Arhitektura sa interneta (25 eseja)

Prof. dr. Predrag Miloevi 1. European Architectural Theory of the 1880s s3-4
J. Duncan Berry

2. Architecture in the Age of Hyperreality s5-7

Stanley Mathews, AIA. Oberlin College

3. Heinrich Huebsh and German Architectural Nationalism s8-11

Mitchell Schwarzer. Department of the History of Architecture and Art. University of Illinois at Chicago

4. Renaissance of Concern s12-13

Dina G. Battisto, Jacqueline E. Norman. University of Michigan

5. Ritual and Monument s14-19

Cara Armstrong, Karen Nelson. Columbia University

6. An Architecture of Identity s20-24

Angela Mazzi

7. The Fiction of Reason s25-28

L. David Fox. University of Tennessee, Knoxville

8. Exploiting the Classical Past: Student Restoration Drawings from the French and American Academies in Rome s29-32
Linda Hart. Los Angeles, California

9. Founding Nietzsche in the Fin d'out hou s s33-36

William T. Willoughby. Kent State University

10. Internet resources: Expanding the Reference Power of the Architectural Library s37-42
Jeanne Brown. University of Nevada, Las Vegas

11. Issues Regarding Architectural Records of the Future Planning for Change in Libraries s43-45
Douglas Noble, AIA, Ph.D., Karen M. Kensek. School of Architecture. University of Southern California

12. Politics and Policy: Investigating the Imperial View of the Planning of British Colonial Cities in North America, 1660-1710 s46-48
Diane Shafer Graham. Nazareth College of Rochester. Rochester, New York

13. The Architect as Superhero: Archigram and the Text of Serious Comics s49-52
David Walters. Professor of Architecture and Urban Design. University of North Carolina at Charlotte

14. Building Codes as Dress Codes for the protective Clothing of Buildings s53-55
Jeanine Centuori. School of Architecture and Environmental Design. Kent State University

15. 'Bridging the Gap' - Points of Contact between the Architect and Engineer s56-60
Tom F. Peters. Building and Architectural Technology Institute. Lehigh University

16. Michael Graves: Restoring a Language to Architecture s61-65

Ivan Zaknic. Lehigh University

17. Michelangelo: The troubled genius and his times s66-68

Stamford, Connecticut: 1995.

18. The Renaissance of Florence: The Art and Architecture of Florence s69-70
Stamford, Connecticut: 1995.

19. Reconstituting the Vanished: Gender, Memory, and Place-Making in the Delta South s71-72
Text by Barbara Allen. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Digital Images by Lynda Frese. University of Southwestern Louisiana

20. Without Modernity: Japan's Challenging Modernization s73-75

Dana Buntrock, University of Illinois at Chicago

21. Interview with Daniel Libeskind s76-79

Christopher Langer. Ulrike Steglich

22. A Survey of Sustainability Curriculum Development in Schools of Architecture s80-83

Terri Meyer Boake. University of Waterloo

23. Defining Sustainable Architecture s84-86

Jack A. Kremers. Kent State University

24. Unity Temple: Frank Lloyd Wright and Architecture for Liberal Religion s87-89
Joseph M. Siry. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996, 365 pp., 150 illustrations (Hardback) $75.00 ISBN 0521-49542-3.

25. Miscelaneous s90-97

1. European Architectural Theory of the 1880s

J. Duncan Berry "The essence of nostalgia is the desire for the unknown." Irving Babbitt, Rousseau and Romanticism The historical understanding of late-nineteenth century architectural theory is chained to the so-called progressive values set forth during the opening decades of this century. It is not uncommon for even scrupulously factual, ostensibly non-polemical accounts to endorse tacitly the normative criteria of the High Modernists without even the slightest hesitation. This is evident in arguments that perceive and laud "pre-Modernist" sensibilities emerging against a backdrop of retardataire historicism. In and of itself, this is not entirely objectionable. Unfortunately, the true object of study is obscured when routinely grasped as merely a transitional phase in the larger trajectory toward a more fully mature theoretical basis for formal abstraction. In the rare instances where late-century theory is even mentioned, theoretical content per se is prejudged by later theoretical criteria that are grounded in an ideological repudiation of late-century culture as a whole. Indeed, if something of merit is discovered, we are asked to appreciate the fact some feature is chronologically out of place (1). The Transformation of Nostalgia proposes to remedy this situation by offering the first in-depth examination of a pivotal, yet scarcely investigated, period in the evolution of a modern architectural theory: the 1880s in Europe. It is not too much to say that the accepted wisdom of architectural theory underwent a sea change in the decade between the death of Gottfried Semper and the opening of the 1889 Universal Exposition in Paris. What we find on closer inspection is a fundamental reordering of the profession's intellectual and visual resources that, when taken as a whole, provided the basis for new strategies of conceptualizing the objectives and priorities of the design process. By focussing on the content of late nineteenth-century theory one can attain a more precise picture of the dissolution of historicism and the emergence of what we now recognize as "the modern." Although conventional accounts trace the appearance of incipient declarations of Modernist doctrine culminating in a radical rupture with the allure of historical forms, we can now readily distinguish in late historicist theory a gradual replacement and supplanting of retrospective nostalgia with a prospective nostalgia. And while calls to expunge nostalgic content altogether became increasingly strident by the end of the 1880s, the core tenets of the emerging realist (later modern) credo could never fully dispatch nostalgia. It is indeed one of the fatal conceits of Modernist theory it vanquished nostalgia. By returning to the immediate precursors of early and mature Modernist theory, we can attain a far more comprehensive grasp of the intellectual foundations of modern architecture. In so doing, it becomes immediately apparent that the decade of the 1880s offers one of the most fertile, prolific and engaging episodes in the history of architectural theory. Not only do we encounter a truly momentous shift in the psychology of creativity, but the sheer pace and volume of theoretical work far outstrips any previous period. Surprisingly, despite increased recognition of the intrinsic significance of this period, the protagonists of this profound transformation remain unacknowledged even in as recondite an account as Kruft's magisterial survey.(2) In what follows, I offer brief descriptions of several areas that will receive the in-depth, synthetic treatment that is wholly absent in the current literature of nineteenth-century architectural theory: I. NEW CONDITIONS OF INVENTION. The first aspect of the theoretical activity of this period that merits special attention is the fact that by the decade's end, the fundamental basis of architectural invention changed from being wholly within the classical formulae of the faculties (for instance with Rudolf Adamy) to a volitional psychology based on both laboratory research and philosophical speculation (Adolf Gller). This transformation enabled theorists like Gller to explore conceptually the values of radical abstraction decades before their plastic projection. The gradual replacement of classical norms by the evolutionary perspective advanced by the new "psychological aesthetics" demonstrates that a far broader horizon of design choices were available to late-historicist architects (3). At the same time, however, we must realize that available design options did not teleologically predispose the profession in the direction of High Modernism -- that the very plurality of concrete design decisions was intrinsic to the open texture of late historicist theory. In this respect, as in others, there is much of contemporary relevance to this subject matter. By furnishing translations of key texts in an anthological appendix, it is hoped that both the historical and contemporary significance of this episode of theoretical activity will become self-evident. II. ARCHITECTURAL REALISM. Another vital aspect of the theoretical activity of this decade, and one that has garnered greater attention in recent years is the phenomenon of Architectural Realism. This study will furnish the first comprehensive analysis of Architectural Realism. This portion of the study will require consideration of developments binding the concerns of the 1880s to theoretical issues that persisted well into the second decade of the next century. (4) The substance of Architectural Realism consists of an evolving body of thought encapsulated in a dialogue between the proponents of the traditional, symbolic values of architectural representation and the proponents of innovation through material (and later moral) renewal. The writings of Georg Heuser are especially important in this regard for his investigations into the dynamics of architectural evolution established several important positions including the aesthetic virtues of the I-beam and the formal purity of humble industrial forms like the grain elevator (Figure 1). During the same years, Rudolf Redtenbacher was advocating the heuristic value of unconventional

"tectonic" sources, such as naval architecture. What makes Heuser's and Redtenbacher's work so astonishing is not that we are repeatedly asked to appreciate virtually identical thoughts expressed a quarter of a century later as quintessentially "modern," but that most specialists still regard the musings of Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier as wholly new and utterly without precedent. To date, the various spokesmen of Architectural Realism -- including Albert Hofmann, Otto Wagner, Cornelius Gurlitt, Paul Sdille, August Thiersch, Heinrich von Ferstel, Josef Bayer, Hans Auer, and Richard Streiter -- have received negligible scholarly attention; in most cases they appear either in the context of an earlier theorist's legacy (Gottfried Semper) or as harbingers of later theorists (Hermann Muthesius).(5) But because these men were central participants in a critical period of theoretical innovation, they warrant sustained examination on their own terms. While a monograph on nineteenth-century German architectural theory recently appeared, its discursive approach precluded the systematic, focussed analysis that the proposed study offers.(6). The realist movement also involved a French counterpart that, as has been discussed briefly elsewhere, both contributed to the Teutonic conception and developed in its own unique direction (7). Architects and educators like Paul Sdille and Lucien Magne have only been cursorily discussed in the secondary literature, and many scholars are still content inviewing the closing decades of the century as a period of decline (8). By virtue of their theoretical contributions alone, these men similarly merit closer scrutiny. III. THE NEW ENCYCLOPEDIC SPIRIT. It was at the beginning of the 1880s that the Handbuch der Architektur, certainly one of the most daring publishing efforts in the entire history of architectural theory, was founded under the editorial leadership of Josef Durm (Figure 2). This series encompassed dozens of volumes, many of which underwent several editions, and was published across the span of five decades. In terms of density, scope and richness, nothing like it was published before or since. And it was only upon the theoretical foundations of the 1880s that stunning contributions in the series, such as Hermann Pfeiffer's volume on ornament, could capture so clearly the new, evolutionary realist epistemology (Figure 3). To date, there has been virtually no consideration of the Handbuch in the secondary literature, and little about the nascence of the undertaking.(9) IV. THE RESURGENCE OF FANTASY. An extremely interesting sidelight on the theoretical activity of the 1880s is the esurgence of the architectural fantasy. Well known examples that frame the decade include Otto Wagner's Artibus project 1880 and Berlage's Monument historique of 1889 (10).While not wholly dormant during previous decades, the allure of architectural fantasies took on a new, fresh appeal in the hands of Otto Rieth, whose work displays a vigor and breadth that enabled one critic to characterise him as "the Nietzsche of (architectural) graphics."(11) Rieth's Skizzen , published in lavish, over-sized folios in the mid-1890s emerged contemporaneously with the renewed interest in the Baroque, and like it, cast a spell over the profession that exerted a palpable influence for many years. There can be little doubt as to the importance of this imagery, ranging from the stunningly obvious (yet heretofore unacknowledged) impact on the urbanistic vision of Antonio Sant'Elia to Adolf Hitler's own megalomaniacal architectural concoctions of the 1930s (Figure 4). Rieth's work also highlights the direct connection, often underappreciated, between Neobaroque sensibilities on the one hand and Expressionist pathos on the other. His French counterpart, Henri Mayeux, enjoyed a considerable success in France, although without the same prodigious impact on his contemporaries (12). The impact on contemporary practice of the revitalized role of architectural fantasies can be seen quite clearly in the early work of Bernhard Sehring (Figure 5) as well as in speculative archeological work, for instance Carl Weichardt's "restoration" of the Villa Jovis on Capri of 1900 (Figure 6). The work of Rieth and other fantasists also merits closer scrutiny, not least because their direct impact on the emergence of Teutonic "national romanticism," particularly the work of Bruno Schmitz, Wilhelm Kreis and Fritz Schumacher. Finally, it should be mentioned that the appearance of a vibrant, fantasy-based alternative to Architectural Realism represents a compelling reaction to the increasingly speculative, extra-architectural foundations of recent theory. Rieth's work indeed presents a formalistic yet diffuse and gradually less mimetic nostalgia as a rear-guard counteraction to the scientistic and ever more anti-nostalgic pretenses of Realism. V. THE ANTHOLOGY. As presented in the Table of Contents, it is recommended that this volume contain a collection of the decade's key theoretical statements in translation. Not only does this offer the reader the opportunity to evaluate independently each author's theses, but it equally enables one to grasp that many of the core theoretical issues we face today bear stunning resemblances to the issues of the 1880s. How far or how little we have advanced in terms of confronting issues like the value of style, the dilemmas of architectural representationalism, and the vexatious question of tradition and innovation can only be thoroughly understood only when we have digested this material. In all, this material represents a visually compelling and intellectually significant episode in the history of modern architectural theory. It is only against the backdrop of this work that the contribution of the self-styled "moderns" of the 1890s can be apprehended with any precision. In turn, our very understanding of modernism itself can not be considered fully rounded until and unless we integrate the manifold sources of imagery and ideas that ultimately rendered this "new tradition" so prominent in our own century. Ultimately, without a penetrating, methodical analysis of this material we will have to remain satisfied with a radically impoverished understanding of the gradual dissolution of historicism, the rise of "the modern," and the transformation of nostalgia.

