TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT...i TABLE OF CONTENTS.ii LIST OF FIGURES.iii LIST OF TABLES...............................................................................................iv 1. PORTLAND CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS PLA1 1.

1 Introduction...1 1.2 Objective...1 1.3 Process Breakdown1 1.4 Safety and Environmental Implication.5 2 SOLUTION TO TASK 2..7 2.1 Objective ...7 2.2 Given Data................................................................................................7 2.3 Computation.....7 3 SOLUTION TO TASK 3...10 3.1 Objective .......10 3.2 Given Data ....10 3.3 Assumptions..10 3.4 Calculation..11 4 SOLUTION TO TASK 4 .....13 4.1 Objective ...13 4.2.Given Data ....13 4.3 Assumptions..14 4.4 Calculation..14 5 SOLUTION TO TASK 5 ......17 5.1 Objective ...17 5.2.Given Data ....17 5.3 Calculation..17 6 SOLUTION TO TASK 6 .....19 6.1 Objective ...19 6.2.Given Data ....19 6.3 Assumptions..19 6.4 Calculation..19 7 SOLUTION TO TASK 7 .....23 7.1 Objective ...23 7.2.Given Data ....23 7.3 Calculation..23 8 THE SALT RECOVERY PROCESS.....25 8.1 Introduction ..25 8.2.Objective.. ....25 8.3 Process Overview....25 REFERENCES ..27

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Process flow diagram for Portland cement manufacturing process plant.. ...2 Figure 2.1 System boundary around the spray condenser 7 Figure 3.1 A continuous single effect evaporator....10 Figure 4.1 Tripple-effect evaporator units indicating the mass and energy balance streams . 13 Figure 5.1 Vapour-liquid equilibrium data.. ..18 Figure 5.2 Equilibrium curve for benzene toluene flash distillation system. 18 Figure 6.1 Vapour-liquid equilibrium data.. ..20 Figure 6.2 Determination of number of trays for benzene-toluene system..22 Figure 7.1 Drying rate curve of the solid.. .24

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LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1 Mass balance for the triple-effect evaporator system...14 Table 1.2 Stochastic properties of the main variables..4 Table 1.3 Different values of P(f) indicating it sensitivity to different values of Stochastic parameter...5 Table 2.1 Series parallel system reliability function calculation..................10 Table 2.2 Calculation of the series-parallel system cumulative hazard rate function........13 Table 3.3 Part of a process FMECA for offshore oil & gas production platform....17

1. PORTLAND CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS PLANT 1.1 INTRODUCTION Portland cement refers to a fine powder, gray or white in color, which consists of a mixture of cement materials comprising mainly calcium silicates, aluminates and alumino-ferrites. Cement manufacture is a major mineral commodity industry. Several raw materials are used in the manufacture of Portland cement, and these materials can be divided into four different groups: calcareous, siliceous, argillaceous, and ferriferous. They are chemically combined through pyroprocessing and subjected to succeeding mechanical processing operations to form gray and white Portland cement. Gray Portland cement is used for structural applications and is the more widespread type of cement manufactured. White Portland cement has lower iron and manganese contents than gray Portland cement and is used primarily for decorative purposes. Portland cement manufacturing plants are part of hydraulic cement manufacturing, which also includes natural, masonry, and pozzolanic cement. 1.2 OBJECTIVE The aim of this task is to analyse the Portland cement manufacturing process plant indicating the system breakdown into different parts based on their functions. Also to identify the various unit operations, safety and environmental issues involved. The following references are used: Greeler et al., 1992; Bogue, 1955; and U.S. and Canadian, 1990. 1.3 PROCESS BREAKDOWN There are four main process techniques for the manufacture of cement: dry, semidry, wet and semi-wet processes. In the dry process the starting materials are ground and dried to raw meal into powder form that can easily flow. The dry raw meal is fed to the preheater or precalciner kiln, or more seldom to a long dry kiln. Within the semi-dry process, dry raw meal is pelletized with water and fed into a grate preheater in front of the kiln or into a long kiln equipped with crosses. In the wet process, the raw materials (frequently with high moisture content) are ground in water to form slurry that can be pumped easily. The slurry is either introduced directly into the kiln or first to slurry dryer. In the semi-wet process, the slurry is first dewatered in filter presses. The filter cake is either extruded into pellets and fed to a grate preheater or fed directly to a filter cake dryer for raw meal production. The selection of process is, to a large extent, depends on the state of the starting materials (dry or wet). A diagram of the process, which covers manufacture of both Portland and masonry cement, is shown in Figure 1.1. The process can be broken down into the following primary components: raw materials acquisition and handling, kiln feed preparation, pyroprocessing, and finished cement grinding. Each of these process components is explained briefly below.

