EffectiveTeamLeadership: ACompetitiveAdvantage Dr.StephenJ.GerrasandColMurfClark August,2011 Leadingandteamleadershiparerelated,butdistinct.Intodaysenvironment,senior leadersmustmasterbothcompetencies.Inwhatfollows,weargueArmyleadersneedto developinmorerigorousanddeliberatewaysteamleadershipskillsthatgobeyondthe basicleadershipcompetencies.Leadersofhighlysuccessfulteamsembodytheleadershiptraits alreadyfamiliartous,butinevengreatermeasuresandatmoresophisticatedlevels.Giventhe needfor21stcenturyArmyleadersversedinfullspectrumoperations,weassertthatspecific teamleadershipskillscanprovidecompetitiveadvantageforseniorfieldgradeofficers.The teamleadershipmodelweofferaddressessomeconceptsnotcurrentlydiscussedin professionalmilitaryeducation. Ateamconsistsoftwoormorepeoplewhointerrelatewithindefinedrolestoaccomplish acommongoal.

goal.Whilewritingformilitaryprofessionals,weintentionallylimitdiscussionto hierarchicalteamswithanappointedleader.Wedistinguishateamfromaworkgroup,whose membersoftenuseadditiveprocessestoachievetheirgoals.Inabattalionpersonnelsection, forexample,soldiersaccomplishtheirduties(e.g.,awards,personnelmanagement,finance), independently.Incontrast,ateamnearlyalwaysusesintegrativeandinteractiveprocesses.A jointandcombinedstrategicplanningsectioninAfghanistan,whereeveryonesworkdepends ontheothermembersofthecell,betterexemplifiesateam. Whyfocusonteamleadership?Becausechangeandunpredictabilitycolorhistory,and becauseleadershipmodelsdevelopedduringtheindustrialeramaynotsufficientlyaddress 21stcenturyneeds.Alonglistchronicleswhatsdifferentfromthechallengesoffull spectrumoperationstoadvancesintechnology,fromtheimpactofmassmediaand communicationstolesshierarchicalorganizationalprotocols.Wearguethatanalyticalthinking anddecisionmakingrequirementsinthefuturewilloutpaceandoverwhelmthecapabilitiesof anindividualleaderunlessheorsheknowshowtoleveragethepowerandsynergyofthe collectiveintellectofateam.Inthecomingdecades,seniorfieldgradeofficersandtheirteams willfacegreateruncertaintyandbeforcedtoapplyhedgingstrategiestoaccountforinevitable errorsofforesight.Together,theywillneedtoapplyabroadrangeofskillsthroughdialogue andproductivedebateinordertosynthesizeideasanddevelopcreativeplans.Unliketheir civiliancounterparts,militaryleaderswillnotoftenpicktheirownteammembers.Team memberswillusuallybeassignedtotheirpositionsbyahighlybureaucraticpersonnel managementsystemthepalecousinoftalentmanagement.Thisplacesanadditional burdenonthemilitaryteamleaderandthereforeimpliesagreaterneedforteamleadership skills.
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 Todaysleadersmustcultivateskillsthatdifferinsomewaysfromthoseoftheir predecessors.Thesedifferencesanswertheneedsofflatterorganizationsandlesssubmissive teammembers.21stcenturyteamleadersmustdisplayselfawareness,humility,and selflessness.Selflessnessheremeansmorethannotselfishoraltruistic,butalsohavingthe abilitytosee,understand,andaccepttheopinionsofotherstothepointoflettingthem overruleyourideasevenwhenyoupreferyourown.Teamleadersmustlettheirsubordinates leadandmayneedtoallowmistakes,evenatsomepersonalcost.Theymustdevelop communicationskillsthatgobeyondclearanddirectivetorhetoricallysavvy.Theymustgive reasons,notjustorders.Becausetheirteamswillincludeotherhighlycriticalthinkers,leaders mustconsiderotherperceptionsandperspectives,andformulateconvincingarguments.The teamleadermustfocusondevelopingasenseoftrustamongallmemberstoenable constructivecandor,honestfeedback,andteamresiliency.Theymustleadfromwithinby collaboratingasapeerwhilemaintainingsomeautonomousleaderauthority. Theabovedescriptionofteamleadershipdifferssignificantlyfromthecurrentnorm,but webelievetheArmywilllosecompetitiveadvantageifitdoesnotbeginnowtoadoptanew model.Highmotivation,acandoculture,strongdiscipline,andincrediblyadvanced technologieswillonlytaketheArmysofarinthecomingcentury.Clearly,manyArmyleaders alreadyunderstandtheimportanceofteamleadershipandpracticeitonadailybasis.This examinationtargetsleaderswhoseekabasicfoundationintheseconcepts,andoffersenough newinformationtowarranttheattentionofexperiencedteamleaders.Ifyoubelongineitherof thosecategories,youmayfindthefollowingmodelforteamleadershiphelpful. TeamLeadershipModel Organizationaltheoristsoffervariousmodelsforteamleadership;manyreflectthe underlyingnotionthatteamsarecomplex,dynamicsystemsthatexistinlargersystemic contextsofpeople,cultures,technologies,andstructures.1Mostmodelsinvoketheinput processesoutput(IPO)model.Figure1portraysamodelofteamleadershipwethinkapplies welltomilitaryteams. Thoughweemphasizetheneedforleaderstocultivatecollaborationandcreatesynergy, ourdepictionfocusesattentiononthetaskasadrivingforcethatcarriesthroughthemodel. ThetaskalignsactivitiesinahierarchicalorganizationsuchastheArmy,whosemain competitiveadvantageisconsistenthighperformance/missionaccomplishment.Itgroundsthe modeltoapracticalactivitymorelikelytosatisfyataskorientedandmissionfocused culture.Themodelcapturesthisbyportrayingthetaskflowingfrominputs,throughprocesses, andtooutputs.Itpositsfiveimportantinputsthatinfluenceteamleadership.Inadditiontothe threefactorsenteringfromtheleftasinputspeople(teamcomposition),resources,andtask cultureandstructure,whichcircumscribetheteam,arealsoinputs.Intheprocessarea,the
