Journal of Social Work http://jsw.sagepub.

com/

Work-related factors that impact social work practitioners' subjective well-being: Well-being in the workplace
Micheal L Shier and John R Graham Journal of Social Work 2011 11: 402 originally published online 22 November 2010 DOI: 10.1177/1468017310380486 The online version of this article can be found at: http://jsw.sagepub.com/content/11/4/402

Published by:
http://www.sagepublications.com

Additional services and information for Journal of Social Work can be found at: Email Alerts: http://jsw.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Subscriptions: http://jsw.sagepub.com/subscriptions Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav Permissions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav Citations: http://jsw.sagepub.com/content/11/4/402.refs.html

>> Version of Record - Oct 16, 2011 OnlineFirst Version of Record - Nov 22, 2010 What is This?

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

Article

Work-related factors that impact social work practitioners subjective well-being: Well-being in the workplace
Micheal L Shier
University of Calgary, Canada

Journal of Social Work 11(4) 402421 ! The Author(s) 2010 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1468017310380486 jsw.sagepub.com

John R Graham
University of Calgary, Canada

Abstract  Summary: This research is among the first to analyze social work practitioners workplace subjective well-being (SWB), the social scientific concept of happiness. From an initial survey of 646 social workers, 13 respondents with the highest SWB scores were interviewed: a cohort that can teach us much about creating and sustaining SWB.  Findings: The following reports on one aspect of those qualitative findings: the work related factors that impact overall SWB. Researchers found that the respondents overall SWB was impacted by characteristics of their work environment (i.e. physical, cultural, and systemic), interrelationships at work (i.e. with clients, colleagues, and supervisors), and specific aspects of the job (i.e. factors associated with both workload and type of work).  Applications: The findings are discussed in relation to social work administration, and future research. There are implications for direct social work practitioners, managers, and educators, and in particular with regard to workplace environments that support social worker SWB. Keywords environment, job satisfaction, social work, social workers, subjective well-being, workload, workplace

Corresponding author: Micheal L Shier, Faculty of Social Work, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive N.W., Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4 Email: mlshier@ucalgary.ca

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

Shier and Graham

403

Subjective well-being (SWB) is a long-standing social scientic concept that captures how people evaluate their lives, and includes factors such as life satisfaction, lack of depression and anxiety, and positive moods and emotions. SWB is more than just satisfaction with one area of a persons life; it is inuenced by ones environment, perspectives, and daily activities and practices (Cummins, 1995, 1998; Diener, 2000; Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999). Determinants of SWB include age, race, sex, education, income, social relationships, and employment (Keyes & Waterman, 2003). A number of workplace factors have a positive impact on SWB, including simple holiday taking (Gilbert & Abdullah, 2004). Likewise, the perception of support (Jayaratne, Himle, & Chess, 1988), exposure to workplace programs and policies that involve employee involvement (Mackie, Holahan, & Gottlieb, 2001), and eective supervision (Cearley, 2004) have been linked to positive outcomes and feelings of empowerment. In the helping professions, practitioners benet psychologically from the helping role (Lazar & Guttman, 2003) and from opportunities for continuing their education and professional development (Laufer & Sharon, 1985; Marriott, Sexton, & Staley, 1994; Roat, 1988). The social services sector is a very important part of any economy (Industry Canada, 2008). Beyond contributions to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth, the social services provide resources, support, and counseling to many, including a communitys most vulnerable and disenfranchised populations. A robust literature though identies diculties in the social service workplace (see for example, Acker & Lawrence, 2009; Carniol, 2003; Graham, Swift, & Delaney, 2009; Jones, 2001; Jones & Novak, 1993). Professionals in this sector, in North America and Europe, experience employee burnout (Kim & Stoner, 2008; Sowers-Hoag & Thyer, 1987), high stress (Coey, Dugdill, & Tattersall, 2009; Coyle, Edwards, Hannigan, Fothergill, & Burnard, 2005; Donovan, 1987), low pay (Carniol, 2003), and higher rates of turnover (Evans et al., 2006; Service Canada, 2008; Siebert, 2005). SWB supports productivity, life satisfaction, socially desirable behaviors, and positive physical and mental health (Keyes & Waterman, 2003). These outcomes can have positive inuences on employer well-being, workplace productivity, absenteeism, and sta attrition (Jones, Fletcher, & Ibbetson, 1991). Particularly because of the challenges of the human services, it is surprising that little attention has been given to those specic factors in the workplace that might enhance social workers own SWB. While a sparse literature has examined SWB in relation to specic occupations like teaching (Van Horn, Taras, Schaufeli, & Schreurs, 2004), only a small number of articles have been published on SWB in the human services, and much of this has been exploratory (Graham, Trew, Schmidt, & Kline, 2007; Kline & Graham, 2009). Moreover, no research, to date, considers SWB as a basis for the development of exemplary workplace practices for social work. Social work theory emphasizes the strengths and capacities of its clients; it is a peculiar omission that little workplace literature deals with such practitioner strengths and capacities in the workplace, and that none considers such concepts as SWB in relation to work. Understanding these factors could have implications

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

404

Journal of Social Work 11(4)

for social workers across social service elds and levels of practice. This research provides a window through which we may consider social worker SWB in myriad advanced industrialized societies. Canada has been a member of the Group of 8 since its inception, and a founding member of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Furthermore, Canada is a stable democracy and retains a welfare state, albeit in decreasing scope and comprehensiveness (Graham et al., 2009). The rst university-based Canadian program in social work opened in 1914 and there are approximately 30,000 registered social workers nationally. There are 37 schools of social work that belong to the Canadian Association for Social Work Education (the accreditation body for the professional schools) and there are schools that oer one or more of the BSW, MSW and PhD degrees (http://www.caswe-acfts.ca/en/). In Canada there are national, provincial, and territorial associations of social workers, and the social work profession is selfregulated by provincial bodies in several provinces. The profession is also mandated by federal, provincial, and municipal legislation. The present article is based on research conducted in Alberta, one of the countrys most prosperous provinces, and the centre of the countrys oil industry. It is a western province adjacent to the Rocky Mountains, has a population of nearly four million people, and has two major urban centers of nearly one million each (http://alberta.ca/home).

