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Is a Buddhist Psychotherapy Possible?
An Examination of How Buddhist Principles and Meditation can
Benefit Western Psychotherapy
Many psychotherapists today are beginning to realize that the goal of therapy
should be to confront and effectively diminish narcissism, a goal that Buddhism has
perfected long ago. There are those who believe that the merger of Buddhism and
traditional psychotherapy is paradoxical in nature. Others however, believe that the two
fields were destined to coalesce and that both fields have much to learn from each other.
By comparing the similarities, differences and common ground between traditional
psychotherapy and Buddhism, and by examining the physical and mental effects
meditation has on the individual, it can be shown that not only is a Buddhist
psychotherapy possible, it is imperative. Despite many conflicting perspectives, adopting
Buddhism in a therapeutic context would be an invaluable asset for increasing the
happiness and well being of people in Western society.
Today, many psychotherapists of traditional Western psychology are becoming
ever more interested in the potential of incorporating Buddhist perspectives and practices
with the traditional psychoanalytical methods of therapy. This interest was perhaps first
attributed to the famous psychologist William James in the early 1900’s. During a
conference at Harvard, James stopped and brought his attention to a Buddhist monk from
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Sri Lanka. He offered the monk his chair and declared that the monk is better equipped to
lecture on psychology then he is. At the time, James had made the prediction that in
twentyfive years, Buddhism would be the predominant psychology being studied and
applied in the West. (Epstein, 2004) James did not anticipate that over the subsequent
years, the ideas of Sigmund Freud would reign supreme in the arena of psychotherapy.
Furthermore, his prediction did not come true due to the wide spread notion that science
and religion are incompatible. Strictly speaking however, Buddhism is not a religion
because “it does not have any sacred scriptures whose words are law; no fixed cannon; no
rigid dogma; and no Savior or Divine Being through whose favor or intercession one’s
eventual salvation is assured.” (Aitken, 1993) In fact, it has been argued that Buddhism is
inherently a psychology, closely related to science in that the principles and techniques
outlined by the Buddha are empirically observable. (Mikulas, 1991) The Buddha urged
his followers not to accept anything on hearsay, authority or argument, but instead to
accept what is empirically and experientially verifiable. (Christopher, 2003) Regardless of
it’s nontheistic religious status and its close resemblance to a science, Buddhism has
been perceived as something foreign, exotic, unorthodox and alien to the general West.
Fortunately, these prejudices are being lifted and Buddhism is becoming more prevalent
then ever before. With over 300 million followers worldwide, the Buddha’s teachings have
come a long way.
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It is important to note that the Buddhist teaching represents a philosophy, a
psychology and an ethics. The Buddha’s teachings provide a set of beliefs about reality
(philosophy), a theory of the human mind and human behavior (psychology) and a set of
recommendations for appropriate conduct (ethics). (Bodhi, 1999) The most important
aspects of the Buddha’s teaching are contained in the Three Marks of Existence, the Four
Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, which are integral to the development of Buddhist
psychology. The Three Marks of Existence are transiency, sorrow and selflessness. The
Four Noble Truths are; suffering exists; suffering arises from attachment to desires;
suffering ceases when attachment to desire ceases; and by practicing the Eight Fold Path,
freedom from suffering is possible. The Eightfold Path is divided into three qualities;
Wisdom, which includes Right View and Right Thought; Morality, which includes Right
Speech, Right Action and Right Livelihood; and Meditation, which includes Right Effort,
Right Mindfulness and Right Contemplation. Buddhism and postmodern psychotherapy
are similar to the extent that they both attempt to understand the Mind and to find a way
to alleviate human suffering, but many of the teachings conflict with the traditional
notions of self and reality held in the West.
Perhaps the most difficult difference to reconcile between the two schools of
thought is the understanding of the “self.” The Buddhist perspective holds that the self is
not an entity, or a substance, or an essence. Instead it views the self as a dynamic process,
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a shifting web of relations between perceptions, ideas, and desires.” (Galin, 1999) This
concept of nonself (anatman) is contrary to the Western perspective, which maintains
that the self is a rigid entity. This notion is central in the traditional psychotherapy of
Freud, which maintains that the construction of an integrated and whole self is the goal of
psychotherapeutic practice. These views are seemingly diametrically opposed to one
another. The Buddhist perspective stresses that the achievement of enlightenment is the
transcendence of the self, or the complete recognition that the self is an illusory concept.
This severe dichotomy is indeed problematic, and causes considerable tension between
the two disciplines; however, some believe that the conflict arises out of a semantic
misunderstanding.