Figure 1.1 Process flow diagram for Portland cement manufacturing process plant (Source Classification Code)

RAW MATERIAL ACQUISITION AND HANDLING The first production step in Portland cement production is raw materials acquirement. Calcium, the element of highest concentration in Portland cement, is obtained from a range of calcareous raw materials, including limestone, aragonite, marl, chalk, and an impure limestone known as "natural cement rock". Typically, these raw materials are obtained from open-face quarries, but underground mines or dredging activities are also used. Some quarries turn out relatively pure limestone that requires the use of additional starting materials to provide the correct chemical blend in the raw mix. In other quarries, all or parts of the non-calcareous constituents are found naturally in the limestone. Because a big portion (approximately one third) of the mass of this starting material is lost as carbon dioxide (CO2) in the kiln, Portland cement plants are located close to a calcareous starting material source whenever achievable. Other elements included in the raw mix are silicon, aluminum, and iron. They are obtained from ores and minerals such as sand, shale, clay, and iron ore. Yet again, these materials are most usually from open-pit quarries or mines, but they may be dredged or excavated from underwater deposits. These raw materials are unloaded and piled on plant site, conveyed and process through primary and secondary crushing, screened and their gangues separated. The typical unit operations involved is classification of solid particles (separation of solid impurities) and solid size reduction. RAW MATERIAL (KILN FEED) PREPARATION The second step in Portland cement production is preparing the raw mix, or kiln feed, for the pyroprocessing operation. Raw material preparation includes a range of blending and grinding activities that are designed to provide a feed with suitable chemical and physical properties. The starting material preparation operations differ to some extent for wet and dry processes. Cement starting materials are received with initial moisture content between 1 and 50 percent. If the facility uses dry process kilns, this moisture is usually reduced to less than 1 percent before or during grinding. Drying alone can be performed in paddle-equipped rapid dryers, drum dryers, impact dryers, or air separators. On the other hand, drying can also be performed during grinding in balland-tube mills or roller mills. While thermal energy for drying can be provided by gas burners, direct-fired coal, oil, or exhaust gases from separate, the most efficient and widely used source of heat for drying is the hot exit gases from the pyroprocessing system. Materials transport associated with dry raw milling systems can be accomplished by a variety of mechanisms, including screw conveyors, belt conveyors, drag conveyors, bucket elevators, air slide conveyors, and pneumatic conveying systems. The dry raw mix is pneumatically blended and stored in specially constructed silos until it is fed to the pyroprocessing system.

