separation of a body in response
to applied load
Crack
Crack tip
Fracture Relieving
stress and shed excess
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4
stress and shed excess
energy
Main focus whether a
known crack is likely to
grow under a certain
given loading condition
Introduction
Fracture mechanics approach Implicit
assumption Crack exists
Severity of the existing crack when loads
applied on the structure / component
Application of Fracture Mechanics (FM) to
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5
Application of Fracture Mechanics (FM) to
Crack growth Fatigue failure
1920s Griffith developed right ideas for
growth of a crack Working parameter
Modern FM 1948 George Irwin
devised a working parameter
Introduction
Irwins work Mainly for brittle materials
Introduced Stress Intensity Factor (SIF) and
Energy Release Rate (G) Linear Elastic
Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) Plastic
deformation negligible
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6
deformation negligible
Irwins theory application of FM to design
problems
Focus was on crack tip not on the crack
Introduction
Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD)
1961 Wells
J Integral 1968 Rice
CTOD and J integral Ductile materials
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CTOD and J integral Ductile materials
large plastic zone at tip
Modes of fracture
Modes of Fracture
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8
mode I
I
K
mode II
II
K
mode III
III
K
Opening Sliding
Tearing
Stresses at crack tip
From Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
(LEFM) the stresses near the crack tip in
Mode I
xx

yy

xy

y
(
(
(
(
3
sin sin
2
3
sin
2
sin 1
cos

K
I
x
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9
The displacements near the crack tip

r
xx

x
(
(
(
(
(
+
=
2
3
sin
2
sin 1
2
3
sin
2
sin
2
cos
2

r
K
I
xy
y
2
2
cos ( 1 2sin )
2 2

2 2
sin ( 1 2cos )
2 2
I
u
K r
v
G

(
+
(
(
=
(
(
(
+
(

4 3 =
Plane strain
Plane stress
=
1
3
Griffiths theory
Theory of unstable crack growth
Theory establishes a relation unstable
crack growth
Basic underlying principle Energy balance
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Basic underlying principle Energy balance
Introducing a crack in a stressed / loaded
component release of strain energy
Reduction in stiffness
What happens to change in strain energy ???
or released strain energy
Griffiths theory
An infinite body
Linear elastic subjected
to stress
Initially there was no crack
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11
Initially there was no crack
Strain energy stored
2a
a
Vol
E
U
o
2
2
=
Griffiths theory
Crack size = 2a the crack surfaces
traction free no traction loads acting
Material above and below stress free to
some extent
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Stress relived portion assuming triangular
distribution
Height of triangle =
Griffith carried out extensive calculations
and experiments => =
Griffiths theory
Strain energy after introducing crack = Strain
energy before introducing crack Strain
energy loss (relived)
( )
o
E
U U = =>
2
le of Volume
2
1
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13
( )
R
o
o
E
E
t a
U
at a
E
U U U
E
U U
= = =>
|
\
|
= = =>
= =>
2 2
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
le of Volume
2

Energy released because of presence of crack

Griffiths theory
When a body is cracked breaking of
material bonds Energy required for
breaking bonds Source of energy ???
Loss / Deficiency in strain energy => caters
for formation of crack
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14
for formation of crack
Formation of crack => Generation of new
traction free surfaces
Energy used for breaking bonds stored as
surface energy on newly formed surfaces
Griffiths theory
Two key aspects in crack growth
How much energy is released strain energy
when crack advances
Minimum energy required for the crack advance
in forming two new surfaces
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in forming two new surfaces
Some external work is done
Increase in strain energy
Surface energy crack growth
Griffiths theory
Assume a crack of 2a size exists
(a+a)
Initial stress free area,
A
1
= 2* (2a*a) = 2a
2
Crack grows by a on both
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2a
a
a
Crack grows by a on both
sides
Stress free area after crack
growth,
A
2
= 2*1/2 (2(a+a)*(a+ a)
=> A
2
= 2(a+a)
2
Griffiths theory
Change in stress free area
( ) [ ]
( )
at a V
a a a a A
a a a A A A
=
= = =>
+ = = =>
4
4 2 2
2
2
2
1 2
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Change in strain energy
at a V = 4
( )
(1) - - -
2
4
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
E
at
a
E
E at a
E
U
V
E
U
R
R
=>
= = =>
= =>
Griffiths theory
Surface energy required to create new area
( )
t
a
W
at W
s
s
s s
(2) - - - 4
4
=
=>
= =>
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18
a E
t
E
at
da
dW
da
dE
s
s
s R

