Beruflich Dokumente
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Chapters 2
Contents
Entrainment
Ability of a fluid (e.g., air, water, ice) to erode a particle depends on a variety of factors, including the fluid density, fluid viscosity, depth of flow, fluid velocity Characteristics of the sediment (size, shape, binding by micro-organisms, etc.) also important
Entrainment
Affects the magnitude of forces that act within a fluid and on the bed, and the rate at which particles will settle Low fluid flows readily (e.g., air) High fluid resists flowage (e.g., ice)
Entrainment
Fluid motions may be either laminar or turbulent depending on the flow velocity, fluid viscosity and bed roughness Laminar flow
Streamlines follow parallel paths, velocity constant along streamlines Very low fluid velocities & smooth beds Assumed for most subsurface flows
Entrainment
Turbulent flow
Flow moves as a series of constantly changing and deforming masses (eddies), includes movement perpendicular to the mean flow direction Instantaneous velocity varies around timeaverage value Most flow of water/air is turbulent under natural conditions
Boggs 2001
Entrainment
Ratio of inertial to viscous forces Low Re laminar flow, high Re turbulent flow
Entrainment
A fluid moving above a bed exerts a shear stress at the bed surface
Boundary shear stress Force per unit area parallel to the bed Proportional to flow velocity, fluid density, scale/depth of flow, slope of stream bed
Entrainment
Several forces affect a grain of sediment on a bed and below a flowing fluid Forces resisting motion
Entrainment
Fluid forces
Drag component a function of boundary shear stress Lift component Bernoulli effect
Boggs 2001
Entrainment
In reality, the critical threshold for grain movement also depends on:
As such, thresholds have been determined experimentally, rather than predicted from calculations
Hjulstrom Diagram
Experimentally derived Applies to flow depth of 1 m
Boggs 2001
Sediment Transport
Once a particle has been set in motion, its transport path is a function of particle settling velocity, current velocity and turbulence
More energy needed to put a particle into motion than to keep the particle in motion
Stokes Law
Defines particle settling velocity Stokes Law only works for particles smaller than .1 (fine sand) in water. Velocities for larger particles overestimated because of viscous turbulent drag in the wake of the settling grain
Leeder 1999
Sediment Transport
Traction (rolling, sliding) Saltation Common for sand, gravel and coarser sediment
Sediment Transport
Upward component of fluid flow overcomes gravitational forces Finer grain sizes (very fine sand to clay) Intermittent suspension possible
Sediment Transport
Washload clay-size particles derived from an up-current source, rather than eroded from bed
Grain Transport
Leeder 1999
Sediment Deposition
Sediment transported by fluid flow will be entrained as long as the flow is competent enough
Sediment Deposition
Sedimentologists study sedimentary structures (see later), sediment textures, etc. to infer transport mechanisms, depositional environment
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Primary sedimentary structures develop during the processes of transport, deposition and by a variety of other means shortly thereafter. We need to understand how these features form in order to be able to use them to deduce the depositional environment of a sedimentary deposit.
Boggs 2001
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Contacts between adjacent beds indicates change in environmental conditions 1 bed does not necessarily imply 1 depositional event
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Currents flowing over a mobile bed of silt or coarser grain sizes will produce bedforms Type of bedform is a function of the nature of the current (unidirectional/oscillatory, velocity), sediment grain size and other parameters (e.g., water depth)
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Some overlap Hysteresis effects Modification of bedforms during changing flow conditions
Boggs 2001
Current Ripples
http://www.geo.uu.nl/Research/Sedimentology/Staff/mvhattum/flume.html
Current Ripples
Boggs 2001
http://www.geo.uu.nl/Research/Sedimentology/Staff/mvhattum/flume.html
Dunes: 3-D (Sinuous crested) Rib and furrow Scour pit cross-bedding
Trough cross-bedding
Festoon cross-bedding
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Straight-crested (2-D) dunes -> planar tabular cross-bedding Sinuous-crested (3-D) dunes -> trough cross-bedding Shape also depends on orientation of outcrop with respect to cross-bed orientation
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Upper Plane Bed
Modern beach
Cretaceous beach
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Herringbone cross-bedding/lamination Opposing orientations (true) Tidal indictor reversing currents
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Ripples Wavelength: 5 cm -> 20 cm Height: 0.5 -> 3 cm Planform: Straight -> sinuous
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Dunes Larger scale: Heights 10s of cm -> several m (more for subaerial dunes), wavelengths 10s of cm -> 10s of m Fine sand or coarser Planform: straight (sand waves) to sinuous
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Cross-beds: Sets & Cosets
Form sets Coset of tabular sets Coset of trough sets
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Like unidirectional currents, waveinduced near-bottom currents will generate bedforms in mobile sediments Includes purely oscillatory motions, asymmetrical motions, combined flows
Waves
Previous discussion on sediment transport relates to unidirectional currents Surface gravity waves can also put sediment into suspension and cause sediment transport
Waves
Formed by wind blowing over sea surface Parameters: height, wavelength, period Controlled by:
Duration over which wind blows (time) Fetch distance over which wind blows Velocity of wind
Water depth
Wave Transport
Deep Waves
Shallow Waves
Leeder 1999
Waves start interacting with the bottom when they move into shallow water (1/2 )
Circular particle motions in deep water replaced by back-and-forth motions (acceleration/deceleration) at seafloor Acceleration induces near-bottom shear stresses that can put sediment into suspension Sediments become available for transport by other currents -> combined flows Very important in shallow-marine, lacustrine environments
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Wave ripples
Classic straight crestlines, symmetrical in profile, peaked or rounded crests Crestlines normal to propagating waves Interference patterns possible Small features (few cm wavelength, < 1cm height) in silt to large features (several m wavelength, few m height) in gravels
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Wave ripples
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Wave ripples
Asymmetric (shoaling) waves produce asymmetric wave ripples Similar to ripples produced by unidirectional currents Use morphology to distinguish wave/current ripples
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Wave ripples
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Wave ripples
L H Wave Current Wave Current LL LS
15
RI = L/H
RSI = LS/LL
2.5
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Hummocky cross-stratification
Coarse silt to fine-grained sandstone Generally sandstones interbedded with shales Wave-formed structures, but no modern analogues?
