The Sarmizegetusa bracelets

Bogdan Constantinescu'*, Ernest Oberlnder-Tarnoveanu^, Roxana Bugoi', Viorel Cojocaru' & Martin Radtke^
We present the authentication and analysis of these beautiful Dacian bracelets of the rst century BC, originally pillaged by treasure hunters and recovered thanks to an international crime chase. They were originally fashioned from gold panned from the rivers or dug from the mines of Transylvania and hammered into the form of coiled snakes. The lack of context is the greatest loss, but a votive purpose is likely given their proximity to the great sacred centre at Sarmizegetusa Regia.

Keywords: Romania, Sarmizegetusa, Dacian, first century BC, gold, bracelets, hoard, sacred centre. World Heritage Site

Discovery and recovery

Between 1999 and 2001 several hoards containing at least 24 gold spiral bracelets were uncovered by organised gangs of illegal treasure hunters in five different spots in the area of Sarmizegetusa Regia, in the Ortie Mountains, Romania (Figure 1). In January 2007, after a long series of investigations by the Romanian authorities in collaboration with Interpol, four spiral-shaped gold bracelets were recovered and returned to Romania from France and the USA. A fifth gold bracelet was recovered thanks to co-operation between the Romanian and French judiciary authorities, while the sixth bracelet was recovered by the Romanian Border Police in June 2007 from a member of a criminal gang. Three more bracelets were repatriated in August 2007 from collectors in Switzerland and the USA, while two more bracelets were brought back from the USA in December 2008. The latest bracelet to be

1 2 3 *

Horia Huluhei National Institute for Nuclear Physics and Engineering, Atomijtilor 407, Bucharest 077125, Romania National History Museum of Romania, Calea Victoriei 12, Bucharest 030026, Romania BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Richard- Wilbttter-Strasse 11, Berlin D-12489, Germany Author for correspondence (Email: bconst@nipne.ro)

Received: 21 December 2009: Accepted: I March 2010: Revised: 1 April 2010 ANTIQUITY 84 (2010): 1028-1042 http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/084/ant0841028.htm

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Bogdan Gonstantinescu et al.

Sarmizegetusa Regia sacred area

Eigure 1. Satellite view ofthe Sarmizegetusa sacred precinct (150 x 200m), showing the approximate findspots of the Dacian gold hoards.

recovered arrived back in Romania in July 2009. Twelve bracelets had thus been recovered by the time this paper was submitted in December 2009 (Figure 2). As was later discovered during the criminal investigations and the subsequent judicial inquiry, the gold bracelets were found together with gold staters of pseudo-Lysimachus type, silver Thassos type 2 tetradrachms, Dacian tetradrachms of Rduleti-Hunedoara type and other objects. Sarmizegetusa Regia is the site of the ancient capital of the Dacian kingdom (Daicoviciu &c Daicoviciu 1963; Daicoviciu 1972) and is on the UNESCO World Heritage list. All the findspots are today located in dense forest around the sacred precinct (Figure 1). Unfortunately, since the excavations were made by treasure hunters rather than archaeologists, most ofthe context of these remarkable discoveries has been lost.

Description of the hoards

The inquiry determined that there had been five hoards or deposits, with contents deduced as follows. Hoard 1 (March 1999) was found in a location called 'Muchea Cetajii' (loosely translated as 'The Fortress Ridge'). It included six gold bracelets (Bracelets 1-4 c 7-8). Hoard 2, also known as 'Eureka', (spring of 1999) was from the top ofthe hill behind the sanctuaries. It included one bracelet, buried with 800 staters of Lysimachus type and other silver adornments. The bracelet was sold at auction at Christie's, New York, on 8 December 1999 (lot no. 26). 1029

The Sarmizegetusa bracelets

Figure 2. The 12 Dacian gold bracelets recovered up to December 2009.

