STUDY OF GENERAL CONSIDERATION FOR DESIGNING PASSENGER AIRCRAFT

1.AIRCRAFT DESIGN

1.1 Introduction; Aircraft design is both arts and science and is a separate discipline of aeronautical engineering different from the analytical discipline such as aerodynamics, structure, control and propulsion. It is the intellectual engineering process of creating on paper a flying machine to 1) Meet certain specification 2) Certain pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology Aircraft design is by its nature an iterative process. This means that estimates and assumptions have sometimes to be made with inadequate data. Such guesstimates must be checked when more accurate data on the aircraft is available. Requirements are set by prior design trade studies. Concept are developed to meet requirement, design analysis frequently points towards new concepts and technologies, which can initiate a whole new design effort. All of these activities are equally important in producing a good aircraft concept. The start of the design process requires the recognition of a need. This normally comes from a project brief or a request for proposals (RFP). 1.2Purpose and scope of aircraft design: An airplane is designed to meet the functional and safety requirements. The actual process of design is a task involving a) Selection of airplane type and data b) Determination of the geometric parameter c) Selection of power plant d) Structural design and the analysis of various component e) Determination of airplane flight and operational characteristics

1.3 Phases of design

1.3.1 Preliminary design: It briefly describes the overall process by which an aircraft is designed. The preliminary phase (sometimes called the conceptual design stage) starts with the project brief and ends when the designers have found and refined a feasible baseline design layout. It provides a route map from the initial project brief to the validated baseline aircraft layout. This includes sections that deal with 1.Defining and understanding the problem 2.Collecting useful information 3.Setting the aircraft requirements. 4.Initial aircraft configuration is produced. Finally the initial aircraft layout can be refined using constraint analysis and trade-off studies. At the end of the preliminary design phase, a document is produced which contains a summary of the technical and geometric details known about the baseline design. This forms the initial draft of a document that will be subsequently revised to contain a thorough description of the aircraft. This is known as the aircraft Type Specification.

The Preliminary Design Phase Tasks Includes: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) 1.3.2 Project design: It takes the aircraft configuration defined towards the end of the preliminary design phase and involves conducting detailed analysis to improve the technical confidence in the design. 1. Wind tunnel tests and computational fluid dynamic analysis are used to refine the aerodynamic shape of the aircraft. 2. Finite element analysis is used to understand the structural integrity. Stability and control analysis and simulations will be used to appreciate the flying characteristics. 3. Mass and balance estimations will be performed in increasingly fine detail. 4. Operational factors (cost, maintenance and marketing) and manufacturing processes will be investigated to determine what effects these may have on the final design layout. All these investigations will be done so that we will be able to take a decision to proceed to manufacture 1.3.3 Detailed design: The third phase of the design process (detail design) starts when a decision to build the aircraft has been taken. In this phase, all the details of the aircraft are translated into drawings, manufacturing instructions and supply requests (subcontractor agreements and purchase orders). Progressively, throughout this phase, these instructions are released to the manufacturers. Layout of the main component Arrangement of airplane equipment and control system. Selection of power plant Aerodynamic and stability calculation Preliminary structural design of components Weight estimation and C.G travel Preliminary wind tunnel and structural design Drafting the preliminary 3D view drawing and preparation of virtue,

1.3.4Tasks of design phases; Preliminary design Freeze the configuration, Develop lofting, Develop test and analytical test, Design major items, Develop actual cost estimate, Project design Development of wind tunnel model and detailed model study, Stress analysis of individual component includes static, dynamic, fatigue, and aero elasticity, Aerodynamic analysis by wind tunnel and CFD, Detailed design: Design the actual pieces to be built, Design the tooling and fabrication process, Test major items-structure landing gear, Finalize weight and performances estimates, Flight test analysis,

2.DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR PASSENGER AIRCRAFTS First think in aircraft design is to know what type of aircraft to be designed and size, purpose. Hence designer must familiarize with specification and command on existing aircraft. 2.1 Specification 2.1.1 General specifications for passenger Aircraft. These specifications made by the customers based on their requirement, or based on the market survey and it potential to establish superiority. Larger, more comfortable seats with more leg room. (Better, comfort and service Levels) Premium in-flight service (better meals, free drinks, more selection of movies and a wider choice of entertainment options). Separation from tourist-class passengers in airport lounges during boarding, and on board of the aircraft (for mixed-class operations). Faster flight check-in and post-flight luggage retrieval. Direct flights without delays at airports, especially on longer journeys Advanced technologies to reduce operating costs Operate from regional airports Alternative roles for the aircraft 2.1.2 Design specification (general) Designer prior to design establishes these specifications, based on customer requirement, economy, type, size and purpose. No of Engine Wing type Material used