Methods
The province of Alberta has nearly 5500 practicing social workers, who are registered with and regulated by the Alberta College of Social Workers (ACSW) under legislated areas of practice that are dened by the provinces Health Professions Act (1999). In 2006, a large survey on SWB was distributed to a random sampling (n 2250) of those members registered with the Alberta College of Social Workers (ACSW), with 646 (28.7%) responding. The present research is based on contact with a purposive sampling of the 25 highest-scoring respondents on the basis of SWB. From that cohort, a total of 13 respondents agreed to provide interviews (11 female and two male). The smaller sample size conrms the exploratory nature of the study. Of the 13 participants, all held university degrees in social work, the majority were over the age of 50, there was a wide range of years of practice, respondents worked in government, non-prot and private practice, and all but one worked in urban settings. The research was particularly interested in the high scoring respondents: the cohort that was happy, providing us therefore a strong basis for beginning to conceptualize SWB-related changes to policies, practices, and approaches. Data collection utilized ethnographic techniques of interviewing (Holstein & Gubrium, 1995; Patton, 1990; Seidman, 1991). A member of the research team either conducted interviews in person or over the telephone (depending on the availability of the research participant). A semi-structured interview guide was utilized as the research had specic goals and the researcher had some comprehension of the community from the insiders perspective (i.e. researchers are also social

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

Shier and Graham

405

workers with several years of practice experience), all of which is in line with ethnographic research techniques (see for example, Fetterman, 1998, 2008). Interviews lasted approximately two hours in duration. Respondents were asked questions that sought to identify aspects of their personal life, work life, and the profession of social work that have an impact on their overall SWB. With regard to work-related factors that inuence their SWB, respondents were specically asked: what things at work have the greatest impact on your SWB; what things do you do at work to ensure that your SWB is provided for; and what aspects of your work life result in high levels of SWB and what negatively impacts your SWB? Interviews were digitally recorded and then transcribed. Our reporting eliminates identifying characteristics such as place, date, and sex. Utilizing the transcriptions and the researcher notes taken throughout the interview process, data were analyzed using qualitative methods of analytic induction and constant comparison strategies (see Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Goetz & LeCompte, 1984). Specically, emergent themes (see for example, Charmaz, 2000; Williams, 2008) and patterns (see for example, Cresswell, 2009; Fetterman, 2008) were identied within the transcribed interviews in relation to personal, work-related, and professional factors described as impacting respondents SWB. Specically, the researchers, individually, read through all the interviews several times with the objective of identifying common themes, after which the themes were then coded and the data searched for instances of the same/similar phenomenon. Finally, following this process the data was then translated into primary themes that were rened until all instances of contradictions, similarities, and dierences were explained (thus increasing the dependability and consistency of the ndings). The ndings are transferable but not generalizable to all social workers and workplace settings. The primary themes from this analysis included: work related factors impact my overall SWB; 2) being mindful in my personal and professional life impacts my overall SWB (Shier & Graham, in press); 3) aspects or characteristics of the profession of social work impacts my SWB (Graham & Shier, 2010); and 4) aspects of my personal life aect my overall SWB (Graham & Shier, in press). The following article reports on the rst primary theme work related factors impact my overall SWB. All data related to one of these four primary themes. Data were analyzed further, following same processes as described above until all ndings were categorized. The following section provides some indication of the ndings supported by some of the participant quotes. These quotes are not exhaustive of all participant contributions in each category. All members of the research team collaboratively worked on this stage of research to maintain the credibility criteria of the study. Themes that emerged relating to the workplace that impact the SWB of research participants included the work environment, interrelationships at work, and particular aspects of the job relating to workload and type of work. Following practices associated with qualitative data analysis, and in particular emergent themes, the ndings are presented here empirically (based on the data) and conceptually

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

406

Journal of Social Work 11(4)

(linked to the wider analytical context of previous scholarship) (see for example, Williams, 2008). This research received ethics certication from the University of Calgarys Conjoint Faculties Research Ethics Board (CFREB).

Findings Work environment Physical. The roles and inuences of the physical environment on social work
practice have received insucient attention within social work literature (Weeks, 2004). Some research has addressed elements of the physical environment that promote competency when providing particular social services (Breton, 1984; Gutheil, 1992). Additional studies have dealt with the role of the physical environment on large systemic social issues and service provision models (Graham, Walsh, & Sandalack, 2008; Shier, Walsh, & Graham, 2007). Absent from this scholarship is analysis of the impact of the physical environment on social workers. Respondents in this study identied several aspects of the physical environment that inuence their overall SWB in the workplace. One described the importance of personalizing their physical environment:
Ive surrounded myself in my oce, its a good size oce and I have trees in it that grow up to the ceiling and windows and I look out on a park with lots of trees in it. I have little fuzzy toys and little things that people have brought me from all over the world. Its a very peaceful place. (001)