2. Architecture in the Age of Hyperreality

Stanley Mathews, AIA Oberlin College "The body, landscape, time all progressively disappear as scenes. And the same for public space: the theater of the social and theater of politics are both reduced more and more to a large soft body with many heads. Advertising in its new...dimension invades everything, as public space (the street, monument, market, scene) disappears. It realizes, or, if one prefers, it materializes in all its obscenity; it monopolizes public life in its exhibition... It is our only architecture today: great screens on which are reflected atoms, particles, molecules in motion. Not a public scene or true public space but gigantic spaces of circulation, ventilation and ephemeral connections."--Jean Baudrillard Ref.1 (1) As inhabitants of late twentieth-century America we daily encounter the ephemeral hyperreality that Baudrillard describes, but as architects we acknowledge the existence of this new kind of reality hardly at all. Architects tend to think in terms of concrete realities. We make things that enjoy a spatial and temporal existence; through form and material we might even hope to contribute to new modes of thinking about reality. Yet, for the most part, the ways in which we understand that reality are wholly inadequate to the post industrial age; our notions of time and space are nineteenth-century at best. As Walton Wriston, former chief executive officer of Citicorp, once pointed out: "...the 800 number and the piece of plastic have made time and space obsolete." (2) The ecstatic flurry of media images and mass communication has created countless new hyperrealities, not of the concrete and the enduring, but of the ephemeral, the virtual and the ever- changing. This essay is a case in point, since it exists not as "text" (as it has existed for centuries, as finite and determined) but as "hypertext" within the unseen dimension of an electronic journal which occupies neither time nor space as these have been understood. The very mode of "existence" of Architronic belies our outmoded notions of time, space and the "real." (3) The condition we call "postmodernity" may indeed be characterized by these radical transformations in the ways in which we think of time and space. Since time and space are the vehicles through which we perceive reality, as our perceptions of space and time change, so do our experiences of that reality. In the hyperreality of postmodernity, time and space seem paradoxically to be simultaneously absolute and relative. On the one hand, the smooth functioning of the global economic and commercial complexes require precise and absolute constructs of time and space. On the other hand, we experience more and more rapid communications and transportation and the demands for ever-increased growth and productivity in the workplace subjectively as a "shrinking" of the world and a relativizing compression of space and time. (4) From the architectural perspective, the most immediate casualties of this temporal and spatial implosion have been "authentic" (or stable) senses of place and time. We tend to experience the "present" as something like the oscillatory space between two opposing mirrors in a department store dressing room: our reflections repeated to infinity into the dim recesses of the mirrors. The present moment is continuously recontextualized and flanked by past events and future circumstances in equally distant and alienated relations to our place in the "now." The present is insulated from the fatality of the future by the conceptual carapace of a "future" which seems to have little relation to present economic and political conditions, while at the same time, we need take no notice of historical events, since these are now safely "past." (5) Likewise notions of "place" have been dislodged from the specificity of history and locale and have yielded to the kind of homogenized commodification that characterizes all of consumer society. Authentic "place" is systematically supplanted by the themepark architecture of abstract and ageographical Cyburbs and the imagistically powerful hyperspaces of those more-real-than- real instant-colonial-Williamsburgs or whatever. (6) It is no mere coincidence that electronic media, advertising and the entertainment industries have a far better grasp of these new hyperreal experiences of time, space and place than do other disciplines, architecture included. This is because the principal concept through which these experiences are commodified and made consumable is "image." It is through the insubstantial qualities and mythic content of image that commodities are made to appeal to us as consumers. As images become decontextualized and liberated from the specificity of substance and place, they become free-floating and thus available for endless recycling. This is why appropriation is increasingly common in film and popular music, as well as in architecture. (7) In light of this, the current popularity of architecture would appear in large part to be an effect of commodity fetishization, since it is largely preoccupied with style, fashion and image rather than, for example, substantial and social issues. Indeed, the purpose of much architecture would appear no longer to be the actual production of space, but instead those emblematic qualities of image, which are so very reproducible in glossy magazines. (8) In "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction," Ref.2 Walter Benjamin argues that mechanical reproduction served to devalue the "aura" of authenticity and authority of the artwork, yet it seems that mediation actually has something of a reifying effect when it comes to image. Things become "more real" when endowed with the notoriety of reproduction and mass diffusion. To many architects, buildings do not even become "real" until published, and consequently, buildings are often designed with that mediation in mind. In some cases, the graphic flatness of buildings resembles nothing so much as an illustration of a building.

(9) The bottom line is that what we think of as "authentic" architectural experience is increasingly subordinated to the production of mediated meaning for and within the mass culture of the consumer marketplace. Although architects like to think of themselves as practitioners of the original and the substantial, they are increasingly pressed into service as Imagineers for the production of architectural commodity; the production of space is directed into the generation of new images for consumer culture. Half a century ago, Martin Heidegger suggested that we build because the need to dwell is in our nature. Do we now build because we consume? (10) The political economy of mass consumption requires the predictability and indeed the reassurance of the series, and yet as individuals we find serial sameness abhorrent to us and offensive to our sensibilities. Therefore, although as consumers we take comfort in serial predictability, we seek to efface the evidence of serial production through simulated difference, or formal manipulation, or mildly regional inflection, or blandly historicized reference, or other simulacrum of authenticity and uniqueness. In countless corporate centers and cities, the endless nuance of variation of virtually indistinguishable office blocks and apartment buildings, attest to the ubiquity of the series, and to our attempts to deny it through minor differentiation. (11) Likewise, in many respects, our urban planning amounts to commodity management and deterministic cause and effect behaviorism dissociated from the urban subject under the guise of aestheticized and rationalized classicism. Does the artificial variety of downtown malls, pricey boutiques and gentrified housing really constitute a viable urban realm, or are these elements of vast suburbanized shopping malls whose theme is "city?" We design for the city, but are we really so clear as to what the city is all about? Could it be that in the postindustrial economy, our notions of the city and its reserve population of workers are obsolete?

"By abandoning those populations that had become superfluous and unproductive, thanks to the advances of automation and the progress of tele-informatics, the crepuscular end of the providence-State would find a voluntary geography characterized by the bankrupting of all public assistance: the geopolitics of urgency, unemployment and destitution. Out of this would emerge the post-industrial and transpolitical destiny-State founded on threat, on apocalyptic risk as opposed to political enemies, the economic rival, the social adversary or partner. This would turn the tables on all History, for it would mean the end of the principles of territorial assembly and of the law of the city, and in which places, people and things became interchangeable at will."--Paul Virilio Ref. 3
(12) Despite its dire tones, Virilio's apocalyptic scenario is entirely plausible. Even within recent memory America has always grown towards the western frontier, where expansion took place at the threshold of civilization. Now this expansion has begun to recede and reverse itself, to fold back onto itself and into the new frontier within the declining inner city. (13) Through our urban projects we seek to convince ourselves of urban rebirth through the signs of rejuvenation, while we attempt to stabilize reality by bringing to bear disembodied aesthetic standards of ethical and political "objectivity" on the cities we claim to remake. We may pretend to stability through the static and overdetermined forms and spaces of architecture, but the reception of the hyperreality of the postmodern environment, both concrete and virtual, is anything but static. (14) But if we accept that hyperreality bespeaks a weakened and indeterminate condition of reality, must we dismiss this as an undesirable condition? Gianni Vattimo suggests that the hyperreal mode of indeterminacy and ambiguity might actually present a means of salvaging art, creativity and freedom from the sameness of market commodification, of avoiding, in Simmel's words, being "swallowed up in the social-technological mechanism?"