In the wet process, water is added to the raw mill during the grinding of the raw materials in ball or tube mills, thereby producing a pump-able slurry, or slip, of approximately 65 percent solids. The slurry is agitated, blended, and stored in various kinds and sizes of cylindrical tanks or slurry basins until it is fed to the pyroprocessing system. Size reduction (grinding), mixing and drying are the typical unit operations involved. PYROPROCESSING (REACTION SYSTEM) The pyroprocessing step consists of the rotary kiln, which is the reaction system and thus the heart of the Portland cement manufacturing process; and the cooler. This system transforms the raw mix into clinkers, which are gray, glass-hard, spherically shaped nodules that range from 0.32 to 5.1 centimeters (cm) (0.125 to 2.0 inches) in diameter. This sequence of events may be conveniently divided into four stages, as a function of location and temperature of the materials in the rotary kiln. Evaporation of uncombined water from raw materials, as material temperature increases to 100C; Dehydration, as the material temperature increases from 100C to approximately 430C to form oxides of silicon, aluminum, and iron; Calcination during which carbon dioxide (CO2) is evolved, between 800C and 1100C, to form CaO; and Reaction, of the oxides in the burning zone of the rotary kiln, to form cement clinker at temperatures of approximately 1510C. Obviously, reaction is the main operation in this step. Rotary kilns are long, cylindrical, slightly inclined furnaces that are lined with refractory to protect the steel shell and retain heat within the kiln. The raw material mix enters the kiln at the elevated end, and the combustion fuels generally are introduced into the lower end of the kiln in a countercurrent manner. The materials are continuously and slowly moved to the lower end by rotation of the kiln. As they move down the kiln, the raw materials are changed to cementitious or hydraulic minerals as a result of the increasing temperature within the kiln. The most commonly used kiln fuels are coal, natural gas, and occasionally oil. The use of supplemental fuels such as waste solvents, scrap rubber, and petroleum coke has expanded in recent years. The breakdown of the reaction processes into a number of simple zones is as follows: Zone 1: 0 - 35 min, 800 - 1100oC Decarbonation, formation of above 900oC, melting of fluxing compounds Al2O3 and Fe2O3. Zone 2: 35 - 40 min, 1100 - 1300oC Exothermic reactions and the formation of secondary silicate phases as follows:

 Zone 3: 40 - 50 min, 1300 - 1450 - 1300oC Sintering and reaction within the melt to form ternary silicates and tetracalcium alumino-ferrates: Zone 4: 50 - 60 min, 1300 - 1000oC Cooling and crystallisation of the various mineral phases formed in the kiln. The Cooler Directly following the kiln is a large cooler designed to drop the temperature of the clinker (as the fused material is now called) from 1000oC to 150oC. This is achieved by forcing air through a bed of clinker via perforated plates in the base of the cooler. The plates within the cooler slide back and forth, shuffling the clinker down the cooler to the discharge point and transport to a storage area. At this point in the process the materials have been formed into all the required minerals to make cement. Like cement, the clinker will react with water and harden, but because it is composed of 1-3 cm diameter fragments it is too coarse to be used. RECYCLE SYSTEM The generation of fine particles is inherent in the process, but most are recovered and recycled. Approximately 1020% of the kiln feed can be suspended in the kiln exhaust gases; this is captured and returned to the feed. Typical unit operations are centrifugal separation with cyclones and gas cleaning with fabric filters and electrostatic precipitators. CEMENT MILLING AND SEPARATION The final step in Portland cement manufacturing involves a sequence of blending and grinding operations that transforms clinker to finished Portland cement. Up to 5% gypsum or natural anhydrite is added to the clinker during grinding to control the cement setting time, and other specialty chemicals are added as needed to impart specific product properties. This finish milling is accomplished almost exclusively in ball or tube mills. Typically, finishing is conducted in a closed circuit system, with product sizing by air separation. 1.4 SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS Several of the aspects of the cement making process are potentially environmentally damaging, although these risks can be minimised. The areas of potential concern are listed below.

CO2 Cement manufacture is an energy intensive process. One of the most significant challenges facing the industry into the 21st century is a requirement to reduce CO2 emissions. CO2 is produced during the calcination phase of the manufacturing process and also as a result of burning fossil fuels. Opportunity to reduce emissions through increased energy efficiency is only possible on the latter of the CO2 emissions Dust Emissions The manufacture of cement generates large quantities of dust. These must be prevented (both on environmental and economic grounds) from escaping to the atmosphere. The two areas where dust has the potential to escape are via air streams that have been used to carry cement (e.g. the mills or kiln) and directly from equipment used to transport cement (e.g. the various conveyor belts). Thus to prevent dust emissions all transport equipment is enclosed, and the air both from these enclosures and from the kiln and mills is treated in an electrostatic precipitator to remove its load of dust. Here dust-laden air passes between an electrode carrying 50 000 volts and an earthed collection plate. The electrostatic discharge between the electrode and the plate forces the dust onto the plates, from which it is removed. Quarry and plant water runoff Runoff of storm water and treatment of waste water from quarries is a trouble for almost all quarry operations. Typically this is trapped in wetland areas where the water is treated in a controlled manner. Within the factory runoff can be polluted by oils and lubricants, but the runoff is monitored and training programmes are often undertaken to ensure this does not happen. Chrome bricks Kiln bricks used to be made of hexavalent chrome, which is a carcinogen and causes dermititus in some people. Since the problems associated with its use were identified both Milburn and Golden Bay (along with almost all cement manufacturers internationally) replaced these bricks with environmentally-sound magnesium-spinel bricks.