There is more to physical space than personal touches. Participants also commented on their work settings physical composition. For example, the previous respondent stated:
We all have our own oce which is very nice with [French] doors, so its not a cubicle setting. Its really nice but we have a sort of middle area where we all yell back and forth at each other and meet collectively and stand together and we have a place that we can sit down and have coee. (001)

For these respondents, the physical environment and design of the workplace had an eect on their overall SWB. It inuenced both their mental well-being while at work and also the interpersonal interactions amongst colleagues throughout the oce setting. One described:
It was a circular design, so no matter where you went you saw people from all dierent areas. Here it is kind of the old style of long hallways and everyone kind of in their own area and so you dont run into people naturally. Now in this place . . . I nd it an isolating building. The design of it I dont nd is particularly conducive to community. (011)

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

Shier and Graham

407

Culture/dynamics. Organizational factors such as workload, inadequate administration, and a lack of social support within the organization have been shown to have an impact on burnout across the helping professions (Levert, Lucas, & Ortlepp, 2000; Lozinskaia, 2002). Organizational culture and interpersonal dynamics, however, can positively inuence the well-being of practitioners. Respondents here described cultural factors and dynamics in the workplace that have some bearing on their overall SWB. Interestingly, none of these factors were related to lesser workloads or inadequate administration. Also, while the ndings demonstrate a sense of support through interpersonal interactions, the key component in relation to organizational cultures is more about connecting with people than being supported. For example, one respondent described:
Ive got a great workplace. Im very satised with the people I work with, the systems that I work with, my physical place of work . . . I get a lot of respect as a supervisor and I get a lot of support from my sta too. Ive just been promoted again doing more responsibilities and theyve been very supportive through the whole transition and theyre very professional people that I work around; very happy and we take care of each other even though weve got that supervisor relationship. We all care for each other so thats kind of nice. (002)

Likewise, another stated:

Well we get a little silly and dance sometimes. We joke around, we sit around and chat over lunch . . . just big senses of humor. One of our colleagues has a, hes got a crazy sense of humor and hes always making us laugh. So a lot of it is just, its relaxed, but when it needs to be serious and we need to focus we sure do. (009)

Beyond describing these interpersonal dynamics related to the organizational culture, respondents provided useful insight into how to create environments of this nature at work to maximize SWB. One suggested:
Id like to think its through respect, respecting others. Working as a team, valuing peoples wisdom and peoples experiences and learning from them. I would like to think that people are comfortable, you know leaving the door open so people can come to me. Letting people know if youve got an issue with something please come to me and talk to me about it. (008)

Similarly, another described:

We eat lunch together, we go for coee, we like each other. We celebrate each others birthdays and we really try during lunch to not talk about work, but know each others kids and whats going on in peoples lives. Realizing that whats going on emphasizes and impacts them at their work. (011)

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

408

Journal of Social Work 11(4)

Systemic. Extensive literature in dierent disciplines identies a correlation

between the type of work environment and workers health and well-being (Cooper & Cartwright, 1994; Gavin & Mason, 2004; Manuele, 1997; Smith, Kaminstein, & Makadok, 1995; Warr, 1990). Most of this scholarship describes the impact of organizational structure on the well-being of workers. The respondents identied several structural components (hierarchies and organization of departments and programs, and organizational size) that impacted their SWB. For example, commenting on how structural reorganizing impacts workplace well-being, one respondent stated:
I didnt have a grip on the processes and what was going on and why there was so much conict and so many hot spots and couldnt get a grip on any of it . . . the transition was huge; wed just gone through a whole structural reorganization. (001)

Similarly referring more to organizational hierarchies in interdisciplinary settings another respondent stated:
I hated the sta meetings. What I noticed in myself was it was like I had this antenna out there. I was so aware of all the interpersonal dynamics of the people in the meeting that I couldnt think. I couldnt be very articulate in those meetings because I was so aware of this persons feelings, and that persons feelings and all the things going on. (004)

The environment of the workplace is not entirely internal. Practitioners are working with external systems and much of the work they do is made possible through external funding. The systemic aspects of the external environment (such as the economy, social welfare policies) and the challenges faced when interacting with these external elements have an impact on the workplace and the overall SWB of practitioners. One respondent explained:
Oh, just to try and collaborate or to cooperate with the Child Welfare workers that was before the days of the Family Enhancement it was just they were their own power and control. (002)

Other respondents described the competitive nature of the external environment, making the process of securing funding more challenging, and having a direct impact on overall SWB. One stated:
Part of what I have to learn . . . is watching other people in the community. How they maneuver into positions of power and going after funding. Im not saying its not supportive but its a new skill Im learning, because my philosophy is, and I dont think this is going to work so well when it comes to going after funding, you only take as much as you need and it seems like not everybody operates at that level. (009)

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

Shier and Graham

409

Interpersonal relationship Connection with clients. Direct work with clients has been linked to social worker
burnout and overall job satisfaction. Some scholarship describes the implications of being over-involved and describes the relationship between work and personal life balance (Koeske & Kelly, 1995). Level of job satisfaction for social workers has also been linked to perceived quality of service to clients (Packard, 1989). While this literature is useful, it provides little insight into the inuence of client and social worker relationships on other aspects of well-being besides job satisfaction. Connecting with clients, and interacting with them in positive ways, was an important indicator of overall SWB for some respondents. One respondent described such a situation:
Yes up at [place name] I said You can have anything you want on the menu he said anything and his eyes just bulged, popped open and he ordered this Margarita and got this huge big Margarita glass. He ordered this steak it was just such a pleasure to watch him be indulged. You need to see them happy, you know, and not always down. It was good; we were really high that day. (002)