"The advent of the media enhances the inconstancy and superficiality of experience. In so doing, it runs counter to the kind of generalization of domination, insofar as it allows a kind of "weakening" of the very notion of reality, and thus a weakening of its persuasive force. The society of spectacle spoken of by the situationists is not simply a society of appearance manipulated by power; it is also the society in which reality presents itself as softer and more fluid, and in which experience can again acquire the characteristics of oscillation, disorientation and play."--Gianni Vattimo Ref. 4
(15) Thus, it would appear that the commodification and mediation lead to a loss of experiential and phenomenological authenticity. But we need not necessarily think of "authentic" experience in the romanticized and essential terms in which this might have been understood in late modernism. Instead, we might consider the authenticity of postmodern experience to derive from the very oscillation and indeterminacy which have characterized mass and electronic media. In other words, the characteristic particularity of those media's singular reception and interpretation by the individuals who constitute the "masses" might ironically resist the homogenizing tendencies of mass culture. No one can suppose that each individual has experienced quite the same version of reality. To this

extent, hyperreality is specific and particular. Thus, the pursuit of "authenticity" might not be a matter of resisting the effects of electronic and mass media per se, but of exploiting their oscillatory, disorienting and hyperreal qualities to resist the collectivizing sameness of experience, thereby yielding a new definition of "authenticity" as the particularity of reception by the individual. (16) The real challenge that hyperreality presents to architecture is not technical or aesthetic or even ideological; it is epistemological. Indeed, of all disciplines, it is architecture that most closely indicates the pervasive epistemological crisis of postmodern society. We cannot claim that as currently formulated, the bulk of architecture is in any way representative of the current state of knowledge. The challenge is to develop new ways of thinking: about culture, technology and the profession, not merely to illustrate these through formal manipulation. We might think of this new way of thinking as a kind of "soft" knowledge, not closed, objective, absolute and overdetermined, but subjective, situational, open and conditioned by its reception. (17) Let us return to the subject of the electronic journal as a transformational body of knowledge. In this we have the possibility of an open, indeterminant text, and being indeterminate, it is more resistant to the generalizing tendency of the political economy of images. Certainly here the "written" word is not as stable as it once seemed. There is no singular topos or locus for this argument, indeed, it is nomadic, enjoying only "existence" as someone chooses through E-mail to bring it into temporal being. (18) Architects might understand the architectural conditions and the implications of hyperreality through the model of the electronic hypertext. Hypertextuality suggests a way of considering architecture as a series of situational relations and responses. Once I push the "send" button on my keyboard and launch these words into the ether of the electronic network, it becomes truly a hypertext, effectively without origin, without beginning or end, constantly in flux and without author; we all become collaborators and co-authors. With the electronic journal it is possible to create a situational discourse whose content need not be static, finite or essentialized, but rather ultimately determined by the "reader." Likewise, as architects, perhaps the most we can do is to provide the dynamic MDNMsituations for people to play out their lives, rather than scripting their actions in minute detail or choreographing their interactions with mass culture. Could this be the emblem of a new situational architecture? REFERENCES Ref.1: Jean Baudrillard, "The Ecstasy of Communication" in The Anti-Aesthetic, ed. Hal Foster (Port Townsend, WA; Bay Press, 1983), pp. 129-130. Ref.2: Included in: Walter Benjamin, Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968). Ref.3: Paul Virilio, "The Lost Dimension" in Semiotext(e) (New York: Semiotext(e) Publishers, 1991), p. 124. Ref.4: Gianni Vattimo, The Transparent Society (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), pp. 5960. Copyright 1993 Stanley Mathews

3. Heinrich Huebsh and German Architectural Nationalism

Mitchell Schwarzer Department of the History of Architecture and Art University of Illinois at Chicago (1) The emergence of theories of architectural nationalism in Germany during the early nineteenth century was contingent upon the rise of historical consciousness. During the preceding decades of the late Enlightenment, a shift of the discourse on reason to the arena of history gradually removed the air of authority and transcendence long accorded to Roman antiquity. It allowed previously ordinary or forgotten moments of the past (such as the Middle Ages or classical Greece) to contest for the patina of legitimacy as foundations of architectural knowledge. Historical thinking also reoriented the idea of recovery and rebirth -- long integral to Western architectural thought -- from universal and timeless notions to the terms of national progress and particulars. There can also be no doubt that the Napoleonic domination of Germany energized a profound desire for liberation from French political as well as cultural rule, focussing German attention on their self-formation (Bildung) as a nation. Yet, since historicism, as was the case with Enlightenment classicism, was a form of reflection on foundations and origins, its re- reading as nationalism inclined eventually toward absolute particularity. If originally produced as resistance to Enlightenment uniformity, nationalism later mimicked exclusionary practices. (2) The ideological roots of German architectural nationalism extend back to Goethe's On German Architecture (1770), but its articulation by architectural theorists first forcefully emerged in the 1820s debate between Heinrich Huebsch and Alois Hirt Ref.1. Huebsch's book On Greek Architecture (1822) provided a theoretical basis for architectural nationalism by systematically criticizing Hirt's treatise Architecture According to the Principles of the Ancients (1809). Here Huebsch opposed Hirt's reorientation of the post-Roman treatise tradition to the recently discovered monuments of Greece. Although Hirt was moved by historical and archaeological investigations to recover architectural truth in a different set of origins than had customarily been the case, Huebsch urged that German architecture do away altogether with the idea of return to any external set of foundations. He rejected the continued construction of architectural authority upon a set of deductive movements from an exterior and imagined center, and proposed instead an inductive maneuver from the particular realities of contemporary existence in the native land. In contrast to Hirtian classicism, Huebsch's nationalism was distinguished not only by its conflict-laden demarcation of the historical parameters of architectural knowledge, but more fundamentally, in its strategy of resistance to universals. It sought its reason, by contrast, in an ideal of interiorization which moves from particular to particular. (3) The debate between Huebsch and Hirt set the stage for a nineteenth century discourse on the question of architectural nationalism around a series of bipolar opposites: local v. international, materialism versus canonic rules, vernacular versus high, crafts versus art, practical versus intellectual Ref.2. Hirt's international stance viewed Greek architecture as the epitome of universal truth. His influential treatise brought together rationalist and empiricist approaches of the eighteenth century in an effort to derive an architecture that is wholly griechisch-roemisch: that is to say, an architecture that follows a set of rules which themselves express the true principles and sources of Mediterranean classicism. Like his predecessors, Hirt's notion of beauty in architecture revolved around unchanging regulative rules: proportions; symmetry; eurhythmy; simplicity of form; materials and mass; decoration. His advance from the classical treatise tradition consisted solely in his intention to clarify these rules by expanded empirical means: the study of an Erkenntnisquelle (set of sources of knowledge) constituting ancient architecture that utilized (and corrected) Vitruvius, the up-to-date corpus of Roman monuments, and most importantly, the now-dominant Greek monuments themselves. Arguing an early form of universal historicism, Hirt propounded to abstract the essence - and not the superfluous and merely particular - from the historical mass of antiquity. As he wrote, chaos arises when design does not proceed from such a "permanent foundation" (feste Begrndung) Ref.3. What Hirt clearly meant by this foundation, however, was a set of sources which strictly excluded the growing popularity of the Middle Ages among German intellectuals. (4) Quite to the contrary, Huebsch promoted national or differential historicism. He saw the Greeks foremost as national designers, if by nationalism is understood an adherence to immediate and concrete conditions and not theoretically- fabricated connections. It is no wonder, then, that Huebsch's subsequent medieval nationalism arose first from the powerful tradition of understanding Greece for German purposes. As was the experience with the Greek Revival of Friedrich Schiller and Friedrich Gilly, J.J. Winckelmann and Friedrich Weinbrenner, the awareness of Germanic nationalism emerged from an imitation of a universal, an empirical study of Greeks as the basis for the specific realization of German national strengths, allowing ironically Greeks to become a universal example of particularized nationalism. Deploring Hirt's reliance upon custom for custom's sake (his reliance on erlernten Regeln and allgemeinen Pruefungsatz), Hbsch therefore rejected design theorizing from a priori classical rules. Rather, design logic must proceed inductively from individual observations of, and actions toward, Germanic culture and nature. (5) Over the past two centuries, the conception of Germanness -- leading to German nationalism -- has been conditioned by Germany's unique historical situation in Europe. Germany was the birthplace of the Reformation,

where Martin Luther taught that man is a passive receptacle of God's Grace. All knowledge, for Luther, is given to man in his state of despair and awareness of his own impotence. At least in his early years, Luther rejected the heritage of Aristotelian reason and scholasticism as irrelevant to true knowledge Ref.4. What this means is that the new German form of Christianity embodied an aversion to both the Catholicism of France and Italy as well as to the empirical traditions of England. As a consequence of this hostility, in the following centuries Germany was especially susceptible to the idea that it possessed a uniquely non-rational spirituality. This attitude led to later appeals on the part of German nationalists to primitive Christianity and even primitive Germany before it was Christianized and Romanized. (6) During the latter third of the eighteenth century, the Sturm und Drang writer, Johann Gottfried Herder, approached Germanness as a state of existence in opposition to French reason. Herder's writings on language and philosophy undertook to reverse Wolffian metaphysics and its embodiment of the Cartesian split between thought and matter. Stressing knowledge as the unmediated perception of active organic forces, it became of overriding importance for Herder to unite spirit (and thought) with matter (and craft). Given the consequent need for Germans to know themselves better and not foreign concepts of reason, Herder became intoxicated by a belief in the unity provided by German religion, language, folk customs, agriculture, and climate. Towards 1800, Herder's indiscriminate syntheses were continued by the writings of romantic writers on medieval towns and the countryside of the Rhineland. Among the romantics, Herder's insistence on creative power was further wedded to the national landscape and its socalled imaginative expressions. As Friedrich Schlegel wrote in "Principles of Gothic Architecture" (1804-05), all great artistic cultures continue their art within the well-defined limits of their national spirit: Greek architecture in Germany is a soulless imitation Ref.5. (7) Like Herder and the romantics, Huebsch sought a national foundation for architecture in the commonplace and immediate relationships that take place between a people and its land. In this early phase of German nationalism, under the influence of Enlightenment historicism, nationalities were considered living forces, always changing and never rigid. Like Herder and the playwright C. M. Wieland, Huebsch's conception of the material and spiritual elements of Germany was progressively nationalist, allowing for transformation toward a rational and cosmopolitan future. In On Greek Architecture Ref.6, and Defense of Greek Architecture against A. Hirt (1824), Huebsch established this progressive theory of architectural particularity in a manner that recalls the late eighteenth-century writer Justus Moeser. Earlier, Moeser had "reformed German historiography by changing the emphasis from kings and heroes and battles to people, institutions, and the influence of the law upon the daily life" Ref.7. Now, Huebsch challenged Hirt's theory of Greek heroism as irrelevant to contemporary and ordinary German building traditions. (8) Central to Huebsch's critique was his contention that Vitruvius and the long tradition of interpretations which followed De Architectura were incorrect. Operating in the wake of nineteenth century scientific materialism, Huebsch regarded the Vitruvian text as antiquated as Aristotelianism, characterized by errors in both its descriptions of architectural statics and observations on the principles of artistic ornament. He portrayed Hirt as a latter-day Vitruvius, an antiquarian scholar concerned with outmoded static rules and ornamental elements to the utter neglect of contemporary building realities. Whereas Hirt sought to accommodate the treatise tradition to modern notions of history, Huebsch sought its complete rejection. (9) In its place Huebsch envisioned a new science of building based on perception and work, on reflective and active responses to local (i.e., national) conditions. To this end, he insisted that architecture renounce closed systems based on external references for open systems which related to internal national conditions. All elements of architecture, such as much-debated column order, would take on meaning exclusively through social needs and natural tectonic potentialities. Thus, if Huebsch admitted that columns were a universal condition of trabeated structural systems, he also stated that they should not be granted pervasive formal qualities or usage. Crucial to Hirt's treatise had been the contention that the Greek columnar orders constituted a pervasive and necessary formal essence. Hirt's theory of Hellenic classicism was built upon the notion that all architectural evolution proceeds in a unilinear movement from wooden to stone construction. What is more, Hirt claimed that all decoration in the perfected Greek stone Temple of the Fifth Century B.C., from basic forms to the most precise details, was an exact imitation of earlier wooden constructive details, and, even further, morphologies of the forest. Accordingly, the ornamental vocabulary of classicism possessed eternal meaning, constituting the great artistic commentary on the equally noble historical advance of architectural construction. (10) Huebsch countered Hirt's theory with his own claim that architecture always follows action and thought in science and religion: not aesthetic rule and linear historical evolution. For these reasons, Huebsch believed that the specific morphology and ornament of Greek columns relate only to their own culture, ideology, and natural environment; and do so only in their own historical time. Integral to Huebsch's resistant nationalism was his understanding that history was both differential and progressive. This attitude led him to contradict Hirt's dictum that two exclusive traditions dominate all architecture: stone and wood, resistance and plasticity. To Huebsch, architectural history possessed no central action which moves between countries as new peoples imitate older ones, or as stone traditions replace earlier wooden habits. Rather, architecture develops individually in different lands according to the active demands of local climate, religion, materials, and needs. Building in wood and stone, therefore, may develop together and are by no means necessarily exclusive or successive. For instance, in lands possessing adequate