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 Figure1.TeamLeadershipModel actionsoftheleaderremaincentral,butadditionalwholeteamfactorshaveasignificantimpact onprocessoutcomesandteamsuccess.Theyincludethelevelofboundaryspanning,the decisionmakingstyleoftheteam,thelevelandtypeofcommunicationandcoordination,and theteamsnorms.Finally,inadditiontoteamperformance,teammembersatisfactionandthe levelofinnovationandadaptabilityoftheteamarealsoimportantandrelevantoutcomes.To applythemodel,leadersmustgainamoredetailedunderstandingofeachofthefactorsinthis IPOteamleadershipmodel. INPUTS PeopleTeamComposition Readersmayquestionwhyateamleadershiparticleformilitaryprofessionalswould bothertoaddressteamcomposition;mostmayassumetheassignmentprocessprovideslittle
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leewayforleaderstoselecttheirteammembers.Twofactorsunderminethisassumption.First, asleadersmoveuptheorganizationalhierarchyandtheteamstructureandpurposerequire andallowmoreflexibility,leadershavemoreauthoritytodetermineandcontrolteam membership.Adivisioncommander,forexample,mayleveragegreaterauthoritytochoose andhireteammembersthanabattalioncommander.Aswell,thehigherupinthe organizationalhierarchyaleaderserves,themoreopportunitiesheorshemayhavetocreatead hocteamssuchaslimiteddurationtaskforcesorcouncilsofcolonelstoaddresspressingshort orlongtermissues.Second,byunderstandingtheconsiderationsofteamcomposition,leaders caninfluencewhomtheybringontotheirteamandwhomtheymayattempttoremove.This becomesevenmoreimportantwithadhocteams.Asleadersthinkaboutthecompositionof theirteamstheyshouldexplicitlyaddressthreeconcerns. First:teamsize.IncontrasttoaprevalentArmyculturalassumptionthatbigteamsget easierbuyinandproduceabetterproduct,mostresearchersargueteamsbeassmallas possible.Leadersneedtodeterminewhatskillsarerequiredandthenlimitthesizeoftheteam tothosewhohavetherequisitetalentstomeettherequirement,regardlessoftheir organizationalposition.2Forexample,abrigadecommandermayassignanassistantS3toa highvisibility,commanderledproject,andnotthebrigadeS3.Typically,Armyleaders assumeifyouassigntalentedpeoplethreelevelsdown,youmustalsoincludetheintermediate membersoneandtwolevelsdown.Thispractice,thoughculturallylogical,createsinefficiency. Althoughviolatingexistingprotocols,researchshowsthatsmall,talentbasedteamsperform betterandhaveagreaterchanceofproducingafirstclassproduct.3 Second:diversitymatters.Incomplexenvironments,teamswithmorediversitytendto performbetterandproducemoreinnovation.4Severalcaveatsinformthisassertion.First, althoughmostorganizationsfocusondemographicdiversity(e.g.,race,gender,and nationality)therealfocusshouldbeonpsychologicalorcognitivediversity.Ateamoffour whitemalesifoneisconservative,oneisliberal,oneislinearthinking,andoneismore intuitivemaybemorediversethanaraciallyorotherwisedemographicallyvariedteam. Whenconsideringteammembership,leadersshouldstriveforpsychologicaldiversity,butalso understandthatthistypicallypresentsadditionalleadershipchallenges.Amulticulturalteam inaJoint,Interagency,Intergovernmental,andMultinational(JIIM)environment,while probablyprovidingmoreinnovationandlessgroupthink,mayalsoencountermore coordinationandcommunicationdifficultiesinanalreadycomplexenvironment.5Team leadersmustanticipateandcompensatefortheseforeseeablechallenges. Third:otherteammembercharacteristics.Teamleadersignoretheresearchinthisarea attheirownperil.Especiallyatthestrategiclevel,teamleadersmustseekmemberswhoare strongconceptualthinkers,haveempathyforothersperspectives,thinkattheenterpriselevel (i.e.,theyareabletoseeacrossstovepipesintheorganization),andactwithintegrity.6Atany level,theresearchgenerallyrevealsthatteamscomposedofmembershigherincognitive