Many Westerners misunderstand the meaning of anatman, confusing “self is not
an essence or an entity,” with “self does not exist at all.” Instead, it should be noted that
the Buddhist tradition believes that the ordinary persons view of self as a lasting and
unchanging entity is the main cause of his suffering due to his futile attempt to hold on to
that which is in constant flux and has no existence outside of shifting contexts. (Galin,
1999) In other words, most people are whirlwinds who wish they were boulders. They
cling to things in the hopes that they will provide them with a certain "weight." They try
to solidify their loved ones into statues, not realizing that though a statue remains
unchanging, it has no love to give. Many try to become immortal by making their children
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and grandchildren into clones of themselves, or by getting onto television or into the
history books. They even cling to unhappy lives because change is too frightening.
Instead of denying transience, impermanence and the illusory constructs of the self, one
must confront these truths and embrace them. The grandeur of this perspective is
difficult to fully grasp and apply without arduous training. The main source of training,
as noted in the Eight Fold Path, is meditation.
Although there are many different forms of meditation, they can be divided into
two primary categories: Concentration Meditation and Insight Meditation. Concentrative
meditation focuses the mind on a single activity, such as breathing or repeating a mantra,
which aims to eliminate all other thoughts from awareness. This kind of meditation has
been popularized in the form of "Transcendental Meditation.” Buddhism, however, is
more concerned with practicing insight meditation (vipassana), the goal of which is
illumination into the nature of mental states. In contrast to traditional psychotherapeutic
technique of probing the psyche of the patient with questions in a causal manner,
vipassana brings awareness and attention to feelings, thoughts, and sensations exactly as
they occur and taking a passive and detached perspective on the minds inner workings,
without censorship or judgment. This awareness allows for a better understanding of the
impermanence and nonsubstantial nature of all phenomena, but may not necessarily
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always be the correct meditative prescription for patients. Meditation may have different
effects on the individual and may have very different clinical applications. The
distinctions between various forms of meditation are important to understand when being
applied in a therapeutic context. Recognizing how a meditative technique should be
applied in therapy according to the goals being sought is fundamental. This can be quite
an arduous procedure, since there are many variables to take into account. However,
research in this field is growing quickly, which will hopefully make it easier to assess
which meditation technique will benefit the patient. The following is an overview of the
recent scientific evidence for the cognitive changes taking place during and after
meditative practice, and the causal relationship between meditation and treatment of
specific disorders.
Over the last four decades, hundreds of studies have been conducted to reveal the
significant psychological and physiological effects of meditation. The findings were
astonishing. Concentrative Meditation, specifically Transcendental Meditation elicited
positive changes for people suffering from asthma, stuttering, type 2 diabetes, and
premenstrual syndrome. Meditation also proved to enhance immune function in cancer
patients, and reduce symptoms of distress in cancer patients. Mindfulness meditation, or
insight meditation, benefited people suffering from obsessivecompulsive disorder,
insomnia, phobias, eating disorders and anxiety as well as helped to alleviate feelings of
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aggression and addictions. Furthermore, there are several different kinds of meditative
techniques, which have been shown to catalyze an increase in perceptual sensitivity,
mental processing speed, concentration, reaction time and motor skills, short and long
term memory, academic performance and creativity. (Walsh; Shapiro, 2006) Furthermore,
there have been a variety of studies that utilized brainscanning techniques to reveal the
effects meditation has on the brain.
“In 2003, a study took place to measure electrical activity prior to and
after an eightweek mindfulness meditation program. The study showed that
meditation produced significant alterations in brain function. Another study,
which took place in 2001, used singlephoton emission tomography to study
meditation in eight Buddhist meditators and found increased regional
cerebral blood flow in the thalamus, cingulated gyrus, inferior and orbital
frontal cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. A study in 1990 examined
three Tibetan Buddhist monks and found that meditation was associated with
both increases and decreases in resting metabolism and with changes in EEG
readings, including increased beta activity and asymmetry in alpha and beta
activity between hemispheres.” (Kelly, 2008)
It is important to note that the scientific findings that verify positive benefits to
overall health and mental wellbeing aren’t yet fully understood and are limited by the
boundaries of current scientific understandings of the brain. Furthermore, research
studies are limited by many factors, mainly experimental design problems. These range
from small sample sizes and suboptimal controls, to subject selection bias and
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consistency problems. Regardless, it is quite evident that meditation can change the
function of the brain in an enduring way.
These findings suggest that meditation has much to offer psychotherapy. Perhaps
the combination of relaxation, cognitive and attention restructuring, selfobservation, and
insights, inherent in meditation, attribute to the efficacy of meditation being employed in
a therapeutic context. (Carpenter, 1977) Western psychology has much to learn from the
traditions of mystical sciences. It’s preoccupation with the contents of consciousness
(thoughts, emotions, impulses, memories, selfconcepts and images) has prevented it from
taking into account that the core sense of existence is not located in the content of
consciousness, but is located in the awareness itself. This awareness is outside of thought
and images, memories, and feelings, and cannot be witnessed, but must be experienced.