quantities of both wood and stone (i.e., the presence of wooden roof construction in the stone temples of Greece) Huebsch found mixed building methods (Bauart). Likewise, how could Hirt account for the evolution of the round Egyptian column (like that of the Greeks) in a country utterly lacking in forests and presumably built ancestors in wood? (11) Huebsch's attack on the Vitruvian and Hirtian theory of imitation from wood encouraged looking in an extreme other direction for the sources of ornament: toward tectonic relationships. As he wrote, the dominant Greek artistic forms of the stone temple do not imitate their previous wooden character: but rather that which is technical -"das Technische zu schmcken" Ref.8. In substituting a new principle for static imitation, Hbsch proposed the active realization of economic purpose and the fulfillment of Festigkeit (solidity):

"economic purpose is the fundamental purpose of the existence of every building. Solidity gives it the possibility of such existence and requires the correct construction. Construction, finally, is the creation and connection of the elements of building according to the laws of statics and the properties of materials"Ref.9.
(12) Unlike Hirt, whose theory implied a theory of imitation for ornament as well as a slavish copying of structure from a universal center, Huebsch argued that forms must emerge from "the closest purpose" (dem naechsten Zweck) in contemporary society Ref.10. Not from the Roman tradition of imitation, Vitruvian concepts of beauty, regularity, and symmetry is architecture is made into decoration. Rather, forms of architectural members, such as the column, result from static relations and the close adherence of architects to the needs of national peoples. (13) In his response to Huebsch's criticism -- Heinrich Huebsch, On Greek Architecture (1823) -- Hirt pointed out that Huebsch's theory implied a level of practicality which would end up destroying architecture's elevated status as an intellectual discipline. Huebsch, wrote Hirt, was a base and common architect who lacked a system and relied instead upon particular observations Ref.11. Drawing completely different conclusions from historicism than Huebsch, Hirt grasped that historical depth now mandated that architectural theorists study the emergence of a style over the long duration, the process by which buildings are gradually refined, ennobled, and brought to a state of perfection Ref.12 . Accordingly, by consulting "a series of excellent and educated talents," located through the strata of classical antiquity, one learns a system from history Ref.13. But, we must ask at this point whether Huebsch opposed norms and rules altogether. After all, what constituted Zweck and pure utility for him if not a new system of norms? Hirt attempted to refine notions of veracity through historical reference to an ever-expanding corpus of classical particulars. Huebsch explicated nationalism in terms of a set of historical particulars. What differed was not the urge toward a set of origins and foundations for architecture, but rather, the different geographical and temporal space from which these would be drawn. (14) In the short span between his book on Greek architecture and his most famous text, In Which Style Should We Build? (1828), Huebsch moved from early nationalism and its immersion in particulars to mature nationalism and its reabsorption of the particularized individual act into the centrism of the nation state. Here, although his architectural theory conceived building as a series of rational actions toward a functional set of programmatic aims, Huebsch sought a new centering of architecture in the Romanesque style (Rundbogenstil). As Hirt had made the column the embodiment of Greek universal design, Huebsch adopted the round arch as the essence of Germanic building. A historicist at heart, he surmised that if the Greek style is not appropriate for Germany then another style must be found which is appropriate to the northern latitudes and its practical building traditions and understandable by the common people Ref.14. Seeking to focus architectural consciousness in the German landscape, Huebsch's nationalism was conceived foremost as an act of cultural rehabilitation. This desire to re-center German architecture from the Latin world to the German national landscape was dramatized by many of his nationalist successors in the 1830s and 1840s (e.g., Rudolf Wiegmann, Carl Albert Rosenthal, August Reichensperger) who saw in the German state a massive individual spirit with its own life-principles Ref.15. In the development of conservative German nationalism during the second half of the century and its search for the germ of a German spirit, religious values and traditional customs increasingly replaced tectonic notions. (15) As was even the case with Huebsch's criticism of international classicism, the oppressiveness of origins toward difference increased with the fuller knowledge of those origins. The more deeply German nationalists probed into the particulars of Germanic essence, the more they obscured Hbsch's original idea of Zweck, and, in an equally important sense, the acceptance of cosmopolitan architecture. Over time, the new architectural nationalism of the nineteenth century developed an ethnocentrism in which the primacy of the people (Volk) had much in common with the centering metaphysics of classicism. We saw that at first Huebsch was a proto-nationalist, since he built his particulars without a clear idea of what the rational universal will be. Later, his idea of origins in the Rundbogenstil, the flight from subjugation to freedom, sprang from a narrower view of national essence to which it was committed by virtue of its foundational outlook. (16) Given its striving for an absolute grounding in particulars, nationalism (as a form of historicism) demonstrates an extraordinary ability to appear on different ideological fronts. Both a means of resistance and repression, nationalism re-creates for the modern consciousness both the ideals of individual and communal freedom and an oppressive regime as dictated by its imagined return to origins.

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REFERENCES Ref.1: See Barry Bergdoll, "Archaeology versus History: Heinrich Huebsch's Critique of Neoclassicism and the Beginnings of Historicism in German Architectural Theory," The Oxford Art Journal 5, no. 2 (1983), pp. 3-12. Ref.2: Heinrich Huebsch, Vertheidigung der griechischen Architektur gegen A. Hirt (Heidelberg: Mohr, 1824), p. 25. Ref.3: Alois Hirt, Die Baukunst nach den Grundsaetzen der Alten (Berlin: Realschulbuchhandlung, 1809), p. iv. Ref.4: Lewis White Beck, Early German Philosophy: Kant and his Predecessors (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1969), pp. 93-99. Ref.5: Friedrich Schlegel, The Aesthetic and Miscellaneous Works, trans. E. J. Millington (London: Henry G. Bohn, 1849), p. 156. Ref.6: Heinrich Huebsch, Ueber griechische Architektur, 2nd ed. (Heidelberg: Akademische Buchhandlung von J. C. B. Mohr, 1824). Ref.7: Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in its Origins and Background (New York: Macmillan, 1961), p. 423. Ref.8: Huebsch, Ueber griechische Architektur, p. 77. Ref.9: Ibid., p. 17. Ref.10: Ibid., p. 34. Ref.11: Alois Hirt, Heinrich Huebsch, Ueber griechische Baukunst (Berlin: Ferdinand Duemmler, 1823), p. 3. Ref.12: Hirt, Heinrich Huebsch, Ueber griechische Baukunst, p. 24. Ref.13: Ibid., p. 6. Ref.14: Heinrich Huebsch, In Welchem Style sollen wir bauen? (Karlsruhe: Fr. Mueller'schen, 1828), p. 52. Ref.15: See Friedrich Meinecke, Cosmopolitanism and the National State, trans. Robert B. Kimber (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970), pp. 109-111. Copyright 1993 Mitchell Schwarzer Editors' Note: This article was adapted from a paper read in April 1993 before the Annual Meeting of the Society of Architectural Historians, Charleston, South Carolina.