Hoard3, otherwise 'Professor Glodariu's loo',^ (summer of 1999) included two bracelets (5 & 9), 200 staters of Lysimachus type and 500 tetradrachms (Thassos tetradrachms of the second type and Dacian tetradrachms of Rduleti-Hunedoara type). Hoard 4 (6 May 2000) included ten gold bracelets in a cist beneath a large rock situated on the steep slope of the Cprreafa Hill. From this group the only one to be recovered up to now is Bracelet 6. The context was spectacular: a pit covered with a large slab made out of mica-schist. The bracelets were set in pairs in two distinct superimposed compartments (Ciuta 2008). Hoard 5 {IG-Uyidcy 2001) was from a location called 'The Reservoirs', on the lower slopes of the Cprreaja Hill. It included five gold bracelets, from which only Bracelets 10 and 11 have so far been recovered. The late-arriving Bracelet 12 probably belongs either to hoard 4 or 5.

Description
The 12 bracelets recovered by the Romanian authorities up to December 2009 are shown in Figure 2, and are currently on public display in the Treasury of the National History Museum of Romania in Bucharest. These are the first solid gold bracelets of Dacian craftsmanship to be discovered in Romania, although similar bracelets made from sliver and silver-gilt are known (Medelet 1994; and see below).
4 The site ofthe discovery was indeed a lavatory. 1030

Bogdan Gonstantinescu et al.

i fi

in

hn>,ure 3. Bracelet 2.

The bracelets are spiroform with beast-head terminals (Figure 3). They have external diameters ranging from 91 to 123mm and weigh between 682.30 and 1196.03g (Table 1). The zoomorphic terminals probably represent snake's heads (Figure 4) emanating from fiat rectangular strips with incised decoration (Figure 5) continued as lobed bodies resembling stylised palm leaves or palmettes (Figure 6). In most instances, seven palmettes decorate both ends ofthe bracelets (in two cases. Bracelets 8 and 11, just six palmettes are present). Taking into account the scarcity of Dacian gold artefacts discovered so far, their impressive dimensions, the large amount of gold from which the artefacts were craft:ed and their overall appearance, the Samizegetusa spiral gold bracelets represent one of the most important archaeological finds ever made in Romania.

Authentication
The bracelets have strong stylistic parallels with the 27 Dacian silver or silver-gilt bracelets with better known provenance exhibited (or kept in the repositories) in museums in Bucharest, Budapest and Belgrade (Medelet 1994). These bracelets feature the same spiral 1031

The Sarmizegetusa bracelets

Figure 4. Zoomorphic (snake's bead) terminal on Bracelet 9.

Table 1. The physical parameters of the 12 Dacian bracelets recovered up to December 2009 (the numbering of the bracelets reflects the order in which they were subsequently recovered). Bracelet no. 1 Weight (g) 982.20 1076.72 1115.31 Length (m) External diameter of the spires (mm) 123 112 102 101 Number of spires 7 (5 -1- 2 halves) 8 (6-1-2 halves) 9 (7 -1- 2 halves) 7 (5 -h 2 halves) 7 (5 -h 2 halves) 5 (3 -1- 2 halves) 7 (5 -1- 2 halves) 7 (5 + 2 halves) 6 (4 -f- 2 halves) 8 (6 -1- 2 halves) 7 (5 -1- 2 halves) 10 (8-1-2 halves)

2 3

4 5
6 7 8 9
10 U 12

927.98 764.95 1062.55 1196.03 1136.06 682.30 1047.00 825.00 884.37

2.88 2.69 2.82 2.07 2.38 1.77 2.51 2.53 2.12 2.61 2.22 2.69

115
123 122 122 114 112 112 91

form (Figure 7), with snake's head terminals (Figure 8) and lobed strip with palmette ornament (Figure 9). Further supporting the authenticity of the gold bracelets was the matt patina observed with reddish and black spots on the surface of the artefacts (Figure 10). These are the result of interactions of the metal surface with the minerals present in the soil e.g. iron oxides, calcium carbonate and barium compounds, consistent with burial for almost 2000 years. 1032

Bogdan Gonstantinescu et al.