Interacting with clients was more than just witnessing outcomes or beneting from providing a particular service. Respondents identied how connecting with the stories and lives of clients in meaningful ways also impacted their overall SWB. As one put it:
Im always learning and thats one of the reasons I like my work because each client brings their unique situation. Theres always more to learn about whatever, and also about ways of helping and dierent methodologies and that kind of thing. (004)

Another similarly stated:

I think I get a lot from the job itself or from just being in this eld because I nd in all of the jobs that Ive ever had for the most part that the people I work with are rewarding. I work from a strengths perspective and I just nd that everyone has a story to tell and if I listen carefully I will learn something from those stories. I do, I always learn something and get a positive lesson from that. (007)

For these respondents, and others in this study, understanding and reecting on the stories and lived experiences of their clients signicantly eected their overall SWB; an individuals SWB is positively impacted by other peoples stories. As one respondent noted, the stories and the narratives of clients provide perspective to the practitioner about their own lives.
Its a good reminder to me that as bad as I think I have it theres always someone worse o. Especially with the clients that I work with now. Im a lot better o in so many dierent ways and yet theyve had to deal with those issues on a daily basis and

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

410

Journal of Social Work 11(4)

they can still get up in the morning and get out and have a really good and positive attitude so why cant I. To me that is worth a lot right there. (008)

Relationships with colleagues. Social capital is a useful organizing framework for

the data. By social capital, we mean the social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that are derived by them (Putnam, 2000, p. 19). Social capital in the workplace has a clear correlation with workers well-being in general (Helliwell & Huang, 2005; Lee & Ashforth, 1996; Pugliesi, 1999; Sousa-Poza & Sousa-Poza, 2000). Among the respondents, interactions and relationships at work contribute signicantly to the social capital of people within their work environment, to their SWB, their relationships with colleagues, and their ability to feel comfortable at work. With regard to support in particular, one respondent stated:
I think its peer support; certainly a lot of it has to do with having a nurturing healthy work environment. Having fun and then being able if something happens someone walks in the door and its a crisis we can all just click into place and do our work. But also, to be silly; so its all about that balance again, truly a lot of it is peer support and being able to dialogue. I think its very dicult to work in isolation. (009)

Beyond the support role of colleagues, respondents also described the nature of the interaction between colleagues as impacting overall SWB. For many respondents this involved several aspects related to both cohesion and support. As one pointed out:
The other thing we do is we support each other, we do case conferences, and we will have lunches together once every two or three weeks. We will talk about cases, so we case consult and were very open with each other in the sense that if we see some problems with each other then were able to confront each other. (006)

Another similarly described the need to promote cohesion by discussing diering views of best practices:
We have a little bit of division in our team as to what are appropriate best practices and that has been a little bit frustrating and there has been sort of a need to come together and talk about that and try to work through that in the residents best interest. (003)

Other respondents articulated the importance of feeling comfortable around their colleagues. One stated:
I really need to feel like Im comfortable and on good terms with the people that I work with; so spending a lot of time building relationships and celebrating birthdays and being thoughtful with each other. (010)

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

Shier and Graham Likewise, another expressed the manner in which comfort is achieved:

411

There are the informal discussions that happen, which are more so a safe place to get something o your chest that you probably wouldnt want to say to someone professionally or respectfully but we have a great group of people where we can feel comfortable to do that. (003)

Interactions with supervisors. When done eectively supervision can be a contributing factor to reducing burnout amongst social workers (Ruggles, 2004). Quality of supervision is an important factor contributing to overall job satisfaction (Abu-Bader, 2005), and the present research appears to support the importance of supervision. Respondents perceived characteristics of the supervisor/ supervisee relationship that result in higher levels of SWB. Unlike most literature, which depicts better practices of an eective supervisor (see Ross, 1993), respondents here provide insight into the importance of the relationship with their supervisor. Some described the high impact upon their SWB of supervisors approaching them for expertise. As one respondent stated:
It makes me feel good when Im approached by the other leaders in our organization for my assistance or my input on dierent things . . . Im still considered a front line worker so I think thats pretty special that Im thought of in that way to contribute. (003)

Respondents talked about another aspect of the supervisor/supervisee: being heard by supervisors. One described the relationship between them and their director and having their concerns addressed in a particular situation:
I talked to my Director and she was certainly very understanding and caring and wanted to make sure that this was dealt with appropriately. So I felt supported and I felt that something was going to be done. Despite it being a frustration I knew that something was going to be done about it. (005)

Other aspects involving the style of leadership undertaken by supervisors also have an impact on respondents overall SWB. For example, one respondent described:
I went back to a unit that Id never worked on before. It was in a very, I would say very unhealthy work environment. The supervisor, I think, was unhealthy and was kind of into politics. She needed to feel powerful and needed to exert that power. (010)

Aspects of job Workload. Further factors inuencing overall SWB are the amount of work, its
changing dynamics, and the extent to which outcomes are achieved. Related to job

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

412

Journal of Social Work 11(4)

satisfaction, some literature has found that the way in which people perceive an increase or decrease of workload can become an obstacle to achieving expected outcomes and could compromise the perception of workers capabilities (Elizur, 1984; Sparks, Faragher, & Cooper, 2001; Spector, 1986). Workload is usually understood in terms of the amount of work that is required of a person in a particular position. Many of the respondents talked about the changing dynamics of work, how workloads increase and decrease over time, and how that impacts the way that people manage work. Several respondents also provide insight into the relationship between workload and positive well-being. For example, exibility within the workload was seen as a signicant contributor to SWB. Respondents understood that the nature of the work requires workloads that are cumbersome, but aspects of the job can limit those negative components. For example, one respondent stated:
I have a young family at home and its important to me that while Im at, or in the workplace, that I can make that a priority when thats necessary. In this particular role I have that exibility to drop things and be where Im needed. In my role at work there are certain things that I need to make priority here [at home] too and I think my colleagues here respect that as well. (003)