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4. Renaissance of Concern
Dina G. Battisto, Jacqueline E. Norman University of Michigan "The once democratic United States is well along the path to becoming another of histories failed megamachines -- a super organized, anti-humanistic civilization destined to collapse through its inability to satisfy the deepest need of its citizens." -- Lewis Mumford (1) From the perspective of two young architectural graduates preparing to enter the field, Mumford's forecast indeed appears to be true. Our recent experiences have led us to believe that the values that we have been educated to uphold within our work are not those that are acknowledged by the mainstream, and we are now questioning what our role as future architects might be in such an environment. If architecture is a metaphor of the society that creates it and a testament to its values, then it is imperative that we -- as future architects -- understand the fundamental characteristics that shape the culture. (2) America is coming apart at the seams. Everywhere one turns cries for reform are being sounded, and it is evident that society is on the cusp of desperately needed change. Only a major paradigm shift in the prevailing epistemology could create such sweeping changes in the American way. The epitome of Western thought -- the search for and right to freedom -- has been distorted to such an extent it negates the vital importance of community and interpersonal relationships tends to be negated. Americans' over-idealized "rugged individualism" demands a rigorous competitiveness which prevents a holistic way of life. The individual and society are interdependent, and an excessive importance given to the individual without regard for the health of the community leads to fundamental imbalance. With material wealth as the definition of American success, all judgments are quantitatively based; and aspects of our lives which cannot be reduced to numbers are effectively ignored. The resulting fragmented society unravels because unifying principles (such as cultural traditions. the family, and community) are deprived of any role in the value system. In this unstable environment, individuals are left alienated and spiritually isolated. (3) If we are not able to establish the essential relationship of the individual to the community, then how can we envision this group as a part of an even greater whole? The dissociative way in which we live discourages the naturally occurring relationships between man and the environment. Our excessive manipulation of nature has been so ignorant that one might argue we still believed in a Ptolemaic, earth-centered (i.e., man- centered) universe. It has only been recently that we have attempted to mend our ways, and only then because we have realized our abuse of nature is ultimately self destructive. (4) This renaissance of concern was the underlying theme of our educations. Now we are anxious to enter the field, armed with our knowledge and talent, driven by our youth and eagerness. We are ready to begin what we believe to be desperately needed -- the reform of architecture. As emerging architects, and also a part of a generation standing to inherit what appears to be a future with no promise, we perhaps more than many others, understand the need for change. (5) However, we are disillusioned by the difference between our idealized perception of architecture and the reality of the workplace. Since we seem to be expected to enter the field fully capable, our lack of immediate job skills forces us to question the relevance of our education as well as our personal abilities. While all jobs are scarce, architectural jobs are even more difficult to come by -- especially those which would allow us both to continue learning and to contribute our insights. The lack of traditional apprenticeships leaves us without opportunities to make the transition from academia to the work place. Consequently, many graduates are specializing in certain areas of architecture in order to increase their qualifications and job opportunities in an ever shrinking market. We question whether this compartmentalization of architectural practice will make it difficult for architects effectively to create built form which improves the quality of live. (6) As Winston Churchill insightfully said: "First we shape our buildings, then they shape us." With every project, architects have the opportunity to transform society, even if only just a little bit. But when an architect consents to satisfy only the superficial wants and needs of a client, instead of offering what might be a greater good, this opportunity is lost and the status quo maintained. To initiate reform, architecture must champion those principles which nurture both the human spirit as well as the natural environment. Does it fall then to the young architects to challenge the existing complacency, just as it has always been the young who have led the revolutions? And how do we cope with the inevitable discouragement and disillusionment that comes with such change? This is the struggle that the architects of our generation must overcome if we are in fact going to shape a better future. Copyright 1993 Dina G. Battisto, Jacqueline E. Norman EDITORS' NOTE: These questions plague many architectural graduates who, upon leaving school and entering the profession, find it difficult to reconcile idealism and practicality. We can afford to be idealistic in academia. Can we afford the same idealisms in our everyday lives?

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These are difficult questions which these authors ask. We encourage those interested to e-mail their responses to the editors, who will compile them for a supplemental October issue.

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5. Ritual and Monument

Cara Armstrong, Karen Nelson Columbia University What has gone? How it Ends! Begin to forget it. It will remember itself from every sides, with all gestures, in each our word. Today's truth, tomorrow's trend. Forget, remember!! - James Joyce: Finnegans Wake (1) As children, we experience space through all our senses and we have an intimacy with place. Through monuments and rituals we try to recall this intimacy and awareness. As children, we learn to inscribe landscapes with the body and to understand place through the body. Eudora Welty explains that "place absorbs our earliest notice and attention, it bestows on us our original awareness; and our critical powers spring up from the 'study' of it and the growth of experience inside it."Ref.1 Our childhood place becomes our first remembered space and it is with these memories that we interpret other spaces. Bachelard suggests that memories which are firmly grounded in a specific place or space are more "sound"; "each one of us, then, should speak of [one's] roads, [one's] crossroads...each one of us should make a surveyor's map of [one's] lost fields and meadows."Ref.2 (2) The play of our childhood can guide our understanding of ritual. Ritual and play share elements of learning, exploration, creativity, communication, re-membering, and negotiation of time/space. Ritual, like "play(,) can be everywhere and nowhere, imitate anything, yet be identified with nothing...its metamessages are composed of a potpourri of apparently incongruous elements...passages of seemingly wholly rational thought jostle in a Joycean or surrealist manner with passages filleted of all syntactical connectedness.Ref.3 (3) Monuments and rituals serve as markers of our collective lost fields and meadows; they represent shared roads, crossroads, and collisions. They create and transmit knowledge, reveal and (re)veil history. They make theory and knowledge dynamic while inscribing the body and conditioning place. Placing the presence of the past in the present, monument and ritual prolong time, carry through time, project tangible parts of the past over time. Rituals and monuments help create interpretations of events and provide a framework for understanding and remembering. (4) Ritual has various definitions: 1) as structures with formal qualities with definable relationships; 2) as symbolic systems of meaning; 3) as performative actions or processes; and 4) as experiences.Ref.4 These dynamic definitions overlap and continue to re-combine tradition with new materials and action. (5) Rituals are determined modes of action and interaction which can expand a person's relationship to the landscape and carry over time; past merges with an already obsolescing present and projects into the future. Ritual can take place in the temporal framework of myth and can serve as dynamic interpretations of time. As (re)w/riting and (re)reading, ritual can be used as a feminist strategy to exploit the gaps within a system determined by the patriarchal hegemonic culture. A feminist development of ritual came as a response to a genuine need on both a personal level for identity and on a communal level for revised history and a broader framework.Ref.5 I believe that the importance of ritual in its collective nature and its essential character as an element for preserving myth constitutes a key to understanding the meaning of monuments ... A monument's persistence or permanence is a result of its capacity to constitute the city, its history and its art, its being and memory. - Aldo Rossi: The Architecture of The City (6) Through ritual, individual, private actions can become part of a shared act. Through repetition, actions can take on additional significance. Repetition can enlarge and increase an idea or purpose and may also suggest eroticism. Ritual, as shared acts, are potentially inclusionary. Ritual layers daily experience with the cyclical and the symbolic. Thanks to ritual, the 'disjoined' past of myth is expressed, on the one hand, through biological and seasonal periodicity and, on the other, through the 'conjoined' past, which unites from generation to generation the living and the dead.... The commemorative or historical rites recreate the sacred and beneficial atmosphere of mythical times...mirroring its protagonists and their great deeds. The mourning rites correspond to an inverse procedure: instead of charging living men with the personification of remote ancestors, these rites assure the conversion of men who are no longer living men into ancestors. It can thus be seen that the function of ritual is to overcome and integrate [these] oppositions: that of diachrony and synchrony; that of the periodic and non-periodic features which either may exhibit; and, finally, within diachrony, that of reversible and irreversible time, for, although present and past are theoretically distinct, the historical rites bring the past into the present and the rites of mourning the present into the past, and the two presences are not equivalent: mythical heroes can truly be said to return, for their only reality lies in

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their personification; but human beings die for good. - Claude Levi-Strauss: The Savage Mind (7) Ritual and monument can embody the essence of events. Monuments can site a form of permanence in the landscape and impress events on the collective memory. Through ritual, landscape can be transformed into an operative. Ritual conditions the reading of the monument and place through the body and through memory. Monuments remind, warn and suture; they provide public places for recognition, gathering and mourning. The problem was how to mourn death honestly. I decided to cut into the earth and polish the sides...open this wound or cut- one end pointing to the Washington Memorial and one to the Lincoln...Grass would grow over it and heal the wound.... I wanted the names arranged chronologically from the first death to the last. You don't die alphabetically. That way the memorial becomes a journey... it becomes a sequence in time. Maya Lin: American Women Sculptors (8) Turning an individual act of exploration, discovery and commemoration into a shared act, Maya Lin's National Vietnam War Memorial, 1982, Washington, DC, becomes a place of public mourning. Creating a new public ritual of gathering and questioning, this monument invites the viewer to contemplate death, burial and the ceremony of procession as well as form connections with each other, with the names of the dead, and with recent history. (9) By placing the participant below ground, the monument makes one aware of one's own mortality. The polished granite walls reflect the visitor over the names of the dead and turns the viewer's gaze inward. The chronological arrangement of the names follows an implied circular path that begins at the center angle.Ref.6 This arrangement layers the historical events with cyclical movement. The actions of descending, ascending, finding battles and names, and touching the polished stone allude to the ritual of myths and turn the visitor into an integral aspect of the work. (10) Maya Lin's memorial cuts into the ground, tracing its archaeological and topographical character in its position and form. The walls transform the ground from horizontal plane to embankment to earthwork. The monument changes the viewer's relation to the ground plane and the horizon. As one moves along the articulated edge of the path, the wall increases in height and forms an angle in the center to imply a volume and to point to existing monuments.Ref.7 (11) Maya Lin's War Memorial provides a measure of cyclical and linear time and emerges as a representation of collective memory. Transforming an individual's relationship to time, memory, and place, the monument's ritual layers experience with meaning and enigma. Monuments can still serve the vital function of getting people to remember together; remembering alone in public affirms a kind of social unity beneath the manifold diversities of contemporary communities. - William Gass: Oppositions The monument is a declaration of love and admiration attached to higher purposes [people] hold in common ... An age that has deflatedits values and lost sight of its purposes will not produce convincing monuments. Lewis Mumford: Monumentalism, Symbolism and Style, in Architectural Review, April 1949 Our first step in the employment of this procedure teaches us that what we must take as the object of our attention is not the dream as a whole but the separate portions of its content. - Sigmund Freud: The Interpretations of Dreams (12) Ritual encourages us to archive, to re-cycle, to re-use, to re-call, to re-member, to seek roots, and to explore. Alice Aycock's works create their own rituals to construct possible narratives and to suggest multiple truths and lies. (13) Aycock's early works explore her childhood fears and provide a frame for remembering our own experiences. As a child, Aycock lived in a family environment surrounded by disease and death. This early intimacy with death caused her to speak about the weight and presence of death in her memories, in her dreams, and in her thoughts regarding her future. Her work juxtaposes the real and the unreal, the imagined known and the remembered unknown. The installations reveal specific instances of memory and dreams, myth and technology. (14) Aycock's installation, Low Building with Dirt Roof (for Mary), 1973, on a Pennsylvania farm site, is a commemoration of her twelve-year-old niece's sudden death.Ref.8 Not only a remembrance of death, the piece also offers a confrontation with death, a possibility of death. The placement of seven tons of dirt on top of a light wood roof creates a dark and compressed space. The structure's instability causes one to confront the possibility of being buried alive. The work allows for only one person to enter at one time and places the individual in isolation; it also suggests the aloneness of death as well as the fear of death and encourages personal rituals to mediate death. (15) Aycock's sculpture, The Machine That Makes the World, 1979, the John Weber Gallery, NY, involves the body through scale and implied motion. Participating in the piece, one begins a ritual of (dis)placement,