 Landing gear type In general for passenger aircraft Engine two or more Cantilever wing Metal/composite Retractable landing gear Performance requirement 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) Range Take-off distance Stalling velocity Endurance Maximum velocity Rate of climb Maximum turn radius and minimum turn radius Maximum load factor Service ceiling Cost Reliability and maintainability Maximum size

2.1.3 Station specification (general) First station (compartment) Accommodate pilot, co pilot and forward portion, It should be isolated from passenger compartment by bulkhead with doors. Passenger compartment Located next to cockpit

Passenger compartment provides comfortable seats It contains Windows in fuselage for each passenger or seat position. Mail and baggage Located at nose, under cockpit and cabin floor. Should accessible from left or port side. Lavatory Located after of passenger compartment, 2.2.Preliminary weight estimation 2.2.1 Introduction No airplane can get of the ground unless it can produce a lift greater than its weight. And no airplane design process can get off the ground without the first estimate of the gross take-off weight.. In Preliminary design of an airplane we cannot go any further until we have a first estimate of the take-off gross weight, however the weight estimated in this stage is crude and can be refined further, Primary design take off weight is the total weight of the aircraft as it begins the mission for which it was designed. Weight is the main consideration as for as the structural aspect of design or as a matter any airplane design of any configuration, Engineers always strive hard to reduce the structural weight without compromising on the strength factor. Because less weight means less take off time thus helping in fuel economy and also for given amount of fuel more payload or passenger can be accommodated. The weight of the aircraft is determined in two stages. The first estimation of weight is only an approximate one and the value obtained gives a rough idea of the weight but it is enough to design whether the design is heading in the right direction or not.

Design take off cross weight can be broken down into 1) Structural weight (Ws) 2) Payload weight (Wpl) 3) Power plant weight (Wpp) 4) Fuel weight (Wf) 5) Crew weight (Wc) 6) Fixed equipment weight (Wfe) 2.2.2 Passenger aircraft weight fraction Based on the study of existing passenger aircraft, the weight fraction has approximated for first estimation. We can somewhat rely with this data for initial estimation. With the use of this fraction we can approximately define our aircraft gross weight. The weights are listed in percentage of gross weight, Wing Tail Fuselage Main landing gear Tail wheel For tricycle Main Nose Power plant Engine accessories Power plant control Propeller 4.0-7.0% 1.5-2.5% 15.0-25.0% 1.0-2.0% 0.1-0.4% 2.0-4.0% 13.0-17.0 % 1.5-2.5 % 8.0-13.0% 5.0-8.0% 0.5-0.8%

Starting system Lubricating system Fuel system Instruments Surface control Furnishing Weight/passenger Communication equipment Possible useful load (food, water) De-ice installation Residual fuel and oil

0.3-0.9% 0.3-0.6% 1.5-2.5% 0.5-1.2% 1.0-2.0% 4.0-10% 90-215lb 2.0-3.0% 3.5-9.0lb 0.06% 30lb/engine

For economy of operation, the useful load must be about 25% to 40% of airplane cross weight. With this above detail it is possible to made ` 1.Wing and tail surface area, 2. P lay out, 3. Location of passenger, cargo and fuselage equipment, 4. Position of nacelle, fuel and oil tank, engine. 5. Shape and position of wing tail surface

2.3.Performance calculation Performance requirement are set forth-in specification should met or approached. Preliminary calculations; 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) Maximum lift coefficient Lift to drag ratio (L / D) Wing loading (W / S) Thrust to weight ratio (T / W) Take-off distance Service ceiling Maximum Endurance and range Landing speed etc the

As design progress more accurate data can be get from wind tunnel data, are depends on external load. Two ways we can obtain accurate data.

performance characters are belonging to aerodynamics because performance character

1. Theoretical calculation and it should be ensured that the result of our calculations are correct and no error. 2. Wind tunnel tests by scale models. This is more satisfactory than calculation. but most wind tunnel tests are carried on power off condition hence it is necessary to carry out correction for power effect. From wind tunnel test we can get 1. Lift 2. Drag 3. Propulsive property 4. Flow visualization 5. Aerodynamic moments

