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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar
depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar
techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels, solar thermal collectors, with electrical
or mechanical equipment, to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar
techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable
thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate
air
Solar panel farms are a lot like other normal power plants with the only big
difference being that most power plants get their energy from fossil fuels. And when
conventional plants burn fossil fuels, they generate the by products which are
contributing to global warming. Solar panel farms or solar heat plants (or CSP plants)
absorb the rays of the sun to generate electrical energy
This process of energy conversion in solar heat plants rather simple. The panels
absorb the rays of the sun, which then shines on the power receiver. In this receiver, the
energy is converted into steam from the suns rays. The steam is taken to tanks where it
will be used to spin turbines and generate electricity. The process is clean because it
requires no fossil fuels to be burned. It is safe for the environment and doesn't contribute
to global warming like conventional power plants.
Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises
their temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing
atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where the
temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's
surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies
convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones.
Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average
temperature of 14 °C.By photosynthesis green plants convert solar energy into chemical
energy, which produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived
The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is
approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one
hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ
per year in biomass. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so
vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the
Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined.
From the table of resources it would appear that solar, wind or biomass would be
sufficient to supply all of our energy needs, however, the increased use of biomass has
had a negative effect on global warming and dramatically increased food prices by
diverting forests and crops into biofuel production. As intermittent resources, solar and
wind raise other issues
Our planet receives enough raw energy in the form of sunlight in sixty minutes to
illuminate all of the worlds lights for a full year. Unfortunately, a very small part of it can
be harnessed so most of the population still gets most of its energy from power plants that
burn fossil fuels. Fortunately for our environment, we have recently seen an increasing
trend in the demand for solar energy. This is partly due to the fact that solar panels are
becoming cheaper as technology advances
At the equator, the Sun provides approximately 1000 watts of energy per square meter on
the earths surface. That means that 1 square meter of each panel can generate
approximately 100 GW of raw power per year. That amount of power is enough to
illuminate more than 50,000 houses. The entire area that would need to be covered by
solar panels to power the entire world for a year would be the equivalent to one percent
of the entire space of the Sahara Desert. The amount of power solar panels can generate
on a given day depends on a few variables like smog, cloudy days, low temperatures and
humidity.
CHAPTER 2
CIRCUIT DISCRIPTION
Circuit Description
The figure shows the circuit diagram of solar lighting system. Here DPDT switch
is used in order to get both supplies. The supply is connected to the primary of the
transformer. Which is stepped down 12v 500mA.This supply is directly connected to the
bridge rectifier circuit when the input connected to the left corner of the circle is positive,
and the input connected to the right corner is negative, current flows from the upper
supply terminal to the right along the positive path to the output, and returns to the lower
supply terminal via the negative path
A capacitor 2200 micro 35v connected across the rectifier output in order to get
output smoothing. And also a 12v 200 ohms relay is connected across rectifier out to
charge the battery through 7808 IC. Due to energisation of relay RL1, the positive
terminal of the battery is connected to the output of regulator IC 7808.In this circuit IC
7808 is used to give a constant output of 8V.A diode is connected at output pin of 7808
Diode causes a drop of 0.7V, so we get approx. 7.3V to charge the battery
6V 4.5Ah lead acid battery is connected across common terminal of the relay and
ground. During daytime the battery is charged through relay and IC.At nighttime the
relay will not energise and charging will not take place. The solar energy stored in the
battery can then be used to light up the lamp.
CHAPTER 3
WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT
Solar cells generate direct current, so make sure that DPDT switch S1 is towards
the solar panel side. The DC voltage from the solar panel is used to charge the battery and
control the relay. Capacitor C1 connected in parallel with a 12V relay coil remains
charged in daytime until the relay is activated. Capacitor C1 is used to increase the
response time of the relay, so switching occurs moments after the voltage across it falls
below 12V. Capacitor C1 also filters the rectified output if the battery is charged through
AC power. The higher the value of the capacitor, the more the delay in switching. The
switching time is to be properly adjusted because the charging would practically stop in
the early evening while we want the light to be ‘on’ during late evening.
During daytime, relay RL1 energises provided DPDT switch S1 is towards the
solar panel side. Due to energisation of relay RL1, the positive terminal of the battery is
connected to the output of regulator IC 7808 (a 3-terminal, 1A, 8V regulator) via diode
D1 and normally open (N/O) contacts of relay RL1. Here we have used a 6V, 4.5Ah
maintenance-free, lead-acid rechargeable battery. It requires a constant voltage of approx.