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(dis)orientation, and temporary entrapment followed by a (re)tracing and a (re)membering. To enter the piece, one pulls on ropes raising guillotine-like blades. Passing through these three gates, one pushes through a revolving wooden panel to gain access to the inner perimeter. Wandering through three circular layers, one is trapped in the center of a six-foot high wooden maze. To exit, one meanders through the shifted partitions by retracing/reversing actions. This labyrinthine work suggests a symbol of the uterine maze. A shifting of pre-patriarchal organization blurs physical boundaries. Path and ritual change openings between what could have been isolated self-sufficient territories. (16) Moving parts and electricity fascinate Aycock. Her projects often employ turning elements and blades. Instruments of cutting, power, technology, and destruction are layered with magical and cyclical aspects. In her conception of technology she frames ritual and she repositions an acceptance of the mundane. Her "inventions remain vigilant receptors for, not generators of previously undetected phenomena;"Ref.9 in her projects which use blades Aycock exposes the mechanisms required for turning and celebrates the electrical connections. (17) Aycock's use of blades links the past and the present. Recalling rituals and images of primitive food gathering and preparation, the blade becomes "both a creator and a destroyer."Ref.10 The Glance of Eternity, part of The Thousand and One Nights in the Mansion of Bliss, 1983, is a horizontally oriented 15-foot-long machine partially comprised of slowly turning blades. Trying to imply the actual slicing of the human body and perhaps a slicing through time, Aycock wanted the blades to be sinister yet seductive.Ref.11 (18) Similar to the writing practices of Helene Cixous and Luce Irigaray, Aycock's writings use different voices. Influenced by the writings of schizophrenics, she places herself in the role of characters and inanimate objects that might choose to inhabit her sculptures. The writings of schizophrenics have also enabled her to examine assumptions of causality and boundaries, to discover ways of knowing/being, and to approach otherness in her work. (19) Aycock sometimes expects her participants to become childlike, to experience her works through the entire body--not just through vision. Often her sculptures require pushing, turning, raising or lowering an element in order to enter and to experience the piece. Aycock's work forces one to play or ritualize. These rituals bring about destabilizing actions that do not declare their own existences or even intentions. These environments are typically tied to the human body in scale and act as sites of imagined habitation. To go from one place to another you have always the choice between land and boat: and since the shortest distance between two points...is not a straight line but a zigzag that ramifies in tortuous optimal routes, the ways that open to each passerby are never two, but many, and they increase further for those who alternate a stretch by boat with one on dry land. - Italo Calvino: Invisible Cities (20) Mary Miss also scales her works to the body and examines boundaries, topography, ritual movement, and process. In Perimeters/Pavilions/Decoys, Nassau County, NY, 1978, she excavates a cube and underground spaces in the middle of a field. Wood struts that retain the earth are transformed into a ladder which suggests a way in and out. This playful transformation of support into free standing element, of excavation into structure, and of earthwork into woven framework describes a blurring of conditions. This blurring also occurs in relation to the horizon; movement from the field to the excavated ground plane shifts perception. By making temporary cuts in the ground, Miss refers viewers to the process of making and the ritual of building the site. Miss describes her work as carving out territories rather than marking the site.Ref.12 (21) For the South Cove Project of Battery Park City, 1988, New York, NY, Mary Miss constructed a floating curved walkway at the end of a long promenade. The careful sequencing of arrival, waiting and departure are marked through framed views, material difference, tectonics and scale. An arched bridge is reminiscent of traditional Japanese timber construction. Two shallow steps mark arrival and passage from urban concrete to wood. This change in section and material is understood through movement, sound, and sight. The materials define overlapping boundaries. (22) The bridge at South Cove marks both cyclical and linear time. The participant understands the bridge differently depending on the direction of crossing. In crossing from land to water one sees the tidal patterns traced on rough hewn posts. These markings reference daily and seasonal cycles. Time becomes a space measurement not an essential unspokeness. (23) Crossing to the land, one encounters a replica of the head of the Statue of Liberty. This fragment suggests the statue's underlying armature washed up on shore and eroded by the passage of time. By placing this fragment on land, Miss calls attention to ruins, to ritual, to death, and to origin. Jennifer Bloomer writes, "The idea of fragment is not an idea of origin. Fragment demands a preceding action. The act is collision; the object is fragment. The cause is not collision; the effect is fragment. Implied is the shattering of the whole. The shattered whole is a synthetic whole (although it may appear to be an analytic whole of additive parts) in which the shattering is the mechanism of the syntax."Ref.13 Ritual is referenced here as an act of violence, one that displays, defers and destroys linear time. There must be in the nature of human institutions a mental language common to all nations which uniformly grasps the substance of things feasible in human social life and expresses it with as many diverse modifications as these same things may have diverse aspects.

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Giambattista Vico: La Scienza Nuova, Section 161 (24) The participation, rather than the separation, of the observer to the work (or even to the maker) often establishes or creates a method of procedure which must be followed. Such participation could be termed "ritual". Lucy Lippard explains that although monuments or other works of art may be accessible, the essence of life (and death) remains elusive; ritual then becomes an animating element.Ref.14 Dennis Oppenheim seemingly concurs with Lippard's expression of ritual as "an objectively placed idiom necessary to move the work away from certain kinds of sterility."Ref.15 (25) Ritual transforms the observer into a participant and becomes a vehicle with the monument for placing the body in the landscape. Passed through time and participants, ritual itself becomes a way of remembering. Multimedia performance artist Kaylynn Sullivan Two Trees describes ritual as a repetition and as a communication passing through generations. Two Trees explains that ritual also depends on intention and a suspension of disbelief; one must believe that ritual can transform something and is transforming.Ref.16 There is a historically and geographically complex phenomenon that allows us to make what is spectacular and what is pathological, celebration, and reminiscence all add up...a transition ritual in which civil and symbolic identity disappear...a forced dance, a tragic happiness, but even more, the repetition of the distant past. - Helene Cixous: The Guilty One (26) In "Tabbles of Bower", 1990, Jennifer Bloomer uses ritual as a process. Celebrating exploration and the circumstances of existence and production rather than objective meaning, the process of creation is focused on the experience of making rather than on a resultant object. Bloomer relies on participation rather than on a categorical separation of observer from maker, viewing from making. Theory becomes ritualized and is viewed "not as a foundation or relic, but as dynamic, tracing a fragmentary process of object making."Ref.17 (27) Exploring the area between sanctity and sensuality, graduate student Nina Hofer, Bloomer, and students created a grouping of parasitical corner structures for Chicago which can function as protection from the elements. The project acts as a sign for homelessness in the city, as a remembrance of Freud's Dora, and as Louis Sullivan's revenge.Ref.18 (28) The project is consciously removed from a patriarchally imposed practice of linearity. History is viewed not as a truth but as construction and as an architectonic construction. Using the past as an origin as well as a recollection, part of the project dealt with the creation of fascini. These amulets were shaped with concern toward technique rather than form. Juxtaposing artifacts of the daily domestic feminine realm such as beads, straps, makeup, hair, ribbons and bones with stones (pieces of material from which architecture is made), the fascini layer the quotidian with the mystical. The amulets were made by participants to explore the three dimensional possibilities suggested by a project of Sullivan's. Techniques that derived from Sullivan -- "symmetrical placement of parts, interweaving, swirling, overlay, repetitious alternation"Ref.19 -- were employed. These techniques and the group's organization recall more "feminine" practices such as quilting bees, sewing, and weaving. The work is more important in how it is potentially generative and constructive than in its form. (29) Bloomer's writing style mimics her approach towards architecture. Her texts continually re-invent and reappropriate. In both Towards Desiring Architecture: Piranesi's Collegio, 1991, and the text of "Tabbles of Bower" there is a play of sliding, of Joycean cuts which allow entry from all sides. Similar to Cixous and Irigaray, Bloomer sexualizes and celebrates theory and appropriates and subverts male texts and methods by layering them in her structures and flows. Her texts parody theoretical and canonical works through selective cuts and adjacency. Including parenthetical laughter along with theory, Bloomer arranges topics in series so that there is no hierarchy, no real beginning or end. As in ritual, her works are cyclical, repetitive, and layered. By emphasizing process, Bloomer's texts, architexture, and tectonics throw their tendrils not only to the future but also to the past. ...warped flooring ...persianly literature with burst love letters, telltale stories, stickyback snaps, doubtful eggshells, bouchers, flints, borers, puffers, amygdaloid almonds, rindless raisins, alphabetty formed verbage, vivlical viasses, ompiter dictas, visus umbique, ahems and ahahs, imeffible tries at speech unasyllabled, you owe mes, eyoldhums, fluefoul smut, fallen lucifers, vertas which had served, showered ornaments, borrowed brogues, reversible jackets, blackeye lens, family jars, falsehair shirts, Godforsaken scapulars, neverworn breeches, cutthroat ties, counterfeit franks, best intentions, curried notes, upset latten tintacks, unused mill and stumpling stones, twisted quills, painful digests, magnifying wineglasses, solid objects cast as goblins, once current puns, quashed quotatoes, messed of mottage, unquestionable issue papers, seedy ejaculations,... - James Joyce: Finnegans Wake