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ability,conscientiousness,agreeableness,extraversion,andemotionalstabilityperformbetter.7 Finally,towhateverextentpossible,teamleadersmustidentifyandeliminatederailers. Derailers,bydeficiencyofpersonality,mood,andinfluence,disproportionatelyweakenthe emotionaldispositionoftheteam.8Ifleadersmustchoosebetweenaderailerwith overwhelmingtalent,andamoreagreeablepersonwithsufficienttalent,theyshouldchoosethe latter. Resources Notsurprisingly,eventhemostmotivatedsoldiers,onthebestteams,withtheclearest tasks,willstillstruggleiftheyhavenomoney,facilities,ortime.Aphilosophyofdoingmore withlessquicklyleadstoalogicallimit.Teamleadersneedtoadvocateforresources.As expected,researchshowsteamsabletoacquireorganizationalresourcesperformbetterthan thoseinresourcepoorenvironments.9Additionally,iforganizationsaskteamstotackledifficult assignments,onlycommensuraterewardsmayensureteammotivationonfutureprojects. Organizationsshouldrewardteamsasawholewithrecognition,futureresources,money,or opportunitiesforotherdesirablework. Tasks Thetaskisthefoundationforallteamactivities.Thespecifiedtaskdictatesthe suitabilityofallinputs;itactsasthecentraldriveroftheprocess,anddefineskeyeffectiveness criteriaoftheoutputs.Teamsmayreceivetasksorgeneratetheirown.Proactiveteamleaders scantheenvironmentforrelevanttaskstheirorganizationmightoverlook.Theymustalso understandtheirobligationasgatekeeperfortheteamstasks.Thisroletakesonspecial importanceinanArmywhosecultureencouragestheacceptanceofalmostanymissionwitha candoattitude.Finally,leadersmustprioritizetasksandallocateresourcesinadeliberate manner.Anyonewhohasperformedahighprioritytaskwithouthighpriorityresources knowsthenegativeeffectofsuchmisalignment. Culture Theorganizationsculturecircumscribesalltheteamsprocessesand,mostimportantly, itsunderlyingdecisionmakinglogic.Oneprominenttheoristdefinescultureastheshared patternofunderlyingassumptionsthatdriveshoworganizationmembersthink,feel,andact.10 Teamleadersshouldcarefullyassessthecultureandweighanyproposedinitiativesor decisionsagainstthelikelyculturalresponse.Powerdistanceandperformanceorientation mostlikelytopthelistoffactorsthatdriveArmyculture.11Theconceptofpowerdistancehelps explainthehierarchicalexpectationsintheArmy.UnlikeGoogle,forexample,itwouldbe counterculturalandriskyforateamleadertoshowuponhisfirstdayandsay,Okay,Iknow Imacolonel,butIwanteveryonetocallmeHarry.Althoughwearguesuccessfulteam
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leadersneedtoempowertheirsubordinates,theycannotdisregardculturalnorms. PerformanceorientationcloselyrelatestotheArmyscandoattitude.Again,webelieveteam leadersneedtocollatealltheknowledgewithintheteamtoinformdecisionmaking.However, leadersshouldalsobalancetheculturalexpectationforrapiddecisionmaking(i.e.,performance orientationexpectations)againstthetimeitmaytaketogatheradditionalinformationor perspectives.Finally,leadersmustrememberculturetypicallytakesmanyyearstochange. Teamleadersshouldusuallyadapttoexistingculture,ratherthantrytochangeit. Structure Likeculture,thestructureoftheorganizationandtheteamconstitutesbothaninputand apermanentfactorthatinfluencesteamprocesses.Whileleadersmustacceptresponsibilityfor understandinghowtheorganizationslargerstructureinfluencesgroupprocesses,theymust simultaneouslybeartheresponsibilitytoensuretheirteamsstructureenablessuccess.Most leaderslacktheauthoritytoreorganizethebroaderorganization.Unfortunately,thisfactoften encouragesasocialconstructionofreality(asopposedtoanobjectiveassessmentofreality) wherebyteamleadersincorrectlyassumetheyalsomaynotchangetheirsmallerteams structure.Organizationalconstructs,suchasOfficerEfficiencyReport(OER)relationshipsand hierarchicalofficespacearrangementsmayreinforcethismisconception.Adaptableteam leadersinthe21stcenturywillnothesitatetochangeboththelinesofauthorityintheirteams structuresandthestrengthofthesereportingrelationships.IntheInformationAge,logic demandsareconsiderationofteamstructuresdesignedtoaddressIndustrialAgeproblems. Virtualandadhocteamsfurtheramplifythisnewreality.Ultimately,theteamleadershould fosterproductiveteaminteractionleadingtotaskcompletion.Quicklyreorganizingteam structurestofitspecifictasksrequiresimaginativeleadersandflexibleteammembers.The mostsuccessfulleaderswilldeveloptheabilitytoenvisionalternativestructuresandmoldthe rightmembersintoacohesiveteam. PROCESSES ANationalFootballLeague(NFL)teamrecentlyfireditsheadcoachtengamesintothe seasonandreplacedhimwiththeirtoprankingassistantcoach.Theteam,whichhadlostmost ofitsgamestothatpoint,turneditsseasonaroundandwonmanyoftheremainingsixgames. Whatexplainstheimprovement?Theplayersremainedthesame.Therulesofthegamedid notchange.Theownersdidnotbuildanewstadiumorpaytheplayersmoremoney.Theteam ranbasicallythesameoffensiveandsamedefensiveschemes.Mostwouldagreethatnew leadershipdrovetheimprovement.Intermsofourteamleadershipframework,thenewleader shapedthepredeterminedinputsbycreatingandimplementingprocessesthatledtothe desiredoutputs.Thisanecdoteisolatesasinglevariabletorevealteamleadershipasthemost crucialcomponentofsuccess.