Meditation acts to heighten awareness of the observing self and to change patterns of
perception and thinking. In other words, meditation is like a raft, which allows one to
traverse the waters of mind. (Epstein, 2004)
Daniel Brown and Jack Engler studied experienced meditators and surprisingly
discovered that they were just as anxious as everyone else. (Brendand, 2008) The
implications of these findings were quite profound as they reveal that meditation, on its
own does not necessarily help solve emotional problems. Meditation is effective at
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establishing a framework within which a person may become more accepting and less
defensive, but without a conscientious and experienced therapists intervention, there is a
danger of stifling progress. Thus, meditation should not be a replacement for traditional
therapy. Traditional therapy can be quite helpful in many areas where meditation cannot.
Areas such as relationships, communication skills, intimacy and early wounds are more
effectively remedied with Western therapy. But others go even further and suggest that the
goal of meditation, which is to realize that the self or ego is illusory, is absolutely
irreconcilable with the therapeutic goal of facilitating development of a functioning ego.
This argument is not popular and is quick to dismiss the serious potential of integration,
but it does bring about a general misunderstanding as to the implementation of meditation
into psychotherapy.
It has been cautioned that before combining therapy and meditation, the
developmental levels of patients must be carefully considered. (Corton, 1985) Meditation
can be used as a powerful tool for healing, but if used inappropriately, can cause a lot of
harm and confusion in a patient who is not prepared or mature enough to apply the
teachings effectively. Utilizing the meditative teachings effectively may require a
sequential approach, in which traditional psychotherapy precedes meditation. This may be
more beneficial than a blended approach because it respects the developmental tasks of
the patient in therapy. Before meditation should take place, selfidentification, ego
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development and an increase in selfesteem are all necessary. In the words of John
Engler, “you have to be somebody before you can be nobody.”
It has been made clear that there are numerous differences and conflicting
perspectives between Buddhism and traditional Psychotherapy. However, there are many
commonalities between the two, which further establishes the possibility of integration.
The following is a list of components common to both psychotherapy and meditation:
Telling the truth; releasing negative emotions; the need for effort and
consistency; authenticity and trustavoiding selfdeception; integrity and
wholenessaccepting all one's experiences and allowing things to be as they
are, rather than living in a world of illusion and denial; insight and
forgiveness directed toward oneself and others; opening the heart and
developing the capacity to give and receive love; awareness and
nonjudgmental attention; liberation from limiting selfconcepts, from fear
and delusion, and from the past and early conditioning. (Vaughan, 1989)
These commonalities as well as the results yielded from research on mindfulness
meditation, has prompted the integration of mindfulness practices into clinical therapeutic
settings. These relatively new clinical fields, namely, “Mindfulness Based Cognitive
Therapy,” (MBCT) and “Dialectical Behavioral Therapy,” (DBT) utilize Buddhist
mindfulness techniques outside of the Buddhist framework. Mindfulness techniques are
used to help the individual recognize that thoughts are “just thoughts” and help patients
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make the distinction between self, thought and event. MBCT has been found to be highly
effective in reducing depressive relapse in patients with three previous episodes from 78%
to 36%. (Brendand, 2008) The goal of MBCT is freedom from the tendency to get drawn
into automatic reactions to thoughts, feelings, and events, by teaching patients how to pay
attention to thoughts without judgment. By doing so, patients learn that clinging to
feelings and thoughts, is mentally detrimental. Furthermore, the application of
mindfulness is not only used during therapy, but is encouraged to be utilized at all times.
Similarly, DBT combines standard cognitive behavioral techniques with mindfulness
awareness, distress tolerance, and acceptance, which are also largely derived from
Buddhist meditative practice. DBT is effective in treating patients with borderline
personality disorders and suicidal tendencies. However, the effectiveness of such
treatments often depends on the quality of the relationship between the patient and the
therapist. Regardless, these more integrated clinical therapies are paving the way for
future Buddhist psychotherapies by clearly demonstrating their efficacies.
The Buddha once said that “in the sky, there is no distinction of east and west;
people create distinctions out of their own minds and then believe them to be true.” For
too long, Western science and traditional Western psychotherapy has largely ignored the
potential of studying and incorporating esoteric perspectives on the nature of self and
reality. Today however, in a highly global community, the boundaries between east and
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west are finally being blurred. The successful marriage between Buddhism and traditional
psychotherapy is imperative, and is fortunately now underway. If all goes accordingly, it
will be remarkably beneficial and rewarding for both fields. There is however, an urgent
need to develop evidence for utilizing Buddhist techniques in a therapeutic context. In
doing so, the effectiveness of these techniques can be gauged and the techniques may be
applied appropriately. The door has been opened and now it is time to begin the
exploration and mapping of this new and promising territory.
Bibliography
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<http://www.buddhaweb.org/index.html>.
<http://www.fundamentalbuddhism.com/>.
Mikulas, W.L. "Eastern and Western Psychology: Issues and domains for
(1991): 10.
inspirational-quotes-by-buddha.html>.
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(2006): 227-39.
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