This enable designer to calculate All flight speed Rate of climb Ceiling Landing and Take off distance etc. 2.4. Mock up The construction of mock up, which is essentially a full scale reproduction of certain section of proposed design and is started immediately after preliminary three view diagrams made , the mock up model is actually a flexible quantity by means it can be modified as design progress. Normally this is made by fly wood or by sheet metal. It facilitate designer to 1. Installation 2. Accommodation 3. Accessibility problem 4. Arrangement of controls and cable. 5. Ducts 6. Seating, space, accessibility, control

2.5 Second weight estimation The second weight estimation will made by detailed consideration of each component or group of aircraft parts.

a). Wing group: Components to be considered: 1. Wing panels, 2. Ailerons, 3. Flaps, 4. Struts, 5. Wires, 6. Fairings, 7. Attaching boltsetc. Important factors: 1. Wing area 2. Aspect ratio 3. Lift/Drag 4. Thickness/Chord 5. Taper ratio (cr/ ct) 6. Span 7. Thickness ratio (root/tip) Load Considerations: 1. Effect of aerodynamic load - Pressure load and shear load 2. Effect of dead load - Structure (spar, rib etc) and unstructured (engine, fuel etc)

Determination 1. Material that resist bending of wing 2. Shear material 3. Ribs and other members resist direct pressure

Bending consideration: 1. Spar resist bending load 2. Cantilever wing no end loads and stress are by bending 3. Total lift in normal flight is equal to gross weight Shear consideration: 1. Rib- receives shear load from skin through stiffener 2. Rib redistribute among stringers 3. Stiffened panel resist shear by reducing effective length. Direct pressure: These stresses are with stand by Ribs.

b. Tail group: Tail surface weight greatly influenced by wing and it position in turns aerodynamic, static and dynamic balance and stability requirement.

c) Fuselage group: Fuselage weight is based on gross weight and is given in terms of weight / square feed of side projected area. For this purpose fuselage is considered three parts include

1. Front nose cone of 10% of total length (frustum of cone), 2. Center cylinder portion 3. After 25% cone

Components to be considered: 1. Skin 2. Bulk head 3. Stringers 4. Frames 5. Longerons 6. Flooring and its support 7. Windows and their frames 8. Nose wheel provision 9. Nose installation 10. Pilot enclosure 11. Tail cone and it struts 12. Cabin sealing and pressure installation.

Load consideration; 1. Circumferential stress 2. Longitudinal loads 3. Pressurization load 4. Other external attachment (wing, landing gear) and localized strength consideration

d. Landing gear: Landing gear weight is considered in two parts, Primary part chassis directly carry primary stress (gross weight and landing load) Second part - Wheel, tires, tubes, and retracting mechanism.

e. Nacelle: Weight of nacelle depends upon size of engine in turns weight of engines. And it varies with 1. Position on wing, 2. Landing gear housed by nacelle or not, 3. Nacelle or part of wing structure or not, f. power plant with out fuselage: The weight of power plant will be depends on thrust requirement and can be taken from power plant Manual of engine that has previously selected. g. Fuel system: Weight depends on fuel capacity in turns range, Tank weight depends on integral or separate tank. Integral tanks eliminate separate tank weight but some structure weight must be there to sealing and leak proof. Integral tanks are 50% less weight than separate tanks. h. Instruments: Weight depends on number of instruments and duplicate instrument necessarily involved. And this weight includes tubing, wiring and supports. Instruments are divided into three groups: 1. Auto pilot (navigation), 2. Flight instruments, 3. Engine instruments, Adding up the individual weight can do weight calculation for this group.

i. Surface controls: Weight consists of aileron rudder, elevator, flap and tab controls, Weight of tabs and booster control entirely depends on loads in turns area of surfaces. These weights are normally assumed as a function of wings span. j. Furnishing These weights are highly variable and depend normally upon customers need either actual or imagined. Furnishing group estimate this by sketching internal arrangement and individual weight will be considered.

k. Communication equipment: weight depends on amount and type of equipment interns depends on civil aviation authority or service requirement and purpose. l. electrical equipment: Weight consists of weight of generator, batteries, wiring and conduits etc. If instead of dc 12v or 20v, AC 110 V is used, the total weight for large aircraft may be appreciably reduced because of a great saving in transmission wire weights. j. De-Icer installation: Weight of de-icer equipment is equal to approximately 0.06% of design gross weights.

n. Possible useful load: This group consists of food stores and water. The above weights are fixed for given aircraft. And can be used for empty or gross weight calculation and balance considerations.