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 Howdoleadersdothis?Credibleresearchsupportstheconclusionthateffectiveleaders excelatbothtaskfocusedbehaviorsandpeoplefocusedbehaviors.12Inadditiontomastering thesebehaviors,leadersandtheirteammembersscanoutsideteamandorganizational boundariesforsignsofchangethatmayinfluencetheteam.Theyunderstandtheimportanceof theirdecisionmakingstyleonteamoutcomesandensurethecoordinationeffortsand communicationpatternsoftheteamalignwiththetaskrequirements.Further,effectiveteam leadersandteammembersunderstandtheimportanceofteamnormsandknowhowto influencethem.Theymaintainselfawarenessandremaincognizantoftheharmfuleffectsof toxicbehaviors.Finally,successfulteamleadersinthe21stcenturyacquireacomprehensive understandingofpowerandappreciatehowtheexerciseofpowerandinfluenceaffectsmany internalteamdynamics. Studentsofteamleadershipshouldkeepinmindthattherelationshipbetweenany groupprocessandteameffectivenessmayvarywiththenatureofthetask.13Forexample,we mightassociateaflexibleteamcommunicationpatternwithhighperformingteams,butonly whenthetaskisuncertain.Intermsofteamprocesses,theliteratureclearlyconcursonseveral points.First,leadersneedtointentionallysocializenewmembersintotheteamwithdeliberate onboardingrituals.Allmembersneedtoinculcateteamnorms,communicationmodes,and coordinationexpectations.Second,thoughnotspecificallylistedasavariableintheframework, teamcohesionisadesiredteamcharacteristic.Researchshowsthathighlycohesiveteamswill persistondifficulttaskslongafterlesscohesiveteamsrelent.14 ADiscussionofPower Forourpurposes,powersimplymeanstheabilitytoinfluenceothers.Asmentioned inthediscussionofculture,theArmyhasahighpowerdistanceculture.Additionally,inthe Army,teammembersknowalmostimmediatelywhowieldsthemostformalpower;visible rankandorganizationalhierarchiesleavelittledoubtinanyonesmind.Organizationaltheory considerstwobroadcategoriesofpower:positionpowerandpersonalpower.Positionpower mayderivefromoneormoreofthreebases:rewards,coercion,andlegitimacy.Personalpower hastwobases:expertandreferentpower.15Rewardpoweristhepoweraccruedbecauseofthe abilitytoinfluencesomeonebyprovidingthingsheorshedesires,suchasaglowingefficiency reportorapreferredassignment.Coercivepowerusuallyinvolvesnegativereinforcement wherebytheleadercompelsactionorcompliancebythreateninganundesirableoutcomefor thesubordinate.Asubordinatealteringbehaviortopreventapoorefficiencyreport,adverse judicialaction,orevenasimplebuttchewingexemplifiestheresultofcoercivepower. Legitimatepowerspringsfromonesroleorposition.Often,subordinateswillfollowateam leadersimplybecausetheformalstructureoftheorganizationhasplacedtheminthat relationship.Inmostorganizations,especiallyinthemilitary,membersdefaulttothisnorm. Peoplerespondtoexpertpower,whichclearlyrelatestotaskcompetence,becausetheytrust

expertstodoandsaytherightthings.Referentpoweraccruestosomepeoplebecauseothers admirethem,identifywiththem,orevenseethemasrolemodels. Seniorlevelteamleadersshouldunderstandthebasesofpowertheycaneffectivelyuse, andmoreimportantly,understandthelikelyoutcomes.Teammembersusuallyacquiescetoa leadersuseofpositionpower.Thoughacquiescencemayappearidenticaltowilling compliance,theoveruseofpositionpoweronanearpeerteammayoccasionallyleadto resistance.Regardlesstheoutcome,thecontinuedrelianceonpositionpowerwillnotlikely producesustainedhighperformancelevels.Unlikepositionpower,theuseofpersonalpower oftenresultsinidentificationorinternalizationthearguablymoredesiredoutcome.For instance,abrigadecommander,byvirtueofhisposition,clearlyhaslegitimate,reward,and coercivepoweroverabattalioncommander;hopefully,healsohasexpertandreferentpower. Incontrast,anAmericancolonelleadingaNATOteamwillhavemuchlessposition powerandmustrelyonexpertandreferentpowertoeffectivelyinfluenceateamofforeign nearpeers.AnArmycolonelservingontheJointStaffatthePentagon,forinstance,willhavea powerbasemuchmoreakintotheNATOcolonelthanthebrigadecommander,especiallywith civilianGS15levelsubordinates.Inessence,seniorfieldgradeteamleadersaremuchmore likelytofindthemselvesleadingteamsinwhichpersonalpowerismoreeffectivethanposition power.Thisassertionimpliesthatteamleadersneedverifiableexpertiseandcredibility.Even moreimportantly,theymustcultivategenuinerelationshipsthatengenderempathyinteam members.Leaderswhoeffectivelybuildproductiverelationshipscanaddressanyproblem. Leaderswhofailtobuildrelationshipsshouldexpectalltaskstobemoredifficult,ifnot impossible.Apoorunderstandingandapplicationofpoweratthislevelwilllikelyleadto undesirableoutcomes. TaskFocusedBehaviors Asmentionedearlier,researchonteamsrevealsthatsuccessfulteamleaderstypically focusontwotypesofbehavior:taskfocusedandpeoplefocused.Taskfocusedbehaviors includegoalsetting,workapportionment,processstructuring,adaptingtochanges,standard setting,informationseeking,andfeedback.Empiricalstudiesroutinelydemonstratethattask focusedbehaviorsdirectlyrelatetoteameffectiveness.16Ofalltaskfocusedleaderbehaviors, goalsettingisarguablythemostimportantandmosteffective.Specificandambitiousgoals leadtohigherperformancethangoalsthatimplorepeoplesimplytodotheirbest.17Team leadersattheseniorlevelmustarticulategoalsthatareconsequential,challenging,andclear.18 Teamsthatroutinelyachieveexcellencebeginwithclearobjectivesandexpectations,receive timelyandcandidfeedback,andgarnerrecognitionforgoalaccomplishment.Thecando AmericanArmyconsiderstaskaccomplishmentasinequanonforeffectiveteamleadership. Additionally,tobemosteffectiveincomplexenvironments,seniorfieldgradeofficersmust