2
2
2
4
2
if place, es growth tak crack Unstable
= =>
= =>
=
Griffiths theory
Expression
2
crack grow to
required Stress - length crack existing a' '
2

s
a E =
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2
2
2
design tolerant Damage - size crack
allowable maximum - Stress - loading Given
2
s
c
s
c
E
a
a
E
=
= =>
Griffiths theory

s
= Specific surface energy Surface energy
per unit area of crack surface
Area of crack = 2(2a*t) = 4at
Surface energy stored => 4at
s
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Surface energy stored => 4at
s
Energy balance
s
s R
at
E
t a
W E
4
2 2
= =>
= =>
Griffiths theory
Plot E
R
and W
s
wrt crack length a
s s
R
at W
E
t a
E
4
2 2
=
=
E
R
W
s
E
R
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21
s s
E
R
W
s
a
a
a
o
E
R
W
s
Initial crack size = a
o
Crack grows by a
Strain energy
released = E
R
Surface energy
required = W
s
Griffiths theory
Crack growth takes place, if
Not satisfying above inequality crack
s R
W E
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Not satisfying above inequality crack
remains dormant
Body acts as a strain energy reservoir
Surface energy required can be obtained from
external sources as well increase in applied
stress No change in W
s
Griffiths theory
Strain energy used to break the bonds
stored as surface energy
Strain energy source & surface energy
sink Irreversible thermodynamic process
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Crack growth energy conversion process
When a crack propagates strain energy gets
reduced and surface energy increases for a
constant displacement case
Griffiths theory
In the limiting case
W
lt
E
lt
W E
s R
s R
=>
= =>
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24
da
dW
da
dE
a
W
lt
a
E
lt
s R
s
a
R
a
= =>
=>
0 0
Check the slope of E
R
and W
S
Satisfying above
condition onset of crack growth
Griffiths theory
If strain energy release rate is higher than
required rate of surface energy unstable
crack growth
dW dE
S R
>
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25
Difference in energy rates => kinetic energy
Higher difference => Faster crack growth
da
dW
da
dE
S R
>
Griffiths theory
Strain energy release rate per unit increase
in area during crack growth => Griffiths = G
at A
E
t a
E
dA
dE
G
R
R
2 2
2 , ,

= = =
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26
E
a
da
dE
t dA
dE
G
tda dA
E dA
R R
2
2
1
2
= = = =>
= =>
Units of G => N.m/m
2
or J/m
2
Griffiths theory
Crack area (A) and crack surface area (A
s
)
Crack area => Simply the
area of crack
A = 2a*t = 2at
Crack surface area => Sum
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2a
Crack surface area => Sum
of surface areas of all the
crack surfaces
Crack surfaces = Two (top
and bottom)
Each => 2at
A
s
= 2(2at) = 4at = 2A
Griffiths theory
Surface energy required for crack to grow
per unit area of extension crack resistance
R
( )
S S
at A
W
2 area Crack
area surface surface in total increase
= =>
=
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( )
S
S
S S S S
dA
dW
R
A at at W
at A