Similarly, exibility with workloads can help free up time to improve other aspects of life that may be under-resourced. The question of worklife balance is closely linked to SWB. As one respondent stated:
I simply will cut back and take a look at it. Look at my scheduling and cut back on the time. I will schedule in more walks or more recreation. Or, what I do is I have two colleagues that I work with here and well talk about that and Ill say Ive really been feeling stressed and Im going to have to cut back and Im going to do this and Im going to do that. We support each other and they are able to do the same with me. (006)

Achieving meaningful workload outcomes was also signicant. For many respondents, workloads need to change over time and cannot stay stagnant. Many respondents wanted to see some accomplishment in what they were doing and how this was articulated varied amongst respondents. For some it was based on the progress of clients:
When they start to discover their own beauty I mean those are my highs professionally. I mean I just feel happy for them, I feel joyful for them because I believe life can be good for them . . . and then they know that they can make it good no matter what. Those are my higher moments. (004)

For others it was a task-based accomplishment:

Again the resourcing, we had a caterer in place already. Right now thats where my problem is, not getting a caterer that was aordable. We had an aordable caterer,

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

Shier and Graham

413

I should qualify that. So that was one challenge out of the way, but just getting contacts, nding the entertainment for the right price. (002)

For some, underlying this sense of accomplishment is the appreciation of how moment-to-moment experiences inuence overall SWB. One respondent described:
If its a day where you feel your ten steps behind, it can still be a good day. I mean you certainly feel a little bit dierent about it but you also just learn how to pace yourself too. I can see certainly when you do hear that youve secured a certain amount of funding for a period of time you feel pretty good but thats just one tiny piece of it. If weve had a really good day here and everybodys had a good day and weve all just kind of had a certain level of closeness, I feel really great and walk out the door. (009)

A nal consideration regarding workloads and the impact on SWB is the need to understand the limitations of the work and the individuals capacity to carry it out. One respondent described some of these limitations and their impact on their SWB when failing to recognize the impact:
Those things were really hard for me at rst. I felt so responsible for instance for the girls that I was working with. Over responsible really, I took on a lot and I ended up, I mean that was in my rst year of marriage too, I remember starting to get migraine headaches and I was just exhausted by Friday night, just absolutely exhausted. That was certainly not one of my I liked the work and I loved the girls but it wasnt one the high points in my career. (004)

Work related limitations inuencing practitioners well-being were also a result of funding deciencies and geographic boundaries of practice. For instance, with regard to boundaries, one respondent described frustration in not being able to help a particular client because of where they lived:
The limitations as I said of the boundaries. Because you might think its a big boundary but then you have someone two blocks out of that boundary and you send them to the other direction when you can just as easily help them. (002)

Also, respondents identied limitations in practice as a result of funding requirements, such as outcome measurements, as having an impact on their SWB in the workplace:
The frustration of working for outcomes with the logic model [a tool used to map outcomes], you know, this is what youre supposed to do and if youre not following that then your funding can be withdrawn. (012)

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

414

Journal of Social Work 11(4)

For many, the limitations imposed on respondents had an impact on their SWB because of the inability to conduct the work they thought was necessary and required to succeed in the task at hand.

Type of work. The type of work that practitioners undertake also aected their
SWB. The perception of how people t into their job as well as the meaning they nd in what they do inuences both job and life satisfaction (Borzaga & Tortia, 2006; Judge & Watanabe, 1993). For many respondents, valuing the work is a signicant component contributing to their SWB. Some described this as a personal appreciation for the type of work with which they are involved:
I can understand why it took me a while but once I got into it and realized boy, you know, this is easy, this is fun, this is challenging, this is enjoyable and its professionally rewarding, then I look back I should have done this earlier. Because you can make as much money, do as well, and feel much more positive about your contributions and things. I certainly was not feeling this in public work for a number of years. (006)

A lack of appreciation for work can impact an individuals overall perception of their work, and negatively inuences their SWB:
Again, it was you being the liaison between the Child Welfare worker and the client. So you have to do a lot of soothing rued feathers on both sides. Ideally it would be nice to have a win-win situation where the client is happy and the Child Welfare worker is happy, but invariably it was the Child Welfare Worker that had the upper hand and so it was, if you want to look at it that way, a lose situation. (002)

Some respondents also described having their work valued by others, and not just valuing the work themselves. Recognition seems to be a common theme. For example, one respondent suggested that supervisors who demonstrate they are valuing their work indirectly inuenced their SWB.
I feel valued here thats for sure and I think thats demonstrated in the way that more executive members of our organization invite me to be part of things and Im honored to do those things. (003)

A related theme involves the personal t of the work. Research on a variety of occupations nds high levels of person-organization t associated with high job satisfaction, high organizational commitment, and low turnover intentions (Verquer, Beehr, & Wagner, 2003). This research helps to determine how happy social workers experience this t, and whether there are eminent practices through which it might be enhanced. Some respondents described their happiness in relation to the roles they took on in work:

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

Shier and Graham

415

Thats why the supervisory positions have never appealed to me; because oh my gosh, I can be responsible for what I do hands on but I do not want to be responsible for the work of other people out here. I think that comes from having too much responsibility as a young child. Its very hard to not get into that place of like youre in over your head and you dont know how to handle it. (004)