exercisetaskfocusedbehaviorwithanemphasisonpersonalpowerasopposedtoposition power. Taskfocusedleaderbehaviorrequiresaconcomitantabilitytoknowwhentomonitora situationandwhentotakeaction.HistoryofferscountlessexamplesofgeneralsandCEOswho waitedtoolongtoremovesomeoneforpoorperformance,thusfailingtopreventnegativelong termand/orunintendedconsequencesfortheirorganizations.Usually,highperformingteams havehighperformingindividualmembers,andmostteamscannotcontinuetoperformathigh levelswhenoneormoremembersfailtomatchthehighindividualperformanceoftherest. Leadersshouldworkhardtoovercomethecommontendencytocarrypoorperformersasthis almostalwayserodestheperformanceoftheteam. PeopleFocusedBehaviors Inadditiontosortingthroughhowbesttoaccomplishtasks,effectiveteamleaders exercisepeoplefocusedbehaviors.Theseincludedevelopingapositiveclimate,facilitating teammemberparticipationinthegroup,harmonizinginterpersonalproblems,setting standardsofbehavior,andbeingfriendlyandsupportive.Militaryreadersmaybesurprisedto learnthatsomestudiesshowpeoplefocusedbehaviorshavetwicetheeffectonteam performanceastaskfocusedbehaviors.19Thisdoesnotmeanthatteamleadersshouldfocusall theirenergyonclimateandcohesionattheexpenseoftaskfocusedbehaviors,butitprobably impliesthatataskorientedteamwillbemoreproductiveiftheleaderproperlymanages climate20concernsandsetsconditionsthatenablehealthyrelationshipsamongteammembers. Additionally,teamswithleaderswhoparticipateinthegroupgeneratemoreproblemsolutions thandirectiveleaderswhoremainaloof.21 Leadershipstudiesrarelydiscussthemanagementofegos,thoughthisskilloften becomesimportanttoteamleadershipathigherlevels.Ironically,egoitselfmayleadtodenial thatsuchaskillwouldbenecessary;theiregosmaynotallowleaderstoadmitthategosgetin thewayofteamperformance.Considerthisexample.Unlikethebattalioncommanderwho leadscompanycommanderstenyearsjuniorinageandrank,seniorteamleaderstypicallylead nearpeerswhoalreadyhavehighlysuccessfulcareers.Theymayevenachieveleadership positionsthatplacetheminchargeofteammembersolderthanthemorwhoaremore accomplishedormoreexperiencedinsomeareas.Almostinevitably,seniormilitaryofficers findthemselvesleadingexpertsinthediverseconcernsofnationalsecurity.Evenforabrigade commander,teamleadershipinvolvesagreatdealofegomanagement.Theeffectsincreaseat eachhigherlevel.MuchlikeEisenhowerwhenleadingPatton,Bradley,andClarknotto mentionMontgomeryandotherBritishofficersseniorleadersneedtoremainconstantly cognizantofthebasesofpowertheychoosetouse.Ineachinstance,witheachtalented subordinate,leadersmustconsiderperceptionsofequitythatmayarisefromtheirdecisions. Asleadersprogresstohigherlevels,peoplefocusedbehaviorsbecomemuchmorecomplex
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thansimplysayinggoodmorningandthankyou.Theyinvolveacomplexskillset requiringhighemotionalandsocialintelligencealongwithahighdegreeofhumility.The abilitytobalancetheopposingtraitsofhumilityandselfconfidencethoughpossiblythemost difficultskillrequiredofseniorleadersmaydeterminesuccessorfailure.22 Inadditiontomanagingegos,teamleadersmustmanagethecompositionofingroups. Likeallhumanbeings,leadersnaturallyprefertoworkwithaspecificsubsetoftheir subordinateswhiletendingtoavoidothers.Ifindulgedineventheleastvisibleway,this inclinationleadstoaperceptionofingroupsandoutgroups.Thelargebodyofliterature addressingthistopicexceedsthescopeofthispaper,23butwemaysummarize:effectiveleaders shouldworkhardtobringasmanysubordinatesaspossibleintotheiringroup. Atthenegativeextremeofpeoplefocusedbehaviorswefindtoxicleadership.Toxic leaderstypicallydisplayabusive,authoritarian,narcissistic,andselfpromotingbehaviors.Ina CenterforArmyLeadershipAnnualSurvey,84%ofArmyleadersreportedhavingworkedfor atoxicleaderatsomepointintheircareers.24Interestingly,inastudyoftoxicleadersinthe military,researchersfoundthattheleaderqualitymostcloselyassociatedwithpoorteam outcomeswasunpredictability.25Apparently,militarysubordinateswilltolerateaself promotingjerkaslongastheycanrelyonconsistentbehavior.26However,whentheleaderisa jerkonMondayandsupportiveonTuesday,subordinatesbecomedissatisfiedandeventually desiretoleavetheunitandmilitary. Insummary,successfulteamleadersexpertlyperformbothtaskandpeoplefocused behaviors.Empiricalstudieshaveshownthatgoalorientedteams,withhighstandardsof excellenceandleaderswhoalsoattendtotheclimateandinterpersonalneedsofteammembers, performathigherlevels.Asourteamleadershipmodelportrays,however,thereareother componentsandconsiderationsintheProcessportionofthemodel.Althoughsomeofthese considerationsclearlyoverlapwithtaskandpeoplefocusedbehaviors,wefeeltheyare importantenoughintermsofpredictingtheperformanceofteamstowarrantseparate discussion.Also,unliketaskandpeoplefocusedbehaviors,whichareleadercentric,theseare stronglydependentonsubordinateinvolvementandinteraction. BoundarySpanning Manyteamleadersserveinotherrolesasmembersofteamsatthenexthigherechelon. Mostprefertospendtheirtimewiththeirteam,butatthelevelswheremostseniorfield gradeofficersserve,theyshoulddedicatemoretimetoboundaryspanning.Boundary spanninginvolvescollaboratingwithothersoutsidetheteam,scanningtheenvironment,and negotiatingresourcesfortheteam.27Theseactivitiesoftendefinethedifferencebetweenthe lowerfieldgraderanksandseniorleadershipliterallybetweenbeingamajorandbeinga colonel.Seniorteamleadersarethenexusbetweenthedemandsoftheexternalenvironment