7.3 volts for its proper charging. Even though the output of the solar panel keeps varying
with the light intensity, IC 7808 (IC1) is used to give a constant output of 8V. Diode D1
causes a drop of 0.7V, so we get approx. 7.3V to charge the battery. LED1 indicates that
the circuit is work working and the battery is in the charging mode.
At night, there will be no generation of electricity. The relay will not energise and
charging will not take place. The solar energy stored in the battery can then be used to
light up the lamp. A 3W lamp glows continuously for around 6 hours if the battery is
fully charged. Instead of a 3W lamp, you can also use a parallel array of serially
connected white LEDs and limiting resistors to provide sufficient light for even longer
duration. In case the battery is connected in reverse polarity while charging, IC 7808 will
get damaged. The circuit indicates this damage by lighting up LED2, which is connected
in reverse with resistor R2. However, the circuit provides only the indication of reverse
polarity and no measure to protect the IC. A diode can be connected in reverse to the
common terminal of the IC but this would reduce the voltage available to the battery for
charging by another 0.7 volt. There is also a provision for estimating the approximate
voltage in the battery. This has been done by connecting ten 1N4007 diodes (D2 through
D11) in forward bias with the battery. The output is taken by LED3 across diodes D2,
D3, D4 and D5, which is equal to 2.8V when the battery is fully charged.LED3 lights up
at 2.5 volts or above. Here it glows with the voltage drop across the four diodes, which
indicates that the battery is charged. If the battery voltage falls due to prolonged
operation, LED3 no longer glows as the drop across D2, D3, D4 and D5 is not enough to
light it up. This indicates that the battery has gone weak. Micro switch S1 has been
provided to do this test whenever you want if the weather is cloudy for some consecutive
days, the battery will not charge. So a transformer and full-wave rectifier have been
added to charge the battery by using DPDT switch S1. This is particularly helpful in
those areas where power supply is irregular; the battery can be charged whenever mains
power is available
CHAPTER 4
USED COMPONENTS
in proportion to the primary voltage (VP), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns
in the secondary to the number of turns in the primary as follows
(AC) input into direct current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge
rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower
cost and weight as compared to a center-tapped transformer design The essential feature
of a diode bridge is that the polarity of the output is the same regardless of the polarity at
the input.
BASIC OPERATION
In the diagrams below, when the input connected to the left corner of the diamond
is positive, and the input connected to the right corner is negative, current flows from the
upper supply terminal to the right along the red (positive) path to the output, and returns
to the lower supply terminal via the blue (negative) path.
batteries have been installed backwards, or when the leads (wires) from a DC power
source have been reversed, and protects the equipment from potential damage caused by
reverse polarity.
OUTPUT SMOOTHING
For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wave
bridge serves to convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of a capacitor may be
desired because the bridge alone supplies an output of fixed polarity but continuously
varying or "pulsating" magnitude
4.3 IC7808
FEATURES
Output Current up to 1A
Description
Application: 6v 4.5ah rechargeable fan battery
Specifications:
Nominal voltage: 6V
Nominal capacity: 4.5Ah (20 hour rate)
Dimensions (L*W*H*TH): 70*47*101*106mm
Approximate weight: 0.71kg
Capacity: (25 º C, 1.75V/cell)
4.5Ah (20 hours rate)
4.27Ah (10 hours rate)
3.6Ah (5 hours rate)
2.93Ah (1 hour rate
Special Features:
1. Long service life: 3 years design life
2. Low self-discharge: Lower than 3% of rated capacity per month under normal
Operating temperature
3. ABS case (can be made with flame retardant V0)
4. No memory effect after repetitious usage or discharges
5. Maintenance free operation
6. Sealed construction and leak proof
7. Safety valve regulated system
8. Operating in any position
9. Deep discharge recovery
10. Wide operating temperature range
Cathode (reduction):
4.5 RELAY
In the diagram a relay with asset of normally open contacts (NO) shown in
figure when power is applied to the control circuit the electromagnetic coil will be
energized. The resultant electromagnetic field pulls the armature and contacts toward the
electromagnetic, closing the contacts. This allows current to flow through the
contacts.when power is removed spring tension pushed the armature away, opening the
contacts
OPERATION
When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts an
armature that is mechanically linked to a moving contact. The movement either makes or
breaks a connection with a fixed contact. When the current to the coil is switched off, the
armature is returned by a force that is half as strong as the magnetic force to its relaxed
position. Usually this is a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor
starters. Relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage application, this is
to reduce noise. In a high voltage or high current application, this is to reduce arcing.