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(30) Influenced by the Japanese tea ceremony, architect Ann Cline began to explore ritual as a form of spacemaking. Concerned with both the idea of the tea ceremony and the ceremony itself, Cline looked at passages from Kakuzo Okakura's The Book of Tea such as "the adoration of the beautiful among the sordid facts of everyday existence"Ref.20 Following as closely as she could the "course chartered by earlier tea men," she decided to use the medium of the tea ceremony as a means of inquiring into the issues of her own time and place.Ref.21 (31) Unlike other architectural works of ritual and memory, the tea house has no imposed sterility or purity. The ritual of the tea ceremony may be a standardized activity of a universal nature, but it is "simultaneously endowed with uniqueness in time and place based on accidental, extraneous, and non-categorical juxtapositions...tea, bowl, environment, participants, and event are integrated into one experience."Ref.22 (32) Engaging intercultural fragments and crumbling myths, An American Teahouse, Oxford, OH, 1990, is indebted to the Japanese tradition and ritual of tea and also traces its origins to American culture, modernism, and contemporary art. Straying from the typological form of the traditional teahouse, this project is comprised of two parallel rows of twenty-five columns spaced three feet apart. Inside the teahouse, instead of the traditional utensils, are an ordinary bathrobe hanging on the wall, a pipe on a tray with tobacco or incense, and a can of tomato soup in an alcove with pitcher and bowl--what Cline identifies as "useful objects made 'art' when placed on gallery walls here returned to be used in the American tea house."Ref.23 (33) In the American Tea House, the ordinary action of consuming tomato soup is transformed by means of condensing, repeating, and exaggerating architectural elements; it is framed by aspects of storytelling, collection, ritual, and display. The transformation is not an intensified interpretation of a daily act, but an underlayering continuum of experience in the on-going process of loosening, re-configuring, and permeating. For observers and participants, time, space, and narrative are allowed to be gathered, folded, and extended. History has teeth. History tells us that high and low are adjectives expressing an unevenness. It also tells us that the unevenness is a multiplicity and that modernity obeys no single order, no single standard of measurement. Molly Nesbit: The Rat's Ass October 56 In Ulysses Joyce projects all his Homeric and Shakespearean allusions onto everyday life in Dublin, he punctures the illusory self-containment of realistic representations; at the same time, though, the many realistic details of everyday life are related in a kind of feedback to the Homeric and Shakespearean, so that the relation between past and present no longer seems like a relation of ideal to reality. The projection is two-way, and so there follows a deformation of both elements...each element acts as an irritant upon the other; they are in no way equivalent to one another, but in there deformations and deforming influences they build up a system of equivalences within the text. Thus, the...allusions imposing the unfamiliar dimension of deep-rooted history which shatters the monotonous rhythm of everyday life and "deforms" its apparent immutability into something illusory... - Wolfgang Iser: The Act of Reading (34) [Begin and expand and repeat themes addressed within.] Circling backwards in time, carrying through time, ritual re- positions us in relation to interpretative histories and to possible narratives. Layering movement with significance and expanding our understanding of intention, ritual gives form to our gestures and phrases. Ritual gives form to acts through repetition and creates changing narratives within a structure of apparent similarity. Rituals help us to unfold history and re- consider linear time. Architecture can multiply narratives through time, blur time/space boundaries, and provide an environment that distills, reflects, and displaces our doubts and desires. Monuments create places in both our physical and cultural landscapes and connect experience and memory to presence. (35) Monument and ritual can transform a common activity into something rarified, illuminating, and possibly pleasurable. As children, we are encouraged to accept a spatial/temporal continuum that allows for the simultaneous existence of differing realities and possibilities. Through play/ritual we allow these realities to be questioned, transformed, or included depending on our imaginations and on our interactions. The collected assemblage of separate phenomena creates not an architecture of nostalgia but an architecture of memory, an architecture of sensuality, an architecture of desire, an architecture of plenty. What has gone? How it Ends! Begin to forget it. It will remember itself from every sides, with all gestures, in each our word. Today's truth, tomorrow's trend. Forget, remember!!

Authors' Note: This work was originally given as a verbal presentation as part of a colloquium for Gender, Architecture, and the Construction of Modernity taught by Prof. Mary McLeod, Columbia University, New York, NY, December 1992. We have begun to transform it into a written piece and we would appreciate your comments. It continues to be a work in progress.

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REFERENCES Ref.1: Eudora Welty, Place in Fiction (New York: House of Books, 1957) n.p. Ref.2: Gaston Bachelard, The Poetics of Space, translated by Maria Jolas (Boston: Beacon Press, 1958; rpt. 1962): 8-10. Ref.3: Victor Turner, "Body, Brain, and Culture," Zygon 18 (1983): 233-4. Ref.4: Partial listing of definitions put forward by Richard Schechner, The Future of Ritual: Writings on Culture and Performance (New York: Routledge, 1993): 228. Ref.5: Lucy Lippard, Overlay (New York: Pantheon Books, 1983): 162. Ref.6: Shirley Blum Nielsen, "The National Vietnam War Memorial," Arts Magazine, 59 (December 1984): 1248. Ref.7: Mary McLeod, "The Battle for the Monument: The Vietnam Veterans Memorial," in Helene Lipstadt, ed., The Experimental Tradition: Essays on Competitions in Architecture (New York: Architectural League of New York, 1989): 120. Ref.8: Maurice Poirier, "The Ghost in the Machine,".Art News 85 (October 1986): 82. Ref.9: Editors, "Alice Aycock," Arts Magazine, (December 1984): 40. Ref.10: Alice Aycock as quoted by Poirier, "The Ghost in the Machine," Art News 85 (October 1986): 84. Ref.11: Ibid.: 85. Ref.12: Discussion with Mary Miss, New York, NY, July 27, 1993. Ref.13: Jennifer Bloomer, "Il Campo Marzio: ('La region ou s'erige le desir sans contrainte')," The Imagined and Real Landscapes of Piranesi: Critical Writings in America (New York: Columbia Univ., 1992): 18. Ref.14: Lippard: 159. Ref.15: Dennis Oppenheim, "Dennis Oppenheim: An Interview," by Allen Schwartzman," in Early Works by Contemporary Artists (New York: New Museum, 1977). Ref.16: Conversation with Kaylynn Sullivan Two Trees, Oxford, Ohio, January 1991. Ref.17: Jennifer Bloomer, "Tabbles of Bower," unpublished manuscript: 2. Ref18: Ibid.: 15-16. Ref.19: Ibid.: 23. Ref.20: Kakuzo Okakura, The Book of Tea (New York: Dover, 1964): 1. Ref.21: Ann Cline, "The 'Tea Ceremony' as a Contemporary Medium for Design Inquiry," unpublished paper. Ref.22: Robert Benson, "Little Houses and the Search for a Postmodern Art Activity," Inland Architect 33 (September/October 1989): 57-63. Ref.23: Ann Cline, "An American Teahouse: In place of tea, we may instead serve Tomato Soup," unpublished paper. Copyright 1993 Cara Armstrong, Karen Nelson

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6. An Architecture of Identity
Angela Mazzi (1) Alvar Aalto believed that the work of an architect involved something more intrinsic than the contriving of a stylistic motif. He advocated an architectural approach that resulted in buildings determined only by the divers needs of the people using them and the conditions dictated by the site and available materials. The Turun Sanomat building provides outstanding evidence of Alvar Aalto's attitudes about architecture. Totality without a conflict is used as a theme to infer political and social unity, and embody the spirit of Finland into a nationalistic statement. Aalto draws clear analogies between the building and its users by combining disparate architectural elements into a whole without sacrificing their individual identity. In its conscious adaptation of form to use, the Turun Sanomat served as a major stepping stone in the career of an architect who sought to enhance the built environment by making buildings experiential realizations of use. (2) Aalto's approach to architecture makes his work unique. He realized that architecture is inherently an instrument of communication, and therefore he relied on built elements themselves, rather than symbolic or literal devices, to accomplish his objectives. The relationships and attitudes about harmony and unity that Aalto wanted to convey exist through the architecture, and therefore create a compelling building with an undeniable message.Ref.1 (3) The development of an architecture that was truly comprehensive and responsive, as well as one that could communicate meaningfully with its users, was not pioneered by Aalto. Architects in Finland had been concerned throughout its history with producing buildings that could mediate between art and nature. Faced with new challenges brought about by industrialization, Aalto respected his predecessors (especially Eliel Saarinen) for the steps they had taken in the integration of technology with indigenous Finnish styles. He felt that their work existed as an important transition between traditional architecture and new architecture. "Eliel Saarinen was helpful in eliminating some of the architectural illiteracy and inferiority complexes in a country, which because of its isolation...has been and still is removed from the cultural centers of the Western world."Ref.2 (4) While not forsaking the intentions of his predecessors, who had been responsible for establishing a national architecture for Finland ten years before, Aalto chose to abandon the neoclassical style they had used. He felt it to be overwhelming in nature and unresponsive to the autonomous, informal traditions of Finnish architecture. He proposed instead an architecture that abandoned narrative and instead involved a confrontation of attributes, ideas and principles perceivable through sensory experience.Ref.3 (5) The new offices and plant for the Turun Sanomat were commissioned by its editor, Arvo Ketonen, in January 1928 to reflect the status of the paper as a state-of-the-art and thoroughly modern publication that could rival its contemporaries. The building housed a dual-purpose program comprised of commercial shops located on the ground floor and the newspaper's own facilities. The latter consisted of spaces for editorial, advertising, and journalist's offices, as well as a pressroom and a hotel floor to be used by visitors. Aalto took advantage of the fact that the building was to be an example of innovation to utilize new materials, building techniques and concepts of space as well as to unite a series of influences which he had encountered in his travels to create a unique building with its own, expressive style. Because this commission coincided with the tenth anniversary of Finland's independence as well as with the rebuilding of Turku (which had been destroyed by fire) as an international port city, the Sanomat building had the power to set the image of Finland's future. The building that would house the city's largest newspaper had significance as both a symbol of progress and an icon of national identity.Ref.4 (6) The resulting open system of design allowed the new materials, building techniques, and concepts of space with which Aalto was working to create a style that emerged through their properties, rather than being the result of an aesthetic imposed upon them. Space was created by the objects in it, which counterbalanced each other through an additive linking of the independent forms. This heterotropic connection of spaces was organized through an infrastructure of connecting circulatory and visual elements which, through their transitory nature, became gathering points.Ref.5 (7) Characterized by its intuitive gestures, the Turun Sanomat distinguishes itself by abandoning rigid formal principles like modules or geometric proportion. Aalto's greatest talent was his ability to understand and incorporate many influences to create a living, vital expression. He used stylistic metaphors based on discourse to express precedents, not imitations of the architectural language. Successful assimilation with his own values resulted in buildings truly responsive both physically and emotionally.Ref.6 (8) The Turun Sanomat served to crystallize Aalto's beliefs and became a major stepping stone to his later work. In designing it, Aalto considered the human element not only by meeting use requirements but also by addressing emotional issues. He allowed the building to exist as a comprehensive environment for work and interaction. Aalto employed his theories concerning responsiveness and functionality as a formal aesthetic for merging the many individual and disparate components of the Sanomat into a harmonious whole. Architecture thus became an analogy to the activities of the building's users that was then able to have political and social implications.Ref.7