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andtheinternalworkingsoftheteam.Seniorteamleadershipemphasizeslinkingteamsacross boundariestotheirbroaderenvironment.Thus,leadersnotonlymanagethevastquantityof outsideinformationrelevanttotheteam,theyalsointerpretanddefinethisoutside environmentforteammembers.Studieshavefoundboundaryspanningbehaviorsexplain largeamountsofvarianceinperceivedteameffectivenessexplaining24%oftherespective variance.28Beyondactingasboundaryspanners,leadersneedtocreateateamclimatethat encouragesallteammemberstointeractappropriatelywiththeoutsideenvironment. Regardlessoftheirnaturalinclinations,seniorleadersmustaccepttheneedtonetwork. Thoughweoftenassumeleadershipnottomentionnetworkingrequiresanextroverted personality,manysuccessfulmilitaryleadersareintroverts.Theboundaryspanning requirementforseniorleaderteamsdictatesthatintrovertedmilitaryleadersstretchtheir personallimitstodevelopawiderangeofrelationshipswithpotentialstakeholdersforthe teamandtheorganization.Bydoingso,theseleaderswillincreasetheiraccesstoinformation, gathervaluableresources,andbetterinsulatetheteamfromundesireddemands.These outsideinteractionshighlighttheimportanceofmasteringpersonalpowerrelated competencies.Networkingrarelyrequiresexercisinglegitimate,reward,orcoercivepower.It hingesontheleaderscredibilityasanexpertintheteamscorecompetencyandhisorher abilitytodevelopconstructiverelationshipsbeyondtheboundaryoftheteam(i.e.,referent power).Theeffectiveteamleaderunderstandsthatthepersonalrelationshipsheorshebuilds todayoftenbecomeakeyresourceforproblemsolvingtomorrow. DecisionMaking Seniorteamleadersmustinvolvetheirsubordinatesinthedecisionmakingprocessas muchaspossible.Additionally,theyneedtoempowerthosebeneaththemtomakedecisions theirexpertiseandorganizationalauthorityallow.Leadersmustalsobalancethebenefitsof developingsubordinatebuyinandaccesstomoreinformationagainsttimeavailable.Inthe InformationAgeinwhichanalysisparalysisoccasionallygripsallofus,timelydecision makingdemandsthatleadersdecidewhentoquitgatheringandanalyzingdataandwhento stoptakinginputsfromtheteam.Thisfunctionrequiresmoreartthanscience.Ataminimum, seniorteamleadersneedtorecognizethatdecisionmakingatthestrategicleveldiffersfromthe tacticallevel.Decisionqualityalsosufferswhenaleaderdefaultstopositionpower.Though positionpowerusuallyevokescompliancefromsubordinates,itmayalsostifletheirwillingness tooffercandidopinionsduringthedecisionmakingprocess.Leadersshouldestablishateam climatethatencouragesmaximumcandor,regardlessofthepotentialfordisagreement. Thispotentialfordisagreementorevenconflictdeservesfurthercomment.Often seniorleaderspreferharmonytotheconflictthatmayresultfromindepthdiscussionthat considersabroadrangeofoptions.Withlargeegosandbigricebowlsatstake,leaderstoo oftenmakedecisionsthatleastthreatenegosorallocatedresources.Actually,teamleaders
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needtofosteraclimateinwhichmembersopenlyacknowledgeanddiscusstheirdisagreements aboutteamstrategiesandgoals.Cognitiveconflictresultsfromjudgmentaldifferencesabout howbesttoachievecommonobjectives;itplacesideasbutnotpeopleinopposition.This typeofconflictimprovesteamdecisionqualitybecauseitallowsmultipleperspectiveswhile notdegradingteamprocesses.Incontrast,affectiveconflicttendstoillicitemotionalresponses andmayhighlightpersonalincompatibilitiesordisputes.Itthereforeinhibitsdecision consensus,reducesdecisionquality,andmakestheteamlesseffective.Thus,forleadersto improvetheeffectivenessoftheirteams,theyneedtooptimizetheclimatetoencourage cognitiveconflictwhileprecludingaffectiveconflict.29 Communication Notsurprisingly,highperformingteamscommunicateeffectively.Theirexchanges bothwrittenandspokenareconciseandclear.TeamleadersmustgobeyondtheirLeader Books(notebookscontainingitemsformeetings)tocommunicateeffectivelyaboutcomplex topics.Inspiringandmotivatinghighlevelteamsdemandsophisticatedandcompelling communication.Unlikeworkgroupsthatdependlessonintrateamcommunication,teams dependonclearandcompleteinformation,accuratelydescribedsurfaceobservationsaboutthe externalenvironment,andacommonunderstandingofgoals,processes,andnorms.Team leadersmustcreateaclimateofpsychologicalsafetyforallteammembers.Psychologicalsafety existswhenallteammembersbelieveinterpersonalrisktakinghaslowstakes.30Psychological safetyisaprerequisiteoftrust,acriticalcomponentforahighperformingteaminacomplex environment.Teammemberswhotrusteachotherassumeonlygoodintentionsonthepartof theirpeers,thusallowingalltoletdowntheirguardsandopenup.Thisopennesseventually revealsmultiple,andsometimescontroversial,proposedsolutionstotheteamsdifficult challenges.Membersonteamswithouttrustsometimesholdorhideinformationthatwould benefittheteam,evenwhenwithholdingtheinformationmightcostthemsomething.Without trust,healthyrisktakingbecomesmuchlesslikely. Teamleadersmustcloselymonitortheextentofinformationsharingamongteam membersandalsoexplicitlygaugehowwellteammembersunderstandorganizationaland teamobjectivesandstrategies.Often,teamleadersassumeoncetheyhavecommunicatedthe organizationsandteamspurposes,teammembersunderstandtheunderlyinglogic.Leaders forgettheirteammembersdidnotattendthemeetingsduringwhichaccompanyingrationale cametolightorbecamecommonknowledge.Therefore,leadersmustalsorecountthedialogue andlogicfromwhichthesestrategiessprang.Giventhisadditionalbackgroundinformation, theteamhasamuchbetterchanceofachievingverticalandhorizontalalignmentwiththerest oftheorganization.