Figure 5. Terminal on Bracelet 5, showing snake's head and strip.

Figure 6. Stylised palm leaves on Bracelet 1.

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The Sarmizegetusa bracelets

Eigure 7. Oacuiu siliur bracelet Jrotn llw .^ciii-itui hoiird (National History Museum of Romania, Bucharest).

Eigure 8. Silver-gilt terminal of a braceletfiomthe Coada Malului hoard (National History Museum ofRomania, Bucharest).

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Bogdan Constantinescu et al.

Figure 9. Stylised palm leaf pattern on a silver-gilt bracelet from the Coada Malului hoard (National History Museum of Romania, Bucharest).

Figure 10. Black spots on the surface of Bracelet 11 showing contamination by burial.

Analysis of alloy
The bracelets were submitted to non-invasive chemical examination, both as further proof of antiquity (given the circumstances of their recovery), and as a contribution to understanding the techniques of their original manufacture. ED-XRF (Energy Dispersive 1035

The Sarmizegetusa bracelets Table 2. The elemental composition of the Dacian gold bracelets obtained through ED-XRF measurements. The relative uncertainty ofthe reported results is less than 1% for gold, increasing up to 10% for silver and copper and being around 20% for the tin concentrations. Bracelet no. Au (wt%) 89.8 78.2 82.4 91.5 92.8 92.0 92.9 85.0 87.1 88.7 86.1 83.5 Ag (wt%) Cu (wt%) 0.6 1.5 1.4 0.4 0.3 0.9 0.7 2.1 0.6 0.9 0.7 1.0 Sn (mg/kg) 200

1 2

9.5
20.3 16.2 8.1

3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 U 12

<60 360 125

<MDL* 230

6.9 7.1 6.3

12.8 12.2 10.3 12.6 14.3

<MDL' 1500 <120 425 400 500

*MDI. = Minimum Detection Limits

X-Ray Fluorescence) results obtained for each bracelet, representing the average of the measurements in three areas on each artefact, are given in Table 2 (and see Figure 11). The elemental compositions for all 12 bracelets, featuring relatively large amounts of silver (10% on average) and very small amounts of copper ( 1 % on average), fit the pattern for native gold, which contains up to 40% silver and up to 1% copper (Tylecote 1987; Raub 1995) (Figures 12 & 13). The results show no sign that the gold had been refined, nor ofthe use of a modern gold alloy. The comparative composition of native gold was obtained by analysis of specimens from Transylvania held by the Gold Museum in Brad, Romania, originating both from placers (gold sand and nuggets found in riverbeds) and primary sources (gold obtained from mining). The method used was micro Synchrotron Radiation X-Ray Fluorescence (micro SR-XRF), which not only gave the ratios between the three main components of gold alloys (Au-Ag-Cu), but also reported the presence of trace elements. Trace-elements found in native gold are elements ofthe platinum group (PGE) i.e. Pt, Ir, Os, Ru, Rh, Pd, but also Sn, Sb, Te, Hg, Ti, Zr, As, Bi, Fe and Rare Earth Elements (REE) (Berbeleac 1985; Pernicka 1986; Cojocaru etal. 2000; Cojocaru 2007). The micro SR-XRF analyses indicated that Transylvanian native gold is characterised by variable and relatively high amounts of silver (from 8% up to 35%, being higher for primary gold), very low amounts of copper (hundreds of mg/kg on average), traces of tin for placer gold and traces of antimony and tellurium for primary (mined) gold. For example, traces of tin can be seen in the Valea Arieului placer gold SR-XRF spectrum (amounts of the order of hundreds of mg/kg, most probably from the embedded grains of cassiterite (SnO2) (Figure 12). The sample from Rofia Montana primary deposit contains 0.25% tellurium and 500mg/kg antimony, while the Valea Morii primary deposit sample presents large amounts of lead (1%), traces of antimony (250mg/kg) and of tellurium (50mg/kg) (Figure 13). Although tellurium is an element specific to Transylvanian gold (Berbeleac 1985; Hauptmann et al. 1995) and tellurium-containing minerals, such as petzite (Ag3AuTe2) or 1036

Bogdan Constantinescu et al.