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Hummocky cross-stratification
Hummocky cross-stratification
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Graded Bedding
Beds have coarser-grained sediments near their bases, become finer-grained towards their tops (normal grading) Waning energy conditions Turbidity currents, overbank deposits, etc. Reverse grading also possible Can be a way up indicator
Graded Bedding
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Convolute bedding and lamination
More or less regular folds in sedimentation units (beds, sets, etc.) Often undeformed above and below Syndepositional or post-depositional
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Bedding planes (upper and lower) can reveal much about depositional environments
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Flute marks (erosional)
Scour into cohesive bed by turbulent eddies Tightly curved, deep nose, open outward and shallow in down-current direction Various morphologies and sizes but generally same morphology on any give bedding plane Excellent paleocurrent & way-up indicators
Flute marks
Tool marks
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Load Casts (Deformation)
Gravity acting upon density imbalances between unconsolidated sediments Generally sands deposited quickly upon soft mud Sand sinks into the underlying soft sediment Rounded, irregular lobes of variable size (mm -> m)
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Load Casts
Load Casts
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Miscellaneous Structures
Raindrop imprints Dessication cracks (mud cracks) Syneresis cracks - subaqueous shrinkage of muds Rill marks
Mudcracks
Mudcracks
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Trace Fossils
Sedimentary structures formed by the burrowing, boring, feeding, locomotion activities of organisms (not body parts) Ichnofossils Good environmental significance: organism behaviour a function of salinity, energy, sedimentation rate, substrate, water depth, etc.
Laminated-to-burrowed sandstone
Bedforms/Sed Structures
Different types of organisms have similar types of behaviour (crawling, burrowing, etc.) Similar traces produced by different types of organisms. May not always be possible to determine which organism responsible for a given structure Worms, crustaceans, bivalves, insects, gastropods, trilobites, fish, dinosaurs, etc.
Trace Fossils
Descriptive/generic classification
Tracks and Trails Track single foot Trackway many tracks Trail continuous, surface or subsurface
Burrows and Borings Boring firm substrate Burrow- loose, unconsolidated sediments Burrow/boring system interconnected Shaft vertical burrow/boring Tunnel/Gallery horizontal burrow/boring Burrow lining thickened burrow wall Burrow cast Bioturbation Miscellaneous Bioturbate texture extensive bioturbation, few recognizable Configuration spatial relationships (orientation, etc.) Spreite U-in-U, or spiral structures
Trackway
Trackway
Trackway
Teichichnus
Paleophycus Chondrites
Arenicolites
Trace Fossils
Increasing Energy Level
Trace Fossils
Ichnofacies
Mass-transport processes Operative in subaerial and subaqueous settings Fluids may help suspend sediment, reduce internal friction, but gravity key driver Sediment gravity flows four types, each with a different grain suspension mechanism
Processes
T urbidity Current Liquefied Flow Grain Flow Debris Flow
Matrix S trength
Processes
Turbidity Currents
Grains held in suspension by fluid turbulence Generated by submarine failures, rivers entering lakes, etc. Can transport sediment long distances (100s of km) Slow/stop through mixing with ambient water or change of slope
Turbidity Currents
Processes
Turbidites
Sedimentary structures record waning currents Commonly normally graded Thickness variable cm to 10s of cm; tabular beds Complete Bouma Sequences not always developed
Processes
Fluidized/liquefied flows
Grains held in suspension by intergranular flow (loss of grain contacts) Pore fluids escaping upward Loosely packed sands subjected to a shock Flow freezes from bottom up as it slows and sediment is redeposited
Dish structures
Processes
Grain Flows
Grains held in suspension by grain-to-grain collisions (dispersive pressure) Relatively steep slopes Flow freezes from bottom up as it slows and sediment is redeposited
Processes
Debris Flows
Grains held in suspension by matrix strength (suspended fines) Traditionally thought that clays were needed, now known not to be true Wide range of grain sizes transported if available
Processes
Hybrid flows Changes with time, location Other classification schemes possible
Most experimental work done in 60s and 70s new work changing some ideas Relatively low submarine slopes needed, & trigger mechanism Cohesive mass movements slides, slumps, etc.
Summary
Properties of fluid e.g., velocity, depth, density Properties of particle size, shape, relationship to other grains, etc.
Summary
Summary
As sediment is transported, it may be molded into a variety of bedforms Type of structure that forms is a function of fluid velocity and grain size
Phase diagrams used to predict conditions under which a particular bedform will form
Summary
Sediment may be transported/deposited by unidirectional flows, waves and wave-induced flows and gravity flows
Characteristics of sediment deposit used to infer depositional processes, and therefore environment