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NormSetting Youhavejustreceivedorderstoleadasixmonth,jointservicetaskforceinthe Pentagon.Normsettingmaybethelastthingonyourmind;perhapsitshouldbethefirst. Morethananythingelse,normsinfluencememberbehaviors.Normsdefineappropriateand inappropriatebehaviorsfortheteam.31Theytendtoforminthreeways;theyareimported, evolvegradually,oraredeliberatelycreated.Effectiveteamleadersrecognizethatonce established,normspersist.Therefore,savvyleadersdeterminehowtogetthemostproductive normsacceptedfromtheoutset.Simultaneouswithnormsetting,leadersshoulddeliberately enactpeoplefocusedleaderbehaviorstobuildthecohesionthatservesastheprincipal mechanismofnormenforcement.Normsstronglyinfluencethecollectiveefficacyandeffort levelofteammembers.Onceestablished,normsareenforcedbythemembersthemselves;they willconfrontnonconformingpeerswhentheirbehaviordeviatesfromexpectations.Finally, strongnormshelplimitthenegativeeffectsofsocialloafing.Socialloafingdescribesagroup phenomenoninwhichindividualeffortdecreaseswithgroupsize.Acohesiveteamwith strongnormsdeterssocialloafingbycreatingahighperformanceexpectationfromallteam members. Coordination Howwellteammemberscoordinatetheiractivitieslargelydeterminestheir effectiveness.32Teamleadersshouldhelpdeveloptheinteractionpatternsamongteam membersthatwillleadtosuccess.Leadersmustconsciouslyanalyzetheprocessesteam membersusetoacquireandexchangeinformation,whichmembersgetspecificassignments, thepaceoftaskcompletion,andtheestablishmentandmonitoringofperformancestandards. Akeyingredientinteamcoordinationissharedmentalmodels.Teammembersconsciouslyor unconsciouslydevelopmentalmodelsfromthebeliefs,thoughts,andverbaldescriptionsthey experience.Thesemodelsthenguidesubsequentthoughtsandactions.33Wellcoordinated teamssharementalmodelsaboutteampurposes,theirconnectionstoeachother,roles,and behaviorpatterns.Theseteambasedmentalmodelsformafundamentalrequisiteforeffective coordination.Theydevelopovertime,butteamleadersmayshapecertainelementsrolesand interactionpatternsofsuchmodelstowardmoreefficientteamcoordination.34ManyArmy officershavebeenpartofaneffectivebattlestaff.Whenthestaffreceivedatasking,eachofficer knewhisorherrole,theexpectedperformancestandardsandtimelines,andallcoordination requirements.Thistypeofeffectivenessspringsfromsharedmentalmodels.Theyknowwhat thebossexpectsandhowtoworktogether.Asteamcompositionandtasksgetincreasingly vagueandcomplex,theleadermustdeliberatelyacttoensurethedevelopmentoftheseshared mentalmodels. Failuretodevelopsharedmentalmodelscanleadtouncoordinatedandthus inefficientorunproductiveefforts.Uncoordinatedteammembersexpendtheirenergiesin
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differentdirections,orfailtosynchronizetheirworkontimecriticaltasks.35Atworst, duplicationoftasksorevencounterproductiveeffortsresult,andsomesubprocessesmaygo completelyundone. OUTPUTS Attheendoftheday,theArmyscultureevaluatesperformancebasedonthesuccessful accomplishmentofspecifiedandimpliedtasks.Teamleadersacceptandshapetheinputsto theirteams,includingpeople,resources,andculture,thenenactteamleaderprocessesto producedesiredoutputs.Asthemodelportrays,theseoutputsincludetaskperformance, membersatisfaction,innovation,andadaptability.Ofthesefour,mostwouldpicktask performanceasmostimportant.However,failuretovaluemembersatisfactionasanimportant teamoutputcanleadtodecreasedmotivationand,moreimportantlyastheArmyexperienced inthelate1990ssignificantattritionoftalent.Finally,adaptabilityandinnovationhave becomeincreasinglyimportantoutputsfortheArmy.Thedynamicconditionsofthe contemporaryoperatingenvironmentmandateanadaptiveandinnovativeforce.Adaptability andinnovationstemfromselectingtherightpeopleforateam,givingthemtheleadershipto developnormsthatencourageprudentrisktakingandcreativity,andrewardingthesespecific behaviors.Innovativesolutions,thatembedadaptablecapabilitiesforthechangingsecurity environment,increasecompetitiveadvantage. Correspondingly,teamleadersmustdevelopmetricstodeterminehowwelltheirteams performtasksorachieveotheroutputs.Typically,howquickly,efficiently,andeffectivelya teamachievesadesiredoutcomeindicatesteamperformance.Thechallengeforteamleadersin determiningwhattomeasureresidesinmeetingeachofthetwobasicrequirementsforan effectivemetric.First,somecharacteristicoftherelevantoutcomeorincrementalprogress towardtaskcompletionmustbesubjecttoaccurateandobjectivemeasurement.Second,that chosencharacteristicorincrementmustrelatedirectlytosuccessfulachievementofthefinal outcome.Usefulormeaningfulmetricsprovidecriticalfeedbacktosignaladjustmentstoboth theinputsandprocesses.Theleaderembodiesonecriticallinkinthefeedbackmechanism,but theInputProcessOutputmodelmakesclearthattheleadermaynotorcannotcontrolallthe meanstoachievedesiredoutputs.Theorganizationmayprovideweakteammembers,the strengthofitsculturemightoverwhelmtheteamleadersattemptstoreorienttheteams objectives,ortheentrenchednormsofanestablishedteammayimpedetheeffortsofanewly assignedleadertopropelchange. CONCLUSION Thismodelofteaminputs,processes,andoutputsillustratesmanyimportantconcepts andrelationshipsseniorfieldgradeofficersmustunderstandtoleadeffectiveteamsinthe21st centuryoperatingenvironment.Theseprinciplesapplytononvirtualteams;questionsremain indetermininghowbesttoadjustthismodeltoaccommodatevirtualteams.Forexample,
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absentthefacetofaceritualsoftraditionalteams,willvirtualsubstitutesallowthesamelevel ofbondingsocriticaltothespeedandaccuracyofteaminteraction?Thecumulativeevidence todatesuggestsvirtualteamsarebothslowerandlessaccuratethansuccessfulfacetoface teams.36However,thelatesttechnology,includingunifiedcommunicationsthatcombinehigh definition,highfidelityvoice,video,anddatainrealtimeholdsthepromisethatmanyofthe sameleadershipprinciplesmaytransfertovirtualteaming.Thisandsimilarquestionsbeg furtherobservationandexperimentationtodevelopmoreeffectivevirtualsubstitutesorto determinehowvirtualteamsmightcompensateforthesewhateverdisadvantagesremain.In themeantime,weofferthisincompleteprescriptionforleadingfromwithintogaincompetitive advantage.