2
2 4 ) 2 ( 2
2 area Crack
= = =>
= = = =>
= =>
Brittle fracture no plastic deformation R = surface
energy Elastic and plastic R caters for surface
energy and energy for plastic deformation at crack tip
Griffiths theory
Crack start propagating if, G > = R
Strain energy release rate of a crack must be
greater than the crack resistance for the crack
to grow
Crack propagation occurs G is sufficient to
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Crack propagation occurs G is sufficient to
provide all the energy that is required for the
crack formation
Energy release rate is more than crack
resistance, crack acquires KE the growth
speed may be faster than speed of a
supersonic flight
Griffiths theory
Onset of crack growth
RHS completely depends on material
s
E a 2
2
=
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30
RHS completely depends on material
properties Constant
From the above -
2
1
a
Maximum allowable crack size
depends on loading or
Loading decides the allowable
crack size
Bigger cracks lower loads
Griffiths theory
Crack growth at different load / stress
conditions
1.4
1.6
1.8
Strain energy - High stress
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31
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
E
R

&

W
s
Crack size
Surface energy
Strain energy - Low stress
Griffiths theory
Thin and thick brittle plates
Thin plate Plane stress condition
Thick plate Plane strain condition
Brittle insignificant plastic zone at crack
tip - LEFM
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32
tip - LEFM
Ductile materials considerable plastic
deformation at crack tip EPFM
Plane stress and planes strain Poisson ratio
Allowable crack size of stress different
Griffiths theory
Thin and thick plates Griffiths theory
strain Plane
1
2
stress Plane 2
2
2
2
s
s
E
a
E a
\
|
=
=
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33
RHS higher in plane strain
For a given load higher crack size in thick
plate than in thin
For a given crack size higher load in thick
plate than in thin plate
1
2
s
\

=
Griffiths theory
Taking square root
2

1
2
2
2
|
|
|
= =>
|
\
|
= =>
s c
E
a
E
a
c

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34
Constant
1
2

1
2
2
2
=
|
\
|
= = =>
|
\
|
= =>
s c c IC
s c c
E
a K
E
a

K
I
Stress Intensity Factor (SIF)
K
c
Stress Concentration Factor (SCF)
Griffiths theory
Critical strain energy release rate = G
IC
= R
Crack growth takes place, if
G
E
a
G
IC
c
2
=
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35
E E G K
R
E
K
E
a
G
E
S IC IC
S
IC c
IC
2
2
case, limiting In the
2 2
= = =>
= = = =
Griffiths theory
Typical values of critical stress intensity
factor K
IC
Glass 0.5 to 1 MPa m
0.5
Alloy steel 150 MPa m
0.5
Aluminium alloy 25 to 40 MPa m
0.5
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36
Aluminium alloy 25 to 40 MPa m
0.5
Griffiths theory
Plate under constant displacement
A
P
o
P
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37
Plate stiffness reduced
OAB Strain energy released
O
B
C
U
o
P
1
Griffiths theory
No crack => More slope high stiffness
more force required to pull
Presence of crack => lower slope reduced
stiffness less force required to pull same
length u
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38
length u
o
Difference in strain energy Area OAB used
to form new surface / break the bonds
Major portion of strain energy release takes
place at above and below crack
Fracture toughness total potential
A body with a crack subjected to external
loading work done on the body
Utilization of this energy
Increase in strain energy
Utilization of energy to create two new surfaces
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39
Utilization of energy to create two new surfaces
In this process
Point of application of load may or may not
move
Force moves => work is done by the force
Decrease in stiffness
Conservation of energy
Work performed per unit time = rate of
change of internal energy + plastic energy +
kinetic energy + surface energy (crack
formation)
+ + + = K U U W
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40
+ + + = K U U W
P E
Crack grows slowly inertia effects negligible => KE = 0
Equation was wrt time. Crack grows with time change
time to crack area
A
A
t
A
A t

Chain rule
A = 2at
2a
Change variable to crack
d dU dU dW
dA
d
A
dA
dU
A
dA
dU
A
dA
dW
A
P E
P E
+ + = =>
+ + =

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41
dA
d
dA
dU
dA
dW
dA
dU
dA
d
dA
dU
dA
dU
dA
dW
dA
d
dA
dU
dA
dU
dA
dW
P E
P E
P E
+ =
|
\
|
=>
+ = =>
+ + = =>
Ideal brittle material => Negligible plastic
deformation => U
p
= 0
dA
d
dA
dW
dA
dU
E