If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to
dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would
otherwise generate a spike of voltage and might cause damage to circuit components. If
the coil is designed to be energized with AC, a small copper ring can be crimped to the
end of the solenoid. This "shading ring" creates a small out-of-phase current, which
increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle
The contacts can be either Normally Open (NO), Normally Closed (NC), or
change-over contacts
Normally-open contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit
is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called Form A contact or "make"
contact. Form A contact is ideal for applications that require to switch a high-current
power source from a remote device.
Normally-closed contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the
circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called Form B contact or "break"
contact. Form B contact is ideal for applications that require the circuit to remain closed
until the relay is activated.
Change-over contacts control two circuits: one normally-open contact and one
normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It is also called Form C contact or
"transfer" contact.
CHAPTER 5
OTHER IMPORTANT USED COMPONENTS
Solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts sunlight directly into
electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Sometimes the term solar cell is reserved for
devices intended specifically to capture energy from sunlight, while the term photovoltaic
cell is used when the light source is unspecified. Assemblies of cells are used to make
solar panels, solar modules, or photovoltaic arrays. Photovoltaic are the field of
technology and research related to the application of solar cells in producing electricity
for practical use. The energy generated this way is an example of solar energy
Solar panels (arrays of photovoltaic cells) make use of renewable energy from the
sun, and are a clean and environmentally sound means of collecting solar energy.
Solar Cells are classified into three generations which indicates the order of which
each became important. At present there is concurrent research into all three generations
while the first generation technologies are most highly represented in commercial
production, accounting for 89.6% of 2007 production
FIRST GENERATION
First generation cells consist of large-area, high quality and single junction
devices. First Generation technologies involve high energy and labor inputs, which
prevent any significant progress in reducing production costs. Single junction silicon
devices are approaching the theoretical limiting efficiency of 33% and achieve cost parity
with fossil fuel energy generation after a payback period of 5–7 years.
SECOND GENERATION
The most successful second generation materials have been cadmium telluride
(CdTe), copper indium gallium selenide, amorphous silicon and micromorphous
silicon.[6] These materials are applied in a thin film to a supporting substrate such as
glass or ceramics reducing material mass and therefore costs. These technologies do hold
promise of higher conversion efficiencies, particularly CIGS-CIS, DSC and CdTe offers
significantly cheaper production costs
THIRD GENERATION
1961 by Shockley and Queisser as 31% under 1 sun illumination and 40.8% under
maximal concentration of sunlight (46,200 suns, which makes the latter limit more
difficult to approach than the former).
There are a few approaches to achieving these high efficiencies including the use
of Multifunction photovoltaic cells, concentration of the incident spectrum, the use of
thermal generation by UV light to enhance voltage or carrier collection, or the use of the
infrared spectrum for night-time operation.
Photovoltaic are the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level.
Some materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to
absorb photons of light and release electrons. When these free electrons are captured, an
electric current result that can be used as electricity.
The photoelectric effect was first noted by a French physicist, Edmund Bequerel,
in 1839, who found that certain materials would produce small amounts of electric
current when exposed to light. The first photovoltaic module was built by Bell
Laboratories in 1954. It was billed as a solar battery and was mostly just a curiosity as it
was too expensive to gain widespread use. In the 1960s, the space industry began to make
the first serious use of the technology to provide power aboard spacecraft. Through the
space programs, the technology advanced, its reliability was established, and the cost
began to decline. During the energy crisis in the 1970s, photovoltaic technology gained
recognition as a source of power for non-space applications.
The diagram above illustrates the operation of a basic photovoltaic cell, also
called a solar cell. Solar cells are made of the same kinds of semiconductor materials,
such as silicon, used in the microelectronics industry. For solar cells, a thin
semiconductor wafer is specially treated to form an electric field, positive on one side and
negative on the other. When light energy strikes the solar cell, electrons are knocked
loose from the atoms in the semiconductor material. If electrical conductors are attached
to the positive and negative sides, forming an electrical circuit, the electrons can be
captured in the form of an electric current -- that is, electricity. This electricity can then
be used to power a load, such as a light or a tool.
Multiple modules can be wired together to form an array. In general, the larger the area of
a module or array, the more electricity that will be produced. Photovoltaic modules and
arrays produce direct-current (dc) electricity. They can be connected in both series and
parallel electrical arrangements to produce any required voltage and current combination
One way to get around this limitation is to use two (or more) different cells, with
more than one band gap and more than one junction, to generate a voltage. These are
referred to as "multijunction" cells (also called "cascade" or "tandem" cells).
