BIOLOGY MODULE CHAPTER 4: REPRODUCTION & GROWTH 4.1 GAMETE FORMATION 1. Reproduction is necessary to ensure: a) b) 2.

2. Two types of reproduction and meaning: a) b) ... 3. Comparison between sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction: Sexual reproduction Involve . or .. Gametes formed by .. division Involve . individuals (parents) New individuals inherit genes from both parents through the fusion of the . and .. Occurs in . Produces offspring that are genetically . from their parents. Ensure the survival of species if the environment conditions undergo changes .. Asexual reproduction Without involve .. The process entirely on .. division Involve only . Individual (single parent) New individuals get their genes from one parent without the fusion of . and .. Occurs in . Produces offspring that are genetically to their parent. Ensures the adaptations of the parent for survival are passed down . to the offspring Is an advantage if the environment is 4. Male gamete called . Produced in the .. while female gamete are called . Produced in the Both gametes produced by the process of .. The gametes are genetically from the parent cell. During fertilization, a .. fuses with an .. to form a . As the sperm and ovum have a . number of chromosomes (n=23), the zygote formed will have a number of chromosomes (2n=46). The zygote

will divides through to produce million cells that containing 46 chromosomes. The formation of gamete to ensure: a) b) .. c) 5.

Label the structure of male reproductive system. a) State the function of each structure: i) scrotum: ii) epididymis: .. iii) vas deferens/sperm duct: iv) urethra: v) seminal vesicle: . vi) prostate gland: . b) Draw a structure of a sperm and labeled it. State the function also.

6.

Label the structure of seminiferous tubules.

Spermatogenesis occurs in Two types of cells line in the seminiferous tubules which are . and .. The process begins:

a) Germinal epithelial cells of a seminiferous tubules divide by to form .. b) The spermatogonia grow to become . which are large diploid cells. c) each primary spermatocyte undergoes .. to form two haploid .. d) each secondary spermatocyte divides again during . to produce two .. This means a total of .. spermatids are formed for every primary spermatocyte. e) the spermatids obtain nourishment from .., develop tails and mature into . (spermatozoa) through

7.

Label the structure of female reproductive system. a) Draw a structure of an ovum and labeled it.

Diagram above shows a process of oogenesis in the ovary.

a) Oogenesis begins in the the developing . of a female foetus before birth. b) The germinal epithelial cells near the surface of an ovary divide by to form diploid .. (singular: oogonium). c) The oogonia grow to form .. d) Each primary oocyte is surrounded by a layer of a that nourish the developing oocyte and secrete female . The primary oocyte and accessory cells make up a . e) As foetal development continues, all primary oocytes undergo but stop at of meiosis I. f) Every month during reproductive stage, a few primary oocytes becomes . And meiosis resumes. However, only primary follicle matures completely. g) During this time, the diploid primary oocyte completes . to form haploid cells which are not equal in size. (i) the smaller cell is called which degenerates and leaves the body. (ii) the larger cell becomes a which contains most of cytoplasm. h) The secondary oocyte starts .. which progresses until . i) The first polar body may also complete to form two .. j) At this stage, the secondary oocyte together with the layers of follicles cells called . k) The secondary oocyte starts to grow in the secondary follicle. The follicle increases in size and mature to form .. l) At intervals of approximately 28 days, the merges with the wall of .. m) The ovarian wall and the Graafian follicle rupture, releasing the . or egg into the n) The release of the secondary oocyte is known as If a sperm penetrates the secondary oocyte during fertilization, .. will be completed and two haploid cells of unequal size is formed which are .. (the larger cell) and (smaller cell). The nuclei of the sperm cell and the ovum then fuse to form a .

o) Once a Graafian follicle has released a secondary oocyte, it develops into p) If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum begins to .. after 10 days. If pregnancy occur, the corpus luteum do not but continue to secrete . and 8. Comparison between spermatogenesis and oogenesis. Spermatogenesis Oogenesis Similarities Both process occur in the organs. Both involve the process of . Both produce .. that are involved in the fertilization Spermatogenesis Differences Oogenesis .. Gametes produced .. Place of formation .. .. Size of gamete .. Number of gametes produced .. during meiosis distribution of Cytokinesis .., almost all cytoplasm in all four sperm cytoplasm contained in the cells produced . and while the small polar bodies eventually .. Has a ., Shape of gametes . and Divide by . Germinal epithelial cell Divide by during throughout the adult life of foetal stage. At birth, an ovary men after puberty. contains all the .. that will develop into ova Occurs . in an Meiotic division Does not occur uninterrupted sequence and .. but stops at does not stop at any stage. . and . Meiosis II completes only if the . fertilise by a sperm. 9. The hormones involved in the menstrual cycle. Hormone The follicle-stimulating Place of secretion Functions Stimulates the development of

hormone (FSH) The luteinizing hormone (LH)