=
|
\
|
=>

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42
Total potential
dA dA dA
\
dA
d
dA
d
W U V U
E E
=
= + =

Surface energy
Surface energy per unit area =>
s
Total surface area, A
s
= 2*(2at) = 4at = 2A
Change in surface energy to form new crack
of length a
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43
of length a
( )
s s
s s s s
dA
d
A
A at A

2 2
2 4
=
=> =
=>
= = =
It was shown that, G
I
= 2
s
G total potential
Surface energy and total potential
G R
d
dA
d
dA
d
= = = =>
2

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44
I s
G R
dA
d
= = = =>
2
Impending of crack growth
R G
I

G total potential
Relation between G
I
and
GdA d
dA
d
G
I
= =>
= =>
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45
dA G dU W
dA G d dU W
W dU d
GdA d
I E ext
I E ext
ext E
+ = =>
= = =>
=
= =>
External work done on the body => increase in

elastic strain energy and formation of new surfaces
G total potential
No movement of external forces, W
ext
= 0
dA
dU
G
E
I
=
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46
When there is no external work done, energy
required for crack growth is obtained from the strain
energy stored in the body
Conservation of energy => Decrease in strain energy
= increase in surface energy
Compliance approach
Compliance => Inverse of stiffness
Fracture toughness compliance approach
CP u ku P
k
C = => = = ,
1
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47
Constant load
Constant displacement
Increase in compliance with crack length
loss of stiffness
Calculation of Fracture toughness, G
I
Constant load
Consider a body with some initial crack of
length a- Load applied => P
o
B
D
P
P
o
Write total potentials when
crack sizes are a and a+da
F
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48
A
C E
u
u
1
u
2
a a+da
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 1 1
1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
u P u P u P
V U
u P u P u P
V U
o o o
o o o
= =>
+ =
= =>
+ =
1
= - Area ABF,
2
= - Area ADF
=
2
-
1
Constant load
Potentials,
u P u P
u P u P
o o
o o
+ = = =>
= =
2
1
2
1

2
1
,
2
1
1 2 1 2
2 2 1 1

r
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49
( ) u P u u P
u P u P
o o
o o
= = =>
+ = = =>
2
1
2
1
2 2
2 1
1 2 1 2

Strain energy release rate, G
I
( )
dA
du P
u P
dA
d
dA
d
G
o
o I
2 2
1
= = =

Constant load
Use compliance relation
dC
P
du
CP u
o
= =>
=
r
d
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m
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o
o
.
c
o
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i
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50
dA
dC P
dA
du
P G
dA
dC
P
dA
du
o
o I
o
2 2
1
2
= =
= =>
dA
dC P
G
o
I
2
2
=
Experimental measurements required to estimate
change in compliance with crack area
Constant displacement Fixed grip
condition
r
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o
o
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i
n
51
2a
2(a+a)
Since the grip is fixed no external work is
done by the forces, W
ext
= 0
Load-displacement curve
P
1
A
D
P
a
Change in potential,
( )u P P
o
=> = ve
2
1
1 2
r
d
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i
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52
u
o
P
2
O
B
C
E
u
a
a+da
dA
dP
C
dA
dC
P CP u
dA
dP
u
dA
d
G
Pu
o
o I
o
= => =
= = =>
= =>
2
1
2
1

This gives,
|
|
|
= =
=
dC P
u
dP
u G
dA
dC
C
P
dA
dP
o o I
1 1
r
d
_
m
e
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o
o
.
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i
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53
|
\
= =
dA C
u
dA
u G
o o I
2 2
dA
dC P
G
I
2
2
=
G
I
same in both constant load and displacement
conditions
Constant load & displacement
Comparison
B
D
P
P
o
a a+da
P
1
P
2
A
B
D
E
P
a
P = const u = const
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54
A
C E
u
u
1
u
2
u
o O
B
C
u
a+da
U
2
> U
1
Increase in strain
energy
Caters for crack growth
No external work done
U
2
< U
1
Decrease in strain
energy used for crack
growth
Energy release rate
Energy release rate referred as rate of strain
energy flux flowing towards a crack tip as
the crack extends
Linear and Nonlinear
J integral
contour integral
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i
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55
u
P
Linear
U
-
A
B
C
D
dA
d
J