Multijunction devices can achieve higher total conversion efficiency because they can
convert more of the energy spectrum of light to electricity
Solar collector is a device for extracting the energy of the sun directly into a more
usable or storable form. The energy in sunlight is in the form of electromagnetic radiation
from the infrared (long) to the ultraviolet (short) wavelengths. The solar energy striking
the earth's surface at any one time depends on weather conditions, as well as location and
orientation of the surface, but overall, it averages about 1000 watts per square meter
under clear skies with the surface directly perpendicular to the sun's rays
Parabolic troughs, dishes and towers described in this section are used almost
exclusively in solar power generating stations or for research purposes. The conversion
efficiency of a solar collector is expressed as eta0 or 0
PARABOLIC TROUGH
Alternatively the trough can be aligned on an east-west axis, this reduces the overall
efficiency of the collector, due to cosine loss, but only requires the trough to be aligned
with the change in seasons, avoiding the need for tracking motors. This tracking method
works correctly at the spring and fall equinoxes with errors in the focusing of the light at
other times during the year (the magnitude of this error varies throughout the day, taking
a minimum value at solar noon). There is also an error introduced due to the daily motion
of the sun across the sky, this error also reaches a minimum at solar noon. Due to these
sources of error, seasonally adjusted parabolic troughs are generally designed with a
lower solar concentration ratio
Heat transfer fluid (usually oil) runs through the tube to absorb the concentrated
sunlight. The heat transfer fluid is then used to heat steam in a standard turbine generator.
The process is economical and, for heating the pipe, thermal efficiency ranges from 60-
80%. The overall efficiency from collector to grid, i.e. (Electrical Output Power)/(Total
Impinging Solar Power) is about 15%, similar to PV (Photovoltaic Cells) but less than
Stirling dish concentrators.
Current commercial plants utilizing parabolic troughs are hybrids; fossil fuels are used
during night hours, but the amount of fossil fuel used is limited to a maximum 27% of
electricity production, allowing the plant to qualify as a renewable energy source.
Because they are hybrids and include cooling stations, condensers, accumulators and
other things besides the actual solar collectors, the power generated per square meter of
space ranges enormously
PARABOLIC DISH
It is the most powerful type of collector which concentrates sunlight at a single,
focal point, via one or more parabolic dishes -- arranged in a similar fashion to a
reflecting telescope focuses starlight, or a dish antenna focuses radio waves. This
geometry may be used in solar furnaces and solar power plants
There are two key phenomenena to understand in order to comprehend the design
of a parabolic dish. One is that the shape of a parabola is defined such that incoming rays
which are parallel to the dish's axis will be reflected toward the focus, no matter where on
the dish they arrive. The second key is that the light rays from the sun arriving at the
earth's surface are almost completely parallel. So if dish can be aligned with its axis
pointing at the sun, almost all of the incoming radiation will be reflected towards the
focal point of the dish -- most losses are due to imperfections in the parabolic shape and
imperfect reflection
Losses due to atmosphere between the dish and its focal point are minimal, as the
dish is generally designed specifically to be small enough that this factor is insignificant
on a clear, sunny day. Compare this though with some other designs, and you will see
that this could be an important factor, and if the local weather is hazy, or foggy, it may
reduce the efficiency of a parabolic dish significantly
POWER TOWER
A power tower is a large tower surrounded by small rotating (tracking) mirrors
called heliostats. These mirrors align themselves and focus sunlight on the receiver at the
top of tower, collected heat is transferred to a power station below
SOLAR PYRAMIDS
CHAPTER 5
APPLICATIONS
Basically this project is particularly helpful in those areas where power supply is
irregular.solar power can be used where there is no easy way to get electricity to a remote
place. Handy for low-power uses such as solar powered garden lights and battery
chargers, or for helping your home energy bills. Solar energy is free - it needs no fuel and
produces no waste or pollution.
We can utilise solar light to electrify the remote areas, we can store the solar
energy and then use it for small-scale lighting applications
In this project was suggested for utilizing solar energy for the production of
electric energy, based on the application of combined photovoltaic / solar thermal panels,
has been proposed. As a result of the heightened concern about global warming and
recent rapid increase in the unit cost of fossil fuel, renewable energy will play more
significant role in the national energy mix of the future
If more solar panel farms are implemented, the demand for oil will be reduced
sharply. Today, there are many households that use solar panels for energy and more
people are adding panels every day. When this demand for solar energy and other
alternatives goes up, fewer people will use gas and fossil fuels, and the prices for these
will surely drop as well.
REFERENCES
http://www.electronicsforu.com
http://www.electronics123.com/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead-acid_battery