Oestrogen

Progesterone

.. in the ovary Stimulates . Stimulates the development of . Promotes the secretion of .. Stimulates the growth of Promotes the repair of the From 12th day of the menstrual cycle, it has feedback action on the secretion of FSH and LH Stimulates the endometrium to become ., . and highly . (enriched with blood vessel) for implantation. Inhibits the secretion of .. and .. to prevent the development of the and ovulation

Days 0 to 7

Hormonal control of the menstrual cycle One day before menstruation, the .. (GnRH) secreted by . stimulates the anterior lobe of . To release . and .. into the bloodstream. The .. stimulates the development of . The cells of these developing follicles secretes - At beginning, follicle is and produce .. amout of oestrogen - The level of oestrogen exerts negative feedback on the pituitary

 8 to 14 22 to 28

15 to 21

gland. This keeps and low during development of follicle. Only one follicle achieves maturity each month. As the maturing follicle enlarge, it secretes . amount of oestrogen. The level of oestrogen .. steeply and peak on 12th day. The high level of oestrogen stimulates .. and . This exerts positive feedback on the hypothalamus and increase secretion of .. High level of GnRH stimulates the increasing in secretion of and so the peak of oestrogen level follow by a peak of FSH and LH on the 13th day. LH stimulates the completion of by changing the .. into a .. Ovulation occur on the . day. The remaining follicle tissue develop into The level of progesterone still . The .. secretes smaller amounts of but larger amounts of .. The combination between oestrogen and progesterone inhibits the . and .. (negative feedback). Thus the secretion of FSH and LH (prevent the development of follicle and ovulation) Both oestrogen and progesterone stimulate (endometrium) to become ., more and highly . (enriched with blood vessels). The uterine lining can reach maximum thickness of about 5mm and this changes are preparation for the If fertilization does not occur, .. starts to degenerates. The level of oestrogen and progesterone become . Without the stimulation of oestrogen and progesterone, the endometrium . and disintegrates. The shedding of blood, tissue and lining of uterine wall discharged through vagina forms the .. that begins on about the 28th day of a cycle. The low level of progesterone caused . secretes by the hypothalamus. GnRH stimulates the secretion of and This initiates the development of new follicles and start a new cycle. If fertilization occurs, the . do not degenerates so that the level of progesterone and oestrogen continue to .. The uterine wall continue to grow and nourish the embryo. The corpus luteum secrete oestrogen and progesterone about to months after fertilization. After that corpus luteum will degenerates and the production of oestrogen and progesterone continued by until the baby is born. Progesterone inhibits the secretion of .. and . so menstrual

cycle and ovulation does not occur during pregnancy. The premenstrual syndrome (PMS) a) Meaning: b) appears on . to .. day before the start of menstruation and disappears when menstruation begins. c) the causes are not known but PMS could be due to the imbalance of .. and . level. d) the symptoms are .......................................................................................................................... Menopause a) Meaning: b) occurs between the ages of . and . years when ovaries are less stimulated by .. and . c) this inhibits the development of . and ovulation leading the lower secretion of .. and .. d) the low level of oestrogen and progesterone cause .. to be irregular. The menstrual flows become and finally .The ovaries stop producing . Women can no longer have babies. e) low level of oestrogen cause a decreasing in .. In addition oestrogen also helps to maintain the good . in blood. 10.

The diagram shows the process after the fertilization of sperm and ovum. a) After 36 hours of fertilization, the zygote begins to divide by .. as it travels along the .. towards the uterus. b) The first division forms c) Further division forms a solid mass of cells known as a d) After 5th day, the morula is a ball of about 100 cells known as a .. or e) The blastocyst is a fluid-filled sphere consisting of an layer of cells and a group of inside the sphere. Draw a shape of blastocyst. f) 7 day after fertilization, the blastocyst attach to the This process known as .. g) The fertilized egg is known as an . during the first eight weeks of its development. From the 3rd month until birth, it is called a . h) The foetus is enclosed in a membrane called the . It will protects the foetus by absorbing and cushioning it from damage. 11. Comparison between identical twins and fraternal twins (non identical).

Fraternal twins/non identical Similarities Embryo forms are the result of between an ovum and a sperm Both grow by . Identical twins Differences Fraternal twins . ovum fertilized by Fertilisation .. ovum fertilized sperm to form a with .. sperm.

Identical twins

zygote. The zygote split into .. separate embryo The division is Both have the .. genetics constitution Share .. placenta. Both have sex either male or female Share . physical characteristics Siamese twins.