2. SOLUTION TO TASK 2 2.1 OBJECTIVE To calculate the amount of pure water produced and the amount of pure water recycled to the spray condenser of a desalination process. This process recovers pure water from sea water using saturated air. 2.2 GIVEN DATA Figure 2.1 represent the spray condenser system boundary indicating the interacting streams. The following stream information are given: Spray condenser dry air inlet flow rate Spray condenser humid air inlet temperature, Spray condenser humidity at is Spray condenser humid air exit temperature, Spray condenser humidity at is Condensed pure water (from humid air) temperature, Spray water (from recycled pure water) temperature, UNKNOWNS: Condensed pure water flow rate , and recycled pure water flow rate 2.3 COMPUTATION liquid water and air.
Recycled pure water F2, X2, H2

Calculation basis is

Air leaving the spray condenser F3, X3, H3 Humid air from cooling tower F1, X1, H1

Produced pure water in condenser F4, X4, H4

Figure 2.1 System boundary around the spray condenser

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Step 1: Collection of specific mean heat capacities and heat of water evaporation data The latent heat of water evaporation at Specific heat capacity of air, Specific heat capacity of steam, Specific heat capacity of water, Step 2: Calculation of unknowns ,

from

mass

and

energy (2.1)

balances.

The flow rate of recycled water,

, is given as:

Enthalpy of spray condenser inlet air, [

, is given as: ]

Enthalpy of spray condenser outlet air, [

, is given as: ]

Enthalpy of recycled pure water,

, is given as:

Enthalpy of condensed pure water,

, is given as:

Energy balance over the entire spray condenser gives:

Combining equation (2.2) and (2.5), we have:

Therefore, in the spray condenser the amount of pure water produced is 8560.4 kg/hr. Putting the value of into equation (2.2), we have:

Therefore, the amount of recycled pure water to the spray condenser is 8009.71 kg/hr.

3. SOLUTION TO TASK THREE 3.1 OBJECTIVE To calculate the amount of liquid product, the amount of vapour product and the heat transfer area required in a continuous single-effect evaporator. 3.2 GIVEN DATA Figure 3.1 represents the continuous single-effect evaporator indicating the mass and energy inputs and outputs. The following parameters are given: Flow rate of salt solution feed, Solute concentration in salt solution feed, Temperature of salt solution feed, Enthalpy of salt solution feed, Solute concentration in salt solution product, Flow rate of salt liquid product, L Temperature of salt liquid product, Pressure of vapour space, Flow rate of vapour product, Temperature of vapour product, Overall heat transfer coefficient, Specific heat capacity of feed, 3.3 ASSUMPTIONS The solution in the evaporator is completely mixed, thus, the concentrated product output and the solution in the evaporator have the same composition and temperature (which is the boiling point of water at 101.3 kPa, i.e. 373.2 K).

Figure 3.1 A continuous single-effect evaporator

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 3.4

The steam condenses in the heat exchanger tubes isothermally and gives up its latent heat. The vapour product is pure without solute content, i.e. CALCULATION

Step 1: Consider the entire system mass balance and component mass balance. The entire system mass balance is given as:

The solute mass balance is given as:

Therefore, the amount of liquid product is Substituting the value of L in equation (3.1) gives:

Therefore, the amount of vapour product is Step 2: consider the energy balance of the system taking 373.2 K as the reference temperature. The total energy balance around the evaporator is given as:

Where is the latent heat of vaporization of steam at 196.8 kPa and 393.2 K Enthalpy at the reference temperature Enthalpy of vapour which is the latent heat of vaporization of water at 101.325 kPa

Combining equations (3.2) and (3.3) we have:

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The heat, q, transferred through the surface area A is given as:

But the heat transferred is given in terms of the overall heat transfer coefficient as:

where the temperature of condensing steam and the solution.