1000000

100000 -

C O

10000 -

1000 -

100 -

Energy (keV)
Figure 11. ED-XRF Spectrum of Bracelet 10.

sylvanite (Au,AgTe4), are quite oft:en found with Transylvanian native gold, to our knowledge this element has only rarely been reported in archaeological gold artefacts (Hauptmann etal. 1995). Additional analysis by Pieter Meyers was performed on Bracelet 5 in 2006 using Laser-Ablation Inductively-Coupled Plasma Mass-Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). The concentrations of the major elements identified were very similar to the ED-XRF results reported in Table 2. He also found significant traces of Sn, Sb, Pd and Pt, indicating gold from placer deposits. His conclusion was that the composition was entirely consistent with the use of natural panned gold that had not been deliberately alloyed or purified. While the ED-XRF results on the bracelets are consistent with the micro SR-XRF results on Transylvanian native gold samples, in general the bracelets have a higher proportion of copper. This might be related to the presence of accompanying minerals in gold dust and nuggets - e.g. chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) (Hauptmann et al. 1995) or to the processing of the raw material by craftsmen also working with bronze. Given the high copper content of Bracelet 8, for example, the possibility that a tin bronze was used to alloy the gold cannot be excluded (Dube 2006). The varying amounts of tin imply that the bracelets were most likely made from panned and mined gold or mixtures of the two. The variable compositions reported in Table 2 suggest that different gold ingots were used to manufacture each bracelet. Moreover, the composition varies within each bracelet. 1037

The Sarmizegetusa hracelets

1000000

100000 -

Vi

10000 -

1000 -

10

20

30

Energy (keV)
Figure 12. Micro SR-XRF spectrum of a sample of alluvial gold fiom Valea Ariejului.

as shown by results from different regions of the same armband. This implies that the goldsmiths were not using an advanced technology: most likely, a mixture of gold nuggets and gold dust was melted down without being perfectly homogenised (Raub 1995). According to a theory much publicised in the media, the bracelets could have been produced in modern times from metal obtained from melting ancient gold coins (Dacian staters of KOSON type, Lysimachus staters struck by craftsmen in the Creek towns on the western Black Sea coast - Tomis, Callatis, Istros - or late Roman Republican aurei). However, the analyses performed so far on coins of the aforesaid types shows that in all instances the goldfinenessof the Greek and Roman coinage was much higher (>95% gold) 2000).

Method of manufacture
The primary technique for manufacturing all of the bracelets was the cold hammering of a rectangular-shaped gold ingot (Figure 14), while their decoration was made by punching and engraving (Deppert-Lippitz 2008; Oberlnder-Tarnoveanu & Constantinescu 2008). This manner of goldworking is very different to the art of goldsmiths in contemporary (fourth-century BC tofirst-centuryAD) neighbouring Mediterranean regions. Taking into account their large dimensions, it quickly becomes obvious that there were no constraints 1038

Bogdan Gonstantinescu et al.

1000000

100000

10000 CD Q_ 1000

100

10

20

30

40

Energy (keV)
Eigure 13. Micro SR-XRE spectrum of a primary (mined) gold fiom Valea Morii.

in using the raw material, implying that the ancient craftsmen had at their disposal large amounts of gold (Deppert-Lippitz 2008). The tools used to produce the artefacts were probably wooden or metallic hammers wrapped in animal hides, wooden anvils and a wooden cylinder to roll the bracelet. To produce the decorations, several punches, engraving chisels and a set of hemispherical or flat-edged puncheons were used. The punches used to produce the palmettes were probably made out of bronze using the lost-wax technique. A large number of slightly different punches were used, even for the same bracelet. Sometimes two (or more) punch strikes were needed to achieve the desired pattern. All the bracelets were manufactured using the same tools and techniques. The ancient goldsmiths mastered quite particular procedures, typical of those used to produce Dacian jewellery from the fourth century BC to the first century AD. This technology seems nowadays lost and replication of such objects would present a serious challenge to a modern artisan.