Others saw it in terms of what type of practice they did:

Yeah, Ive always known it would be very stressful for me and also I would never go into Child Protection because I would not do well in that. I would be worried about those children. I would just not go there for my own well-being. (013)

Others saw personal t in terms of the population of people with whom they worked. One respondent adored working with families:
That experience, I was able to understand why its so important to this day to work for families. I think that showed me how what Im doing, is vital. I love what Im doing presently. I feel that Im supporting the families and dont have to hide behind a bureaucratic situation where people dont always understand the importance of the family, supporting the family, and getting them through the diculties. (005)

Others were concerned with specic groups of service users. One distinguished between voluntary and involuntary clients:
For me it was the clients perception of you, the hostility and you were going to come and take their children away. I sort of never, its kind of odd to say Ive just never been in that sort of position before. Ive always worked more or less with voluntary clients and this was a real dierence for me. I just didnt nd it was suited for me, my personality. (007)

A nal component is perceived meaningfulness of the work. For some respondents meaningfulness related directly to their overall perceptions of the work being conducted:
Ive often said to people I couldnt imagine being in a job where you are waiting for the clock to pass. Thinking; waiting for retirement. I feel like Ive been lucky to be in an area where I have made a dierence, hopefully, in peoples lives over a number of years. (011)

Others described meaningfulness in relation to perceived outcomes for clients:

Seeing the positive results of me intervening and helping out, it certainly contributes but its not; what can I say; if it doesnt work out its not always Oh now what didnt I do. But as far as trying to gure out, ok, how come it didnt work at

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

416

Journal of Social Work 11(4)

this place? What happened, what are the factors and always trying to learn from that. (005)

Meaningfulness within the work can be more, though, than individual perceptions of work and personal capabilities. For some respondents it was also about expanding professional knowledge and being in positions that require a level of continuous learning:
I always want to be learning and making that kind of a goal for myself. So whether its reading an academic book or accessing the library or taking courses for example, I do quite a few presentations internally on high risk youth and on case notes and that kind of stu. So pursuing opportunities that are going to challenge me and doing research, to kind of stay interested. (010)

Likewise, meaningfulness could also mean creativity and longevity of the programs being created:
A new initiative that was proposed was to set up a rural oce in the town that I lived in at the time. Just because I lived there I got the job kind of thing. So along with another worker from employment services for adults we opened up a rural oce and just working with local employers and getting all of that set up was very rewarding. I really enjoyed that period of time and we carried on in running it. Its still there to this day. (007)

Conclusion
Each of these thematic categories is not distinct. Many are overlapping, and for the respondents, these categories dene the complexity (and in some instances the fragility) of maintaining high levels of SWB. This research oers an analysis of what could occur in the workplace for practitioners to maintain higher levels of SWB. These include the work environment (physical, cultural, and systemic internal and external environments), the types and characteristics of relationships at work (with clients, colleagues, and supervisors), and the nature of the job (including factors such as workload exibility, changes and limitations, and types and perceptions of work being done). The research also shows that SWB in ones professional life is connected to other aspects of life (i.e. professional and personal aspects). There are, therefore, implications for direct social work practitioners, managers, and educators. For instance, the ndings on work environments provide a point of reection for direct practitioners and managers to think about their immediate environment and how that aects overall well-being, and to reect on ways to create environments that support improved well-being; those that support positive peer, client, and supervisory relationships. Likewise, social work educators as well

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

Shier and Graham

417

as workplace supervisors could help workers understand characteristics of social work jobs that might impact positive well-being. While many argue that high workloads are a leading cause of burnout this is not necessarily the whole picture (see for example, Stalker, Mandell, Frensch, Harvey, & Wright, 2007). The data here provide evidence that there are a number of factors that can contribute to negative workplace experiences but these need to be understood as a collective. Social workers might have higher caseloads, but the nature of that workload (i.e. whether it is exible, that they have a sense of the limitations of their capabilities and of resources, and that the workload changes) needs to be analyzed and placed in the context of the larger work environment and the many other factors contributing to overall well-being. While there are a number of implications of this research, much still needs to be done. The profession could usefully explore the impact of these environmental factors in particular, the relationship between systemic organizational factors and the SWB of practicing social workers. This is necessary considering the nature of social work and the interdisciplinary capacity of many organizations, positions, and roles associated with it. Further research could examine these impacts on social worker well-being and overall job satisfaction. Relationships we develop as practitioners have a signicant impact on our overall SWB. And so there are further questions that need to be considered regarding boundaries and nding a balance between work and personal life. Likewise, workplace policies need to be made in light of the connection between SWB-related life and work experiences. An uninterrupted holiday, as an example, is positive for lifebased SWB, which in turn has a positive impact on workplace SWB. But further research could delve into other workplacelife connections in relation to SWB, and prevailing assumptions in the literature, separating workplace and personal life well-being, could be abandoned. Moreover, the means by which SWB might be a useful counter to workplace burnout, a common social work phenomenon (SowersHoag & Thyer, 1987), is hitherto unexplored. For many respondents in this study, their clients and the workplace added signicantly to their high levels of SWB. How do we better incorporate those propensities in our direct and indirect work with clients? Also, as a result, what frameworks become more useful in direct client work? Finally, and perhaps most importantly: it will be essential to avoid using SWB as a further strategy for deskilling, marginalizing, or otherwise rendering social workers less powerful in relation to social change and innovative intervention. Like many useful concepts, SWB could be applied by those in power as a means of compliance to norms that the profession and its stakeholders could nd highly unappealing. These need to be resisted and countered. In the end, this research provides groundwork for a fresh, innovative perspective on workplace satisfaction for social workers. It also expands our knowledge on the characteristics of the workplace that have the greatest impact on the perceived wellbeing of social work practitioners. But further work needs to occur as demonstration projects, pilots, and full policies incorporating SWB to the workplace, and in evaluating the results.