the boiling temperature of

Therefore, the heat transfer area is

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4. SOLUTION TO TASK FOUR 4.1 OBJECTIVE Given a triple effect evaporator unit with each of the three units having equal heat transfer areas, the objective is to calculate this area, the temperature difference and the steam consumption. 4.2 GIVEN DATA Figure 4.1 represents the triple-effect evaporator unit indicating the mass and energy streams. The following parameters are given: Flow rate of liquor feed, Mass fraction of solids in feed, Mass fraction of solids in product, Third effect temperature, Third effect pressure, Saturated steam pressure to first effect Saturated steam temperature to first effect Specific latent heat of steam to effect 1, Specific latent heat of steam to effect 2, Specific latent heat of steam to effect 3, Specific latent heat of steam leaving effect 3, Heat transfer coefficient for the first effect, Heat transfer coefficient for the second effect, Heat transfer coefficient for the third effect, T1, T2, and T3 are the temperatures of the evaporators at the first, second and third effects respectively; while D1, D2 and D3 are the mass flow rates of the vapours leaving the first, second and third effects respectively.

Figure 4.1 Triple-effect evaporator units indicating the mass and energy streams
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4.3

ASSUMPTIONS All units of the triple-effect evaporator have equal heat transfer area. The temperatures of the inlet steam and outlet condensed steam are the same. Heat required to heat the liquor feed from TF to T1 is neglected. The heat required by the evaporation at each effect is equal to the heat released by the condensation of the steam at the same effect. Specific heat capacity of the liquid in each effect is constant, Cp = 4.18 kJ/kg.K

4.4 CALCULATION Step 1: Considering solute mass balance over the triple-effect evaporator, we have

is the flow rate of the product liquor and its solute content is . The mass balance of the system is given in table 4.1. Step 2: Computation of the temperature differences The general equation for heat transfer rate is temperature differences for the first, second and third effects are , , and respectively , hence, the

where Assuming

is the overall temperature difference: and , , and

equation (4.3) becomes

Hence,

Table 4.1 Mass balance for the triple-effect evaporator system Feed Liquid Product Solid (kg/s) 0.4 0.4 Liquor (kg/s) 3.6 0.4 Total (kg/s) 4.0 0.8
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Vapour 3.2 3.2

Similarly,

Therefore, the temperature differences are:

Step 3: Computation of energy balances Energy balance over first effect at reference temperature, T 1:

Neglecting the heat required to heat the feed from

to

, we have

Energy balance over second effect at reference temperature, T 2:

Energy balance over third effect at reference temperature, T 3:

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The following simultaneous equations are obtained:

Using matrix method in Excel to solve the simultaneous equations, we have A 0 2200 0 0 1 -2249 -2165.73 151.4 1 0 2293 -2141.6 1 0 0 2377 b 3.2 0 333.1 605.6 D 0.9988 0.9771 1.0681 1.1549

AD = b Therefore, the steam consumption in the first, second, third effects and the exiting vapour in the last stage are , , and respectively. Step 4: Computation of heat exchange areas. From equation (4.3) the heat exchange area for each evaporator effect is as follows.

Therefore, the heat transfer area for the first, second and third effect evaporators are , , and respectively. They are fairly equal.

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5. SOLUTION TO TASK FIVE 5.1 OBJECTIVE To determine the composition of the liquid and vapour leaving a flash distillation vessel processing a 60 mol% benzene and 40 mol% toluene binary mixture. 5.2 GIVEN DATA The fractional vaporization (vapour in feed/Feed), Mol percent of benzene in the mixture, Mol percent of toluene in the mixture Distillation pressure, Vapour-liquid equilibrium data (see figure 5.1) 5.3 CALCILATION Material balance on benzene gives:

where V and L are the flow rates of the vapour and liquid products respectively; y and x are the concentration mole fractions of benzene in the vapour and liquid products respectively. F is the feed flow rate. Putting , equation (5.1) becomes:

( Given that

) , then ; hence, equation (5.2) now becomes:

Equation (5.3) represents a straight line of slope -2.33 passing through ( ,

).