Purpose and date

The snake motif has more than aesthetic value, being closely related to the religious, social and cultural environment in which the objects were produced (Deppert-Lippitz 2008). The snake's head was an old and venerated totem of the Dacians, even represented on their flag. 1039

The Sarmizegetusa bracelets

Figure 14. Snake's head on Bracelet 3 showing hammering.

It is possible that the gold Dacian bracelets were royal insignia or symbols of the authority of a high priesthood. Some scholars have speculated that they were worn on the upper part of the arms. However, most of the spirals show no traces of wear, being more or less in the same condition as when they left the workshop. Moreover, their large diameters and heavy weight would make wearing them on the upper arm rather uncomfortable. An exception is Bracelet 12, the smallest so far recovered, which also has the highest number of spirals (ten). This object could fit the arm of a gracile woman or teenage boy. On the other hand, based on the context of previously discovered Dacian silver hoards, one could suppose that the bracelets formed parts of ritual offerings. In favour of this idea is their discovery near the sacred area of Sarmizegetusa. The manner in which some of the bracelets were placed in a specially constructed pit and their careful arrangement (in pairs, the bracelets of small diameter being inserted in bracelets of larger diameter) (Ciuta 2008) point towards an intentional deposit, rather than a quick concealment in times of danger. Therefore, the votive character of the deposit of such precious objects should not be excluded. Some chronological evidence of the date of deposition is provided by coins that were found with some of the bracelets. The Lysimachus-type staters belong to the late posthumous series of these issues, struck by the Greek mints from Dobrogea (Tomis, Callatis and Istros) in the late second century BC and the first decades of the first century BC, during the Mithridatic wars. The climax of the West Pontic golden coinage of Lysimachus-type coins was reached during 90-72 BC. The largest number of coins were tetradrachms of the second Thracian type - either genuine issues struck during the Mithridatic wars (around 88-71 BC), or their close imitations minted by various Thracian tribes. The Dacian tetradrachms of RduletiHunedoara type were struck and in circulation for a rather short period of time: the last 1040

Bogdan Gonstantinescu et al.

three decades ofthe second century and the first decade ofthe first century BG {c. 130-90 BG) (Preda 1998). Thus the evidence gathered so far implies that the Dacian gold bracelets were deposited around the sacred area of Sarmizegetusa sometime during the first decades of the first century BG. The same temporal frame (around 100-70 BG) is also supported by the general chronology of similar silver bracelets, which are dated to not later than the first quarter of the first century BG (Medelet 1994).

tu

Conclusion
In spite of the fact that these precious objects were pillaged by criminals from a World Heritage site, we have learnt much about them and their context of deposition, and a certain number have now returned to Romania for safe-keeping and display. The authentication process was both necessary and complex, involving the participation of a multi-disciplinary team of experts. The reward lays not only in the confirmation ofthe objects as ancient, but in new research. Visual examination of the artefacts revealed strong stylistic analogies with silver Dacian bracelets ofthe same kind. The matt patina layer, as well as the reddish, black and green spots resulting from the interaction ofthe bracelets during burial with the minerals present in soil, were further arguments in favour of their authenticity. The ED-XRF measurements determined compositions that were consistent with those of natural panned gold that had not been deliberately alloyed or purified, mixed with primary mined gold. The analysis of the physical properties of the artefacts, dimensions and weight as well as the marks left: by the tools, revealed the technology used by the ancient goldsmiths: cold hammering followed by punching and chiselling. The general circumstances of the deposition, as so far ascertained, imply that these bracelets were components of votive offerings in association with the sacred centre at Sarmizegetusa Regia. But better understanding can only come from the scientific archaeological investigation of deposits that will hopefiilly be kept safe for future research.