DanielR.Ilgen,JohnR.Hollenbeck,MichaelJohnson,andDustinJundt,TeamsinOrganizations:FromInput ProcessOutputModelstoIMOIModels,AnnualReviewofPsychology56(2005):519. 2 PaulS.GoodmanandAssociates,DesigningEffectiveWorkGroups(SanFrancisco:JosseyBass,1986),83. 3 Ibid,83. 4 Ibid,15. 5 EduardoSalas,GeraldF.Goodwin,andC.ShawnBurke,TeamEffectivenessinComplexOrganizations(NewYork: PsychologyPress,2009),233. 6 RuthWageman,DebraA.Nunes,JamesA.Burruss,andJ.RichardHackman,SeniorLeadershipTeams(Boston: HarvardBusinessSchoolPress,2008),84. 7 MurrayR.Barrick,GregL.Stewart,MitchellJ.Neubert,andMichaelK.Mount,RelatingMemberAbilityand PersonalitytoWorkTeamProcessesandTeamEffectiveness,JournalofAppliedPsychology83(1998):377. 8 StephenJ.Zaccaro,AndreaL.Rittman,andMichelleA.Marks,TeamLeadership,TheLeadershipQuarterly12 (2001):473 9 Goodman,54. 10 EdgarH.Schein,OrganizationalCultureandLeadership(SanFrancisco:JosseyBass,2004),17. 11 StephenJ.Gerras,LeonardWong,CharlesD.Allen,OrganizationalCulture:ApplyingaHybridModeltotheU.S. Army,USAWCStrategicLeadershipSelectedReadings(2009),226. 12 C.ShawnBurkeetal.,Whattypeofleadershipbehaviorsarefunctionalinteams?Ametaanalysis,The LeadershipQuarterly17(2006):291. 13 DeborahL.Gladstein,GroupsinContext:AModelofTaskGroupEffectiveness,AdministrativeScienceQuarterly 29(1984):501. 14 Zaccaro,466. 15 JohnR.P.FrenchandBertramRaven,TheBasesofSocialPower,inGroupDynamics:ResearchandTheory,ed. DorwinCartwrightandAlvinZander,3rdEdition(NewYork:Harper&Row,1968),259269. 16 Burke,297. 17 SeeEdwinA.LockeandGaryP.Latham,ATheoryofGoalSettingandTaskPerformance(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ: PrenticeHall,1990). 18 Wageman59. 19 Burke,299. 20 Theimportanceofclimatetoteamleadershipdroveourdecisiontoincludeitinthedepictionofthemodel,buta thoroughdiscussionisbeyondthescopeofthispaper. 21 Zaccaro,464. 22 Ulmer,W.F.,etal.,LeadershipLessonsatDivisionCommandLevel2004(CarlisleBarracks:U.S.ArmyWar College,2004). 23 SeePeterG.Northouse,LeaderMemberExchangeTheory,inLeadership:TheoryandPractice(ThousandOaks: Sage,2004),147167.
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CenterforArmyLeadership,SpecialReport20101,CALAnnualSurveyofArmyLeadership:ArmyLeaders PerceptionsofArmyLeadersandArmyLeadershipPractices(FortLeavenworth,KS:CenterforArmyLeadership,August 2010). 25 AndrewA.Schmidt,DevelopmentandValidationoftheToxicLeadershipScale(MastersThesis,Universityof Maryland,2008). 26 Readersmayquestiontheuseofthetermjerkinanacademicarticle.Considertheappropriatenessofoneofits definitions:anunlikableperson;especiallyonewhoiscruel,rude,orsmallminded.Fewtermsmoreaccuratelydescribea toxicleader. 27 Burke,292. 28 Ibid,300. 29 Zaccaro,472. 30 AmyC.Edmondson,PsychologicalSafetyandLearningBehaviorinWorkTeams,AdministrationScience Quarterly44(1999):354. 31 Goodman,195. 32 Zaccaro,473. 33 Ibid,459. 34 Ibid,476. 35 FrankJ.LandyandJeffreyM.Conte,TeamsinOrganizations,inWorkinthe21stCentury,2ndEd.(Malden,MA: BlackwellPublishing,2007),556. 36 SeeBorisB.Baltesetal.,ComputerMediatedCommunicationandGroupDecisionMaking:AMetaAnalysis, OrganizationalBehaviorandHumanDecisionProcesses87,Issue1(January2002):156179.
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