The straight line is constructed on the vapour-liquid equilibrium diagram in figure 5.1. From figure 5.2, the intersection of the line and equilibrium line gives and Therefore, the composition of the liquid and vapour leaving the vessel when the feed is 30% vapourised is 0.54 and 0.75 respectively.

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Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium Data

Mole fraction of benzene in vapour, yA
1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Mole fraction of benzene in liquid, xA Figure 5.1 Vapour-liquid equilibrium data

Mole fraction of benzene in vapour, yA

0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6

Slope, S = 2.33 (0.54, 0.75)

(0.6, 0.6)
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.2 0.4

XF = 0.6 0.6

0.8

Mole fraction of benzene in liquid, xA Figure 5.2 Equilibrium curve for benzene-toluene flash distillation system
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6. SOLUTION TO TASK SIX 6.1 OBJECTIVES To determine the number of plates needed to achieve 90 mol% benzene top product and no more than 10 mol% benzene bottom product from a distillation column fed with a mixture of benzene and toluene. Also, the influence of increasing or decreasing the reflux ratio on the number of plates is to be discussed. 6.2 GIVEN DATA Mol percent of benzene in the feed, Mol percent of benzene in the top product, Mol percent of benzene in the bottom product, Reflux ratio, Distillation column operating pressure, Vapour-liquid equilibrium data (see figure 6.1) 6.3 ASSUMPTIONS In any section of the distillation column there is constant molar vapour flow and constant molar reflux flow; due to assumed constant molar heat of vaporization, negligible heat losses and heat of mixing. 6.4 CALCULATION The basis of calculation is 1000 kmol of feed. Step 1: Development of the operating lines Considering the total material balance, we have:

Where, feed flow rate, flow rate of top product, product, flow rate of rising vapour in the column, and liquid in the stripping section. Considering material balance on benzene, we have:

flow rate of bottom flow rate of reflux

From equation (6.1),

combining this with equation (6.2) gives:

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Also,

Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium Data

Mole fraction of benzene in vapour, yA
1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Mole fraction of benzene in liquid, xA Figure 6.1 Vapour-liquid equilibrium data

The operating line equation for the rectifying section of the column is given as (Lecture notes for distillation module):

Equation (6.4) defines the operating line for the rectifying section; the line passes through points (0.9,0.9) and (0,0.15). The operating line equation for the stripping section of the column is given as (Lecture notes for distillation module):

where,

since the feed enters the column as a liquid at its boiling point.

Substituting values in equation (6.5), we have:

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Equation (6.6) gives the operating line for the stripping section; the line passes through point (0.1,0.1) at a slope of 1.28. Both operating lines are constructed on the equilibrium diagram of figure 6.1 and the number of plates obtained is seven including the reboiler. The stage with a composition very close to that of the feed is stage 3, thus, the feed can be introduced on plate 3. Step 2: Discussion of the influence of reflux ratio. The reflux ratio is expressed as the ratio of the amount of top flow recycled back to the column and the top product. At a specified concentration of distillate, or constant xD, when the reflux ratio (R) changes, the intercept and slope of the rectifying operating line (ROL) will also change correspondingly. Such a change would be seen graphically by the rotation of ROL around the point (xD, xD). Considering the ROL equation (i.e. equation 6.3), it can been seen that when R increases, with xD left constant, the slope of ROL becomes steeper. In other words (R/R+1) approaches unity; also the ROL intercept (xD/R+1) decreases. Graphically, this change will be indicated by the downward rotation of the ROL around (xD, xD) in figure 6.2. The stripping operating line (SOL) will also move down accordingly. As a result, the area between the equilibrium curve and ROL will now be larger, and larger triangles can be drawn between the operating lines. This means that the driving force for separation is now greater, which in turn mean that lesser number of theoretical trays are required (Reflux ratio). The reverse is the case when R decreases. The ROL rotates upwards around (x D, xD) in figure 6.2. As a result, the area between the equilibrium curve and ROL will now be smaller, and triangles drawn between the operating lines are now smaller. This means that the driving force for separation is now smaller, which in turn mean that more number of theoretical trays are required. Thus, the theoretical number of trays varies inversely with reflux ratio. At minimum reflux ratio there is an infinite number of trays required; while at total reflux the number of trays required is minimal.