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

418

Journal of Social Work 11(4)

Acknowledgement
This research was generously supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada through a three-year (20062009) Standard Research Grant awarded to Dr John R. Graham.

References
Abu-Bader, S. H. (2005). Gender, ethnicity, and job satisfaction among social workers in Israel. Administration in Social Work, 29(3), 721. Acker, G. M., & Lawrence, D. (2009). Social work and managed care: Measuring competence, burnout, and role stress of workers providing mental health services in a managed care era. Journal of Social Work, 9(3), 269283. Borzaga, C., & Tortia, E. (2006). Worker motivation, job satisfaction, and loyalty in public and nonprofit social services. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 35(2), 225248. Breton, M. (1984). A drop-in program for transient women: Promoting competence through the environment. Social Work, 29(6), 542546. Carniol, B. (2003). Case critical. Toronto, ON: Between the Lines. Cearley, S. (2004). The power of supervision in child welfare services. Child & Youth Care Forum, 33(5), 313327. Charmaz, K. (2000). Grounded theory: Objectivist and constructionist methods. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 509535). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Coffey, M., Dugdill, L., & Tattersall, A. (2009). Working in the public sector: A case study of social services. Journal of Social Work, 9(4), 420442. Cooper, C. L., & Cartwright, S. (1994). Healthy mind, healthy organizations: A proactive approach to occupational stress. Human Relations, 47(4), 455471. Coyle, D., Edwards, D., Hannigan, B., Fothergill, A., & Burnard, P. (2005). A systematic review of stress among mental health social workers. International Social Work, 48(2), 201211. Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Cummins, R. A. (1995). On the trail of the gold standard for subjective well-being. Social Indicators Research, 35(2), 179200. Cummins, R. A. (1998). The second approximation to an international standard for life satisfaction. Social Indicators Research, 43(3), 307334. Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55(1), 3443. Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. E. (1999). Subjective wellbeing: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125(2), 276302. Donovan, R. (1987). Stress in the workplace: A framework for research and practice. Social Casework, 68(5), 259266. Elizur, D. (1984). Facets of work values: A structural analysis of work outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69(3), 379389. Evans, S., Huxley, P., Gately, C., Webber, M., Meers, A., Pajak, S., Medina, J., Kendall, T., & Katona, C. (2006). Mental health, burnout, and job satisfaction among mental health social workers in England and Wales. British Journal of Psychiatry, 188(1), 7580.

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

Shier and Graham

419

Fetterman, D. M. (1998). Ethnography: Step by step. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Fetterman, D. M. (2008). Ethnography. In L. M. Given (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of qualitative research methods (pp. 288292). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Gavin, J. H., & Mason, R. O. (2004). Healthy, happy, productive work: A leadership challenge. Organizational Dynamics, 33(4), 379392. Gilbert, D., & Abdullah, J. (2004). Holiday taking and the sense of well-being. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(1), 103121. Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. New York: Aldine Press. Goetz, J. P., & LeCompte, M. D. (1984). Ethnography and qualitative design in educational research. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Graham, J. R., & Shier, M. L. (2010). The social work profession and subjective well-being: The impact of a profession on overall subjective well-being. British Journal of Social Work, 40(5), 15531572. Graham, J. R., & Shier, M. L. (in press). Social work practitioners and subjective well-being: Personal factors that contribute to high levels of subjective well-being. International Social Work. Graham, J. R., Swift, K., & Delaney, R. (2009). Canadian social policy: An introduction (3rd ed.). Toronto, ON: Prentice Hall. Graham, J. R., Trew, J., Schmidt, J., & Kline, T. (2007). Influences on the subjective wellbeing of practising social workers. Canadian Social Work, 9(1), 92105. Graham, J. R., Walsh, C., & Sandalack, B. (2008). Design considerations for shelters for the homeless. Calgary: Detselig Press. Gutheil, I. A. (1992). Considering the physical environment: An essential component of good practice. Social Work, 37(5), 391396. Helliwell, J. F., & Huang, H. (2005). Hows the job? Well-being and social capital in the workplace. NBER Working Paper No. W11759. Retrieved 15 December 2008 from the Social Science Research Network: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/ papers.cfm?abstract_id847031#. Holstein, J. A., & Gubrium, J. F. (1995). The active interview. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Industry Canada. (2008). Gross Domestic Product (GDP), health care, and social assistance. Ottawa, ON: Government of Canada. Retrieved 17 May 2010 from: www.ic.gc.ca/cis-sic/ cis-sic.nsf/IDE/cis62gdpe.html. Jayaratne, S., Himle, D., & Chess, W. A. (1988). Dealing with work stress and strain: Is the perception of support more important than its use? The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 24(2), 191202. Jones, C. (2001). Voices from the front line: State social workers and New Labour. British Journal of Social Work, 31(4), 547562. Jones, C., & Novak, T. (1993). Social work today. British Journal of Social Work, 23(3), 195212. Jones, F., Fletcher, B. C., & Ibbetson, K. (1991). Stressors and strains amongst social workers: Demands, supports, constraints, and psychological health. British Journal of Social Work, 21(5), 443469. Judge, T. A., & Watanabe, S. (1993). Another look at the job satisfaction-life satisfaction relationship. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(6), 939948. Keyes, C. L. M., & Waterman, M. B. (2003). Dimensions of well-being and mental health in adulthood. In M. H. Bornstein & L. Davidson (Eds.), Well-being: Positive development