Genetic constitution Number of placentas Sex Physical characteristics

zygotes are formed which divide and develop into separate embryos Both have .. genetics constitution Each embryo has its placenta Maybe have .. sex or sexes Do not share the physical characteristics

a) Meaning: b) attach at . c) can be separated by . and have a greater chance of survival if they do not share major internal organ such as

Function of placenta: a) b) Function of umbilical cord: a) b) The advantage of having separate foetal and maternal circulatory system: a) ....... b) c) d)

11. The contribution of science and technology to human reproduction. Family planning Technique method Natural contraceptive methods Procedure Biological principle Prevents a from Have sexual intercourse fertilizing an .. during . period (pregnancy not occur) Avoid womans .. period. Male contraceptive methods Procedure Biological principle A thin rubber sheath that is Prevents from fitted over the erect entering . During before ejaculation. copulation. Protects against sexually transmitted diseases.

Technique

........................ method

The .. withdrawn from the vagina before the release of semen or ejaculation

.. or vas deferens are tied and cut in a surgical operation

Prevents from entering .. during ejaculation Unreliable method because the semen can leak out of the before ejaculation. An irreversible method. Since .. are not present, fertilization does not occur.

.. Technique Female contraceptive method Procedure Biological principle

A .. rubber cap with a springy outer ring to ensure a close fit Inserted into to cover the .

Stops . from entering .. Very reliable if fitted properly and used with

. .

A thin sheath which lines the ..

Prevents the entry . Prevents sexually transmitted diseases

. or femidom

..

A plastic-coated copper coil that is fitted into the . by a doctor and can be left approximately 2 years. A string attached to the lower end allows the coil to be removed via the .. Chemical gel, cream or foam that is applied to the . before copulation. Used together with

Irritates the .. thus preventing .. of a zygote in the endometrium.

Kills ejaculated into the .. Not reliable as some sperms which are not killed will enter to the ..

Pills with a combination of .. and (synthetic progesterone)

Prevents by inhibiting the secretion of .. and so that follicle development does not occur.

 ..

A capsule inserted just below the .. of the upper .. .. ( a form of progesterone) is secreted in small quantities over a period of three to four months

Inhibits

Both the . are cut and tied in an operation.

A released of . cannot reach the part of the where sperms are present. Thus, the sperms cannot fertilise the ..

An injection of given every three months

Causes changes in the . that interfere with the .. of a zygote.

..

Overcoming infertility The common causes of infertility are: a) b) c) d) ...

e) 1. Artificial insemination (AI) The of men with low sperms are collected over a period of time so that it will be high enough for . The wife can be inseminated with the husbands .. or sperms from a The .. are injected directly into the ..

2. Sperm bank Sometimes, a woman is inseminated by sperms from a . A sperm bank is a special laboratory that stores donor sperms in . at a temperature of .. Sperms from donors are .., .. and .. in a sperm bank. The . biodata of each donor are kept meticulously so that a woman that wishing to conceive can use the sperm bank to obtain the sperms she wants.

3. Surrogate motherhood Another woman can be used as a . The sperms and ova contributed by the The sperms can also be obtained from a .. and the ova from the .. Either .. or . is transferred to the . of the surrogate mother. The surrogate mother then . and the foetus develops until birth.

4. In vitro fertilization (IVF) A method of fertilization that occurs in a controlled environment of a laboratory . the human body. Used when the are blocked, thus preventing fertilization by the sperms. A fine . are used to remove mature from the ovary. The are placed in glassware with .. to mature. Then concentrated . from a father are added. The . and .. fuse and develop into .. After two to four days, when the embryos reach the , a few embryos are selected and inserted into the through the .. for the . on the uterine wall.

If the procedure is successful, the implanted embryo will develop into . Babies conceived this method sometimes called . Couples can use . from donors.

Sexually transmitted diseases (STD) a) Meaning: b) Examples: STD Causative agent Bacteria (Neisseria gonorrhoeae) Bacteria (Treponema paliidum) Virus (Herpes simplex virus) Virus (Human Immunodeficiency virus)

c) can avoid by being faithful with their . and not engaging in promiscuous sexual behavior. 12. Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants.

a) The reproductive organ of a flowering plants is .

b) Four basic parts of flower: i) .. ii) . iii) .. iv) .. c) Flower has both and .. reproductive structure. d) The male reproductive structures are called It consists of: i) ii) e) The female reproductive structure are called . It consists of: i) . ii) iii) ..

The formation of pollen grains in the anther are:

a) are formed in the .. An anther has four . b) Each .. contains hundreds of cells called . (2n). c) Each pollen mother cell undergoes .. to produce four haploid (n) d) The nucleus of each then divides by .. to form a .. and a The microspores develop into

Formation of the embryo sac in the ovule are: a) The . develop from the It has a diploid (2n). Each ovule consists of protective outer layers of cells called the . b) The embryo sac mother cell (2n) undergoes to form a row of four haploid cells called . (n). c) Three of the four megaspores , leaving one in the ovule. d) The megaspore continues to grow and enlarges, filling up most of the ovule. The nucleus of the megaspore undergoes . three times to form .. e) Three of the eight nuclei migrate to one end of the cell to form . Another two nuclei called the . move to the centre. One of the three nuclei nearest the opening of the ovule (micropyl) develops into an . or female gamete flanked by two ..

f) The structure formed is known as the . It is where the embryo will develop. g) The ovule which becomes a now consists of the embryo sac and the surrounding integuments.