=
P
A
B
C
u
-
U
Nonlinear
D
Area ABD
For linear elastic,
G = J
Measurement of G
IC
Expression for G
IC
Critical SERR
dA
dC P
G
IC
2
2
=
Parameter to be measured
experimentally => dC/dA
P
dC/dA
r
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i
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56
P
o
P
u u
1
u
2
u
3
u
4
A
1
A
2
A
3
A
4
k
1
k
2
k
3
k
4
C
A A
o
dC/dA
Measurement of G
IC
Size of crack => a

o
, corresponding area = A
o
Load required to initiate crack growth, P
c
c
IC
dA
dC P
G
2
2
=
r
d
_
m
e
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h
@
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a
h
o
o
.
c
o
.
i
n
57
o
A
IC
dA
G
2
=
If G
I
is expressed in terms of stiffness,
o
A o
c
IC
dA
dk
k
P
G
2
2
2
=
dk/dA is -ve
Griffiths theory
Crack in stiff and flexible components
Same force applied on stiff and flexible
components having same size of crack
Energy stored Flexible component stores
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58
Energy stored
( ) C
K
U
K
P
C P U
= =>
= =
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
Flexible component stores
more energy than stiffer
component
More store of energy
availability of energy for
crack propagation
Stiff bodies do not store
more energy less release
Surface energy
Surface energy per unit area R material
property
In Fracture Mechanics R => total energy
consumed in propagation of crack
In ductile materials
r
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o
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i
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59
In ductile materials
Plastic deformation takes place energy
required to deform
Energy required for a crack to grow is much
larger than the surface energy
Significant plastic deformation
Surface energy
Crack growth accompanied with plastic
deformation
( ) R w G
f p s
= = + = 2 2
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60
Most of metals surface energy is much
smaller than (1/1000
th
) of the total energy
consumed in crack propagation
p
=> Plastic work per unit area of surface created,
s
=> Surface energy per unit area of surface created
Surface energy
Crack resistance (R) depends on material
and geometry thickness
Plastic zone size at the crack tip depends on
thickness
Bigger plastic zone more dissipation of
r
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i
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61
Bigger plastic zone more dissipation of
energy Higher crack resistance - Plane
stress
Smaller plastic zone less dissipation of
energy Lower crack resistance Plane
strain
Crack in a pipe
Eg. Longitudinal crack of 10 mm is allowed
in a pipe. What is the allowable pressure?
P P
2a
2r
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i
n
62
2a
2a
K
IC
= 93 MPa m
0.5
Allowable stress = 878 MPa
Crack in a pipe
Hoop stress causes crack opening mode I
Considering this as an infinite plate with a
crack of length 2a
r p
max
stress Hoop => =
r
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i
n
63
c IC
c IC
a
t
r p
K
a K
t
r p
max
max
SIF Critical
stress Hoop
= =>
=> =
=> =
Crack in a pipe
Maximum pressure
t K t
p
a
t
r p
K
IC
c IC
6
max
10 93
= = =>
=
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i
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64
r
t
p
r
t
a
K
r
t
p
c
IC
6
max
3
max
10 03 . 742
10 5
10 93
= =>

= = =>
Design based on Fracture

Crack in a pipe
Same maximum pressure causes Hoop stress
Check for yield failure
t
r p
Y
allowble
6
max
10 878 = = =
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65
r
t
p
t
allowble
6
max
10 878 = =>
If design is based on fracture criteria, it
does not fail in yielding
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66

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R&DE (Engineers), DRDO

Energy released because of presence of crack

R&DE (Engineers), DRDO

External work done on the body => increase in

R&DE (Engineers), DRDO

Size of crack => a

Design based on Fracture

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