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

420

Journal of Social Work 11(4)

across the life course. Crosscurrents in contemporary psychology (pp. 477497). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kim, H., & Stoner, M. (2008). Burnout and turnover intention among social workers: Effects of role stress, job autonomy and social support. Administration in Social Work, 32(3), 525. Kline, T. J. B., & Graham, J. R. (2009). Social worker satisfaction scale: A measure of social worker subjective well-being as it pertains to the workplace. Canadian Social Work, 11(1), 5359. Koeske, G. F., & Kelly, T. (1995). The impact of overinvolvement on burnout and job satisfaction. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 65(2), 282292. Lazar, A., & Guttman, J. (2003). Therapists benefits from conducting psychotherapy: The case of social workers. Research on Social Work Practice, 13(6), 705723. Laufer, Z., & Sharon, N. (1985). Social work job satisfaction and participation in continuing education: Implication for administrators of social services. Journal of Continuing Social Work Education, 3(3), 37. Lee, R. T., & Ashforth, B. E. (1996). A meta-analytic examination of the correlates of the three dimensions of job burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(2), 123133. Levert, T., Lucas, M., & Ortlepp, K. (2000). Burnout in psychiatric nurses: Contributions of the work environment and a sense of coherence. South African Journal of Psychology, 30(2), 3643. Lozinskaia, E. I. (2002). Study of stress parameters in the work of the clinical psychiatrist. International Journal of Mental Health, 31(1), 9398. Mackie, K. S., Holahan, C. K., & Gottlieb, N. H. (2001). Employee involvement management practices, work stress, and depression in employees of a human services residential care facility. Human Relations, 54(8), 10651092. Manuele, F. A. (1997). A causation model for hazardous incidents. Occupational Hazards, 59(10), 160164. Marriott, A., Sexton, L., & Staley, D. (1994). Components of job satisfaction in psychiatric social workers. Health and Social Work, 19(3), 199205. Packard, T. (1989). Participation in decision-making, performance, and job satisfaction in a social work bureaucracy. Administration in Social Work, 13(1), 5973. Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE. Pugliesi, K. (1999). The consequences of emotional labor: Effects on work stress, job satisfaction, and well-being. Motivation and Emotion, 23(2), 125154. Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York: Simon and Schuster. Roat, J. (1988). The effects of continuing education on staff performance. Journal of Continuing Social Work Education, 4(4), 2630. Ross, E. (1993). Burnout among social workers: An ecological perspective. Maatskaplike Werk/Social Work, 29(4), 334342. Ruggles, T. (2004). How to avoid the crash and burn. The New Social Worker, 11(3), 2022. Seidman, I. E. (1991). Interviewing as qualitative research: a guide for researchers in education and the social sciences. New York: Teachers College Press. Service Canada. (2008). Community and social service workers analytical text. Ottawa, ON: Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. Retrieved 17 May 2010 from: http:// www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/qc/job_futures/statistics/4212.shtml.

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012

Shier and Graham

421

Shier, M. L., & Graham, J. R. (in press). Mindfulness, subjective well-being, and social work: Insight into their interconnection from social work practitioners. Social Work Education. Shier, M., Walsh, C. A., & Graham, J. R. (2007). Conceptualizing optimum homeless shelter service delivery: The interconnection between programming, community, and the built environment. Canadian Journal of Urban Research, 16(1), 5875. Siebert, D. C. (2005). Personal and occupational factors in burnout among practicing social workers. Online: Society for Social Work and Research. Retrieved 17 May 2010 from: sswr.confex.com/sswr/2005/techprogram/P382.HTM. Smith, K., Kaminstein, D. S., & Makadok, R. J. (1995). The health of the corporate body: Illness and organizational dynamics. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 31(3), 328351. Sousa-Poza, A., & Sousa-Poza, A. A. (2000). Well-being at work: A cross-national analysis of the levels and determinants of job satisfaction. Journal of Socio-Economics, 29(6), 517538. Sowers-Hoag, K. M., & Thyer, B. A. (1987). Burn-out among social work professionals: A behavioral approach to causal and interventive knowledge. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 14(3), 105118. Sparks, K., Faragher, B., & Cooper, C. L. (2001). Well-being and occupational health in the 21st century workplace. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74(4), 489509. Spector, P. E. (1986). Perceived control by employees: A meta-analysis of studies concerning autonomy and participation at work. Human Relations, 39(11), 10051016. Stalker, C. A., Mandell, D., Frensch, K. M., Harvey, C., & Wright, M. (2007). Child welfare workers who are exhausted yet satisfied with their jobs: How do they do it? Child and Family Social Work, 12(2), 182191. Van Horn, J. E., Taras, T. W., Schaufeli, W. B., & Schreurs, P. J. B. (2004). The structure of occupational well-being: A study among Dutch teachers. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77(3), 365376. Verquer, M. L., Beehr, T. A., & Wagner, S. H. (2003). A meta-analysis of relations between person-organization fit and work attitudes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63(3), 473489. Warr, P. (1990). The measurement of well-being and other aspects of mental health. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63(3), 193210. Weeks, W. (2004). Creating attractive services which citizens want to attend. Australian Social Work, 57(4), 319330. Williams, J. P. (2008). Emergent themes. In L. M. Given (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of qualitative research methods (pp. 248249). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Downloaded from jsw.sagepub.com at Central European University on November 25, 2012