Formation of the pollen tube, zygote and triploid nucleus. a) . is a process in which mature pollen grains from the are transferred to the .. of a flower. b) A on a stigma initiates the .. process. c) The secretion of a .. in the stigma stimulates the pollen grains to germinate and form a tube known as a . d) The pollen tube grows down the towards the .. e) During the growth of the pollen tube, the . divides by to form two .. f) The male nuclei follow the down to the pollen tube. g) When the pollen tube reaches the .., it penetrates the ovule through the The tube nucleus .. and the tip of the tube bursts, leaving a passage for the male nuclei to enter the h) .. which is unique to angiosperms, occurs within the This process involves the union of the two with different nuclei of the ..

i) One male nucleus fuse with the , forming a . (2n). ii) The other male nucleus fuses with the two .. forming a . (3n). iii) The division of triploid nucleus will give rise to the .., the food-storing tissue of the seed. iv) The and .. degenerate. 13. The Development of Seed and Fruit after fertilization a) After double fertilization, the zygote divide by to form an .. b) The embryo then divides and differentiates to form a .., and c) The integuments which surround the embryo sac formed the (testa). It protects the .. and its . d) The triploid endosperm cell divides rapidly and develops into the .. It provides . to the growing embryo. e) The ovule develops into a f) Multiply ovules develop into in the ovary. g) The ovary enlarges and develops into a .. h) .. and .. shrivel and fall away as the fruit enlarges. i) The importance of double fertilization for the survival of flowering plants are: 1) 2) ... 3) 4)

GROWTH IN MULTICELLUAR ORGANISMS.

1. Meaning of growth: a) b) 2. Meaning of development: a) b) ... 3. The process of growth can be divided into three stages: a) b) . c) .

4. This three stages can be observed in the .. and .

5. The apex of a shoot or root can be divided into three growth zone: a) . b) c) 6. Growth in this zone called the . of a plant. THE GROWTH CURVE 1. The parameters for measuring growth: a) .. b) . c) . d) ... e) 2. The measurements of the . or . can be done without damaging or destroying the organism during the experiment. But this not accurate because organisms may not be increasing in height but may be growing in diameter or sideways. 3. Measurement of .. gives a more accurate estimate of growth but is often not practical.

5 2 1 3 4

1. The growth curve above is generally shaped and known as 2. Name the phase of the sigmoid curve above. a) Phase 1: .. - .. growth rate. - . or no cell growth or division. - The organisms adapts to a new food source. b) Phase 2: .. - Growth rate is . - Active . and occurs. c) Phase 3: .. - The growth rate proceeds at a or relatively .. rate. - The growth is .. by internal factor such as .. factors or external factors such as . d) Phase 4: .. - The growth rate is . - The organism has reached .. - The size of the organism remains - . occurs to replace dead cells. e) Phase 5: - The organisms undergoes .. process and eventually . - A lack of .. and .. results in death.

3. Draw a growth curve of humans

4.

a) Meaning of ecdysis: b) The growth above shows an growth. c) Explanation of graph: i) The graph is shaped like a .. ii) The horizontal parts indicate .. growth. It is the time when the insects growing. iii) The five vertical lines of the curve are sudden .. This is when the nymphs undergo . The organisms .. rapidly in size during ecdysis. This means an insect undergoes ecdysis several times before it reaches the .. phase. iv) Each stage between the moultings is called an ..

v) If the is measured instead of the ., the growth curve of an insect will show a normal sigmoid growth curve. d) How ecdysis occur? i) A new forms below the old exoskeleton. ii) The old exoskeleton .. and its essential resources are digested and reabsorbed into the new . iii) The old exoskeleton then and is . iv) Before the new exoskeleton hardens, the insect enlarges its .. by swallowing or . until the new cuticle hardens. This means that the growth of an insect occurs only during ecdysis. 5. Primary and secondary growth in plants: a) Primary growth in plants take place at the and the . It results in an increase in the . of the shoot and the on the root. b) Secondary growth involve the lateral meristems of the .. and .. The lateral meristems are and . It increases the diameter of the and c) Secondary growth begins with the .. dividing actively through .. The vascular bundle then joins to form a complete .. Then the cells of the cambium ring divide to form ............. on the inside and on the outside. d) As secondary growth continues to take place, secondary xylem accumulates to form .. e) The cork cambium divides to form the . and the inner .. f) Plants that undergoes secondary growth are , ., have longer lifespans and produce valuable