References
BERBELEAC, 1. \985. Zcminte deaur. Bucuteti: Editura Tehnic (in Romanian). ClUTA. M. 2008. Considetations tegatding an atchaeological context discoveted at Sarmizegetusa Regia: an atchaeological-fotensic experiment, in A. Lazt, B. Deppert-Lippitz &c P.G. Fetti (ed.) Combating the criminality against the European archaeological heritage. Proceedings ofthe International Conference on Combating the Criminality against the European Archaeological Heritage, Alba Mia, 28-31 May 2007: 190-202. Buchatest: Lumina Lex.

COJOCARU, V. 2007. On the ptovenance of ancient gold treasures discoveted in Romania, in C. Degtigny, R. van Langh, 1. Joosten & B. Ankersmit (ed.) METAL 2007: 1. When archaeometry and conservation meet: interim meeting ofthe ICOM-CC Metal WG, Amsterdam, 17-21 September 2007: 45-52. Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum Amsterdam.
COJOCARU, V., B. CONSTANTINESCU, 1. TEFANESCU &

C.-M. PETOLESCU. 2000. ED-XRF and PAA analyses of Dacian gold coins of'koson' type. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry 246(1): 185-90.

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DAicovrciu, C. & H. DAICOVICIU. 1963.
OBERLXNDER-TRNOVEANU, E. & B.

Sarmizegethusa: les citadelles et les agglomerations daciques des Monts d'Orastie. Bucarest: Editura Meridiane (in French). DAICOVICIU, H. 1972. Dada de la Burebista la cucerirea romana. Cluj-Napoca: Editura Dacia (in Romanian). DEPPERT-LIPPITZ, B. 2008. Dakische Goldspiralen aus den Ortie Bergen, in A. Lazr, B. Deppert-Lippitz & P.G. Ferri (ed.) Combating the criminality against the European archaeological heritage. Proceedings of the International Conference on Combating the Criminality against the European Archaeological Heritage, Alba lulia, 28-31 May 2007: 246-88. Bucharest: Lumina Lex (in German). DuBE, R.K. 2006. Interrelation between gold and tin: a historical perspective. Gold Bulletin 39(3): 103-13.
HAUPTMANN, A., T H . REHREN & E. PERNICKA. 1995.

CONSTANTINESCU. 2008. Surface and compositional analyses regarding the genuineness of some 2"''-l" century BC Dacian gold bracelets found at Sarmizegetusa Regia, during illegal metal-detectoring works: exploring the limits of the classical and modern type forensic investigations in the case of the archaeological artefacts, in A. Lazr, B. Deppert-Lippitz & P.G. Ferri (ed.) Combating the criminality against the European archaeological heritage. Proceedings of the International Conference on Combating the Criminality against the European Archaeological Heritage, Alba lulia, 28-31 May 2007: 327-33. Bucharest: Lumina Lex. PERNICKA, E. 1986. Provenance determination of metal artifacts: methodological considerations. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms 14: 24-9. PREDA, C . 1998. Istoria monedei in Dacia preroman. Bucurejti: Editura Enciclopdica (in Romanian). RAUB, C H . J. 1993. The metallurgy of gold and silver in prehistoric times, in G. Morteani & J.P. Northover (ed.) PrehistoricgoU in Europe mines, metallurgy and manufacture: 243-59. Berlin: Springer. TYLECOTE, R.H. 1987. The early history of metallurgy in Europe. London; New York: Longman.

The composition of gold from the ancient mining district of Verespatak/Roia Montana, Romania, in G. Morteani & J.P. Northover (ed.) Prehistoric gold in Europe mines, metallurgy and manufacture: 369-81. Berlin: Springer. MEDELET, E 1994. in legtura cu o mare spiral dacic din argint aflata n Muzeul Nacional din Belgrad. Analele Banatului 3: 192-230 (in Romanian).

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