2.6.Arrangement: Considering arrangement it should be noted that external dimension depends on or external dimension must be at least be as large as the inside dimension. Three things considered for arrangement: 1. Weights 2. Location 3. Relation ship with other items of equipment, personnel or structure.

For some safety consideration and equipment civil aviation authority also made their restriction and should followed while designing arrangement. Some preliminary considerations are given below. 2.6.1 Balance consideration: Location of C.G with respect to center of lift is very important for aero dynamic and stability consideration .so calculating the position of C.G is a with respect of arrangement will play major role in balance.

Major weight items may broken down into two main groups: 1. Empty weight a. Wing, tail, fuselage, power plant, landing gear. b. Furnishing, 2. Useful load: a. Fuel, oil, b. Passenger, crew, and cargo In general passenger load and its position are variable. And fuel and oil load are diminishes over a flight mission and these should be considering while balance consideration. 2.6.2 Comfort consideration Comfort of passenger depends on length of non-stop flight, means we need more comfort for long rage flight than shorter one. Major items include: 1. Noise level Chief noise sources Noise reduction, Powerplant, propeller ventilation fans. Avoid to enter inside cabin by shielding, eliminating the openings Absorb the noise as enters rabidly by absorption materials. Prevent noise source 2. Propeller location and clearance Maximum propeller noise levels lies in the plane of propeller rotation and drops on either direction from plane of rotation. instruments, surface controls, electrical equipment, communication equipment.

3. Vibration Source Propeller and engine- these are fixed quantity, Aerodynamic sources such as tail buffeting, Fuselage large plate area resonance with some fluctuating energy, there is always a possibility that few panels in the aircraft may go into resonance at some speed and some engine rpm. Prevention Aerodynamic noise can be prevented by changes in aerodynamic shapes, Dynamic mount will reduce the powerplant vibration transmitted to other parts, vibration damping material placed in wing attachment and other parts. Resonance can be avoided by coating the high damp coefficient material inside the panel surface. But this may lead some additional weight. Hence divide the panels into unequal odd shaped panels by stiffener, which will not go into resonance at some higher harmonic of panel frequency. 3.Vision Vision is major important for military aircraft. For passenger aircraft - passenger visibility is secondary, high wing monoplane leads good passenger visibility, but increased landing gear height and associated weight, over shadowing problem result seldom used.

4.Heating and ventilation It provides uncontaminated air. Sources of uncontaminated air must be located at a place where fumes from engine should not be entered into flow. Heat source - by engine exhaust, electrical heating. Electrical heating over loads generator, hence mostly exhaust heating utilized with some additional weight. Two possible locations nose of fuselage- the duct must run through the area where large number of controls and nose landing arrangement are present and heat source is located engine result need of additional and complicated ducting. Wing leading edge -simpler and easier ducting. Only the disadvantage is, if not made carefully then severs aerodynamic problems.

2.6.3.Operating consideration Easier provision for loading and unloading, For airplane with tri-cycle landing gear, it is possible for enough passengers to congregate near a rear door to put the C.G behind rear wheel and hence airplane to drop by tail this must be prevented. Space for beggaging should near doors ease of loading and unloading result avoiding delays.

Internal arrangement should such that supply if foot and service will be with minimum effort. Maintenance is an important factor in operation; allimportant items should be inspectable, removable and replaceable easily. Safety features includes fire extinguishers, emergency exist, safety locks on all doors, warning signals for flabs, tabs, landing gear position, should be placed in proper locations. 2.6.4.Manufacturing considerations Manufacturing should be economical-avoid complexity in arrangements. Limitation of shop floor, tools, and machine should be considered. 2.6.5 Fixed equipment All the items of equipment must be considered for providing space, general location.

3.0 REFERANCES 1. John D.Anderson- Aircraft Performance And Design 2. Darrol Stinton -The Design of the Airplane 3. Thomas C.Croke- Design of Aircraft 4. Ernest E. Sechler-Airplane Structural Analysis and Design 5. www.aerospaceweb.org