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1 y1 y2 xD 0.7 y3 0.6 y4 x2 x1

0.9

Mol fracrion of benzene in vapour, yA

0.8

0.5

0.4

y5

x3

0.3 y6 0.2 y7 0.1 x7 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 x6 x5 x4

Mol fraction of benzene in liquid, XA

Figure 6.2 Determination of number of trays for the Benzene-Toluene system

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7. SOLUTION TO TASK SEVEN 7.1 OBJECTIVE To determine the time for drying a wet solid from 32% to 7% moisture under specified conditions. 7.2 GIVEN DATA For the first drying operation: Initial moisture content, Final moisture content, Critical moisture content, Equilibrium moisture content, Total drying time, For the second drying operation: Initial moisture content, Final moisture content, 7.3 CALCULATION For the first drying operation: The equation for the total drying time is given as:
[ ( )]

where

free initial moisture content free critical moisture content free final moisture content mass of the solid and area of the exposed drying surface

Thus, [ ( )]

For the second drying operation: free initial moisture content free critical moisture content free final moisture content Substituting these values in equation (7.1) we have:

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)]

Therefore, the total drying time to dry the solid from 32 to 7 percent moisture under the same conditions is 29.31 ks. Figure 7.1 represents the drying rate curve of the solid.

Figure 7.1 Drying rate curve of the solid

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8. 8. THE SALT RECOVERY PROCESS 8.1 INTRODUCTION A typical salt recovery process is that owned and operated by Dominion Salt Ltd, located at Lake Grassmere, Marlborough, New Zealand. The process recovers sodium chloride (NaCl) from sea water. Areas where salt is used include industrial application (e.g. in metal recovery), aquaculture (e.g. fish brines), medical cleansing, dairy products, and food preparation. 8.2 OBJECTIVE The aim of this section is to explain a how crystallisation occurs in a typical salt recovery process; its main operating targets and how to operate the unit. 8.3 PROCESS OVERVIEW One litre of sea water contains about 25 grams of salt, that is 2.5% salt by weight. NaCl is not the only salt present, there being substantial amounts of calcium, magnesium and potassium cations, and sulphate and bromide anions, amongst others. But these are not wanted in the recovered NaCl. Nevertheless, of these, only calcium sulphate is less soluble than sodium chloride, and the recovery process depends on this. In the process the salt is preliminarily purified by the solar process, and the is sometimes further purified by the vacuum process for applications that require the salt purity to be high. The seawater is concentrated to the point at which calcium sulphate deposits, and then transferred to crystallising ponds where it is further concentrated, depositing sodium chloride, with the concentrating process stopped before the brine is sufficiently concentrated for other salts to crystallise out.

The solar salt process In this process sea water is pumped into the Lake and then through a series of concentration ponds in which the water progressively evaporates out and some impurities are deposited. Thus, saturated brine is obtained, which is then passed through a series of crystallisation ponds where the salt gradually crystallises out, and finally the remaining brine is removed. This salt is collected and washed with saturated clean brine to remove impurities. Then it is heaped for storage before being further purified or processed into a commercial product. The production of vacuum salt For higher purity the solar salt is further processed in the vacuum process removes. In the first step of this process the crude salt is dissolve to produce brine. The brine has to be treated to remove residual chemicals and impurities deposited in the salt before recrystallisation. Thus, soda ash (Na2CO3) and caustic soda (NaOH) are combined in the brine stream, and as result calcium salts precipitate as calcium
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carbonate and magnesium salts as magnesium hydroxide. The sulphates are converted to highly soluble sodium sulphate. The treated brine is then clarified in a tank from which the precipitates are periodically removed as sludge and pumped to storage tanks. This treatment also has the useful side-effect of removing calcium compounds that would otherwise form scale and impede production. The produced pure brine is evaporated in a triple-effect plant. The first effect operates at close to atmospheric pressure and the third at near-vacuum, so the boiling point of the solution is lowered as it passes through the plant. The brine in each evaporator is drawn off through a loop and passed through a steam-heated heat exchanger, which causes the vapour from the brine to evaporate and salt crystals to form in the supersaturated solution.

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