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(9) A monument not through grandeur but through the ability to become ingrained upon and enrich the life of the city, the Turun Sanomat illustrates Aalto's beliefs that form should be dependent upon the properties of use and independent of construction. (10) The influence of Italian architecture on these beliefs is apparent. Although an interest in Renaissance styles had arisen throughout Scandinavia in the 1920s as a refreshing alternative to neoclassicism, Aalto was touched far more than formalistically by Italian design. He would be fascinated throughout his career by the sensibilities of this organic, comprehensive view of life and the Italian understanding between nature and civilization, to create buildings adapted to their urban or rural whole.Ref. 8 (11) The idea of Architettura Minora intrigued Aalto as a more appropriate means to evoke a united culture than the monumentality of national romanticism because it involved permeating the whole environment from simple utility articles to city plans. Juxtaposing disparate elements and connecting them through circulation and infrastructure, a skill which he gleaned from studying piazzas and town squares, is evidenced by the empty spaces and gaps that circumscribe every major suite of spaces in the Sanomat, giving each piece autonomy. The interweaving within the building of different tasks allows people to work together spontaneously and encourages their work to merge through visual linkage. The offices and work areas which overhang the pressroom, the open office space of the advertising department and the numerous stairways which provide vertical connection of the various departments; are all examples of interactive space. Balconies on the upper floors as well as the roof terrace create places for all workers to gather and mingle while enjoying the outside.Ref.9 (12) Turku's proximity to Sweden gave Aalto exposure to the newly emerging Modern movement and the innovations in construction techniques and detailing it made popular like concrete construction with a concrete column skeleton and horizontal strip windows, both of which were used for the first time in Finland in the Sanomat. Aalto did not blindly embrace this newly emerging style, but instead incorporated his own values and superimposed upon it his own sensibilities. (13) Details like the ventilation panels which punctuate the window strips at regular intervals, and the lens rooflight skylights which he pioneered in this building, show his preoccupation with building performance. The expressiveness and flexibility of concrete illustrates the structural innovations he had incorporated into the building in areas like the pressroom columns, which, although massive and numerous enough to handle the eccentric dead loads and future loads from the machinery above, are tapered to illustrate the loads they carry. Aalto considered standardization to be a means of diversity, not uniformity. He employed it to create neutral, easily adaptable spaces that accommodate the variability so essential for effective and lasting interaction with the environment.Ref.10 (14) Aalto believed that architecture should offer a means of supporting the organic connection between man and nature. "Architecture is not a box for accommodating functions, but a living organism, a life force to be experienced and enjoyed in the variety of stimuli which it has to offer."Ref.11 (15) Standardization plays a role in developing not only the components and details of a building, but also its topology. However, standardization does not necessarily mandate uniformity or monotony. Aalto avoided the geometrical austerity and homogeneity of LeCorbusier or Mies van der Rohe, and instead used standardized elements to establish continuity and clearly express the intention behind a design. Unlike his European contemporaries, Aalto believed in celebrating irregularities as enrichments, not blanketing them with an ubiquitous grid. These non-universal gestures directly oppose the International style by supporting nationalism and positing the architectural object as a unique creation, instead of a commodity composed of interchangeable pieces.Ref.12 (16) However, Aalto did not draw only from modern images in the design of the Sanomat. From late nineteenthcentury Helsinki apartment blocks came the projecting, cylindrical stair tower located in the parking court. The corner window details were influenced by the work of Jan Duiker of the Netherlands. Russian Constructivism's attitude about media and advertising inspired the double-height window onto which the daily news was to be projected, addressing viewers and engaging them into the design. Aalto also incorporated many traditionally Finnish elements into the Sanomat Building, such as the skylights to bring as much natural light to as many parts of the building as possible, the courtyard, the coved wooden stair treads, and the essentially classical massing of the building.Ref.13 (17) The multi-use building, therefore, became a nationalistic statement about the country as a whole being able to work together, while still respecting the autonomy of the individual. Because the Turun Sanomat is composed of independent chunks, the relationship between them became important as a means of establishing coherence. Aalto actually creates a series of "exterior interiors" to draw each separate part of the building into a cohesive whole. These interior landscapes are the spaces defined by enclosed, task-oriented spaces. They serve orientation and circulation purposes, yet evoke the quality of being outside, the space between spaces. Further dematerialized through the use of color, light, texture, and detail, they evoke the feeling of being within a large, open space in which objects are "floating."Ref.14 (18) The vestibule and entry-stair area is an example of such a space. Passing through it essentially means crossing the threshold between one exterior and another. The reversed type of the signage can be seen through the display glass, evoking the feeling that the building is perhaps only an illusion, and the facade a stage set. An undefinable, aspatial quality is achieved by enclosing the main stair with shiny walls that extend the plane of the

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treads beyond them, making the wall's presence disintegrate and emphasizing the stair as a form. Risers are the same color as the walls and the stair rail is detailed minimally to further punctuate this condition. The exposed conduits on the lighting details further dematerialize the space by appearing to float within it. (19) The main stair culminates in a large reception area on the second floor. Switchback stairs take over the vertical ascent, opening onto a large gathering area at each floor. These spaces, which are surrounded by suites of offices, contain windows that overlook the newsroom, advertising offices and outside onto the street or parking court. Multi-height, sculptural, and skylit, the switchback stair allows natural light to stream into each landing area, illuminating the building from within. (20) This chain of stairways and landings is the public route through a building which is connected more vertically than horizontally by a series of sequences that interrelate the various work areas. Divided roughly in half from front to back, the Turun Sanomat fosters interesting interdepartmental relationships, as the floors cannot be traversed horizontally. Even the editing floor is divided; one must actually go outside onto the roof terrace to get from one part to another. Aalto intended to foster more association between the different departments by forcing workers to pass through each other's areas, and to look, inquire, and therefore interact. Since newspapers exist as a means of communication, he wanted the building which housed the newspaper to embody communication through the way it would be used.Ref.15 (21) The idea of communication through socialization appears in the design of other spaces as well. A platform wraps around the pressroom offices, joining them to the advertising offices and to the pressroom itself through stairs. A loading ramp which connects to the parking court, the pressroom, and the basements of the shops can also be accessed from this platform. This ramp serves to link the activities of the pressroom with the two departments producing the actual material to be printed. Although it is located in the basement, the printing room is one of Aalto's best examples of an interior landscape. It features a double row of columns through which light from the conical roof skylights streams, alluding to the awe and wonderment evoked by sunlight streaming through trees in a forest. The columns subdivide the space, producing a cathedral to technology and the machine.Ref.16 (22) The anticipated importance of the automobile is manifested by an opening in the right corner of the building which leads to the parking court in the rear and helps to balance the facade and engage the window in a solid/void relationship. The parking court creates an exterior room for cars, a piazza for machines to gather, but also a place for their owners to interact non- heirarchically.Ref.17 (23) The concept of people simultaneously as independent beings and part of a group is extended to the public realm through the facade, which invites an interactive relationship to occur between the inhabitants of the building and passersby. The street elevation of the Turun Sanomat is simply organized and affords many places to stop, look, gather, and interact. Display kiosks for the shopfronts break up the blocklike character of the building and carry out the rhythm of ground floor columns and monolithic upper floors established by the primarily neoclassical streetscape. (24) Juxtapositions of facade elements provide cues as to how to relate to the building. The alignment of the window vents with the kiosks ties the newspaper's activity to that of the shops below. The rhythm of these kiosks culminates at the large window, the importance of which is signaled by its double height display of the news. This large, off-center element anchors that corner of the building, creating a natural point at which to pause. The three horizontal bands of windows of the upper floors make a pattern which also highlights its prominence. The platform underneath the large window, which extends to the entry door, emphasizes the inside/outside connection and invites the viewer to participate in in the display not only passively by reading, but by actively entering the building.Ref.18 (25) The huge glass openings of the news display, newspaper entrance, and shops allow those on the street to participate visually in the work taking place. Pedestrian street traffic flows around the display kiosks and breaks off to enter a shop or the newspaper offices, reads the latest headlines, and in the process exchanges words. Perhaps a journalist, editor or shopkeeper will be part of this interaction, adding his or her unique input to the street activity. Signage is integrated into these glass pieces, so that advertisement can occur without disrupting visual interaction. Architecture therefore communicates by addressing the people who live, move and work in and around it.Ref.19 (26) To underscore the communication theme, Aalto draws upon the idea of advertisement. In order to be successful, advertising must tap a commonly held understanding of the world culture. By using a device such as advertising in the Turun Sanomat, Aalto was able to call upon established ties of commonality to close the circuit on his statement of architecture as a unifier. The building evokes identity therefore on all levels, formalistically in terms of use, and conceptually as a statement or comment on culture.Ref.20 (27) By placing visual cues on both the interior and exterior of the building, Aalto is able to evoke images that can be understood by anyone who encounters the Sanomat. The first is an industrial motif, which conveys the understanding that news is manufactured. At the time of the building's construction, the industrial culture was seen as a key to Finland's future development. Making technology an important image in the building signified its importance to a newly emerging country which wanted to be identified as progressive, not as a primitive or folkloric nation. (28) Details like the railings on the roof terrace, the smooth interior and exterior finishes devoid of ornament, and the lighting design are utilitarian in their appearance and strongly identify with fixtures and detailings found in factories. The rows of columns and machinery in the press room recall an assembly line, suggesting that news is a commodity which is manufactured. The Sanomat building therefore becomes analogous to industry itself. Connection

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to industry meant connection to the cellulose plants, Finland's primary export, thereby recalling Finland's role in world economics. Aalto is careful to tie the industrial motifs he uses into the social commentary he is making because although he felt that technology and mechanization offer a way of furthering human equality, he often cautioned that if technology is not integrated sensibly with the rest of cultural life, it can lead to tyranny and destruction.Ref.21 (29) Aalto alluded to the internal and external participation in newsmaking as a means of making technology serve, not conquer, man. Society is not only the source and subject matter for the news but must influence what is considered news by what it is willing to consume. Therefore, the political and social climate must be tapped by a newspaper in such a way as to arouse interest if it is to be successful. (30) A kind of interactive processing of reality is symbolized by the large window which serves as both billboard and signage and further emphasizes the flow of information into and out of the building. Making the news therefore becomes a physical task, as well as an ideological one. Aalto uses the notion of news as a tangible entity which can be acted upon to symbolize the interactive unity that he felt was Finland's strength as a nation. He felt that architecture should communicate as effectively as literature, for text as image overshadows its existence as words. By subverting what is literally interpreted as language, Aalto enables the language of the architecture itself to be apparent. In this icon to progress and the future that the Turun Sanomat was, he makes a statement that has international repercussions about the strength, history, and future direction of Finland. (31) By actually creating an architecture of stage sets that focused on the interaction of people and activities, Aalto put the users of the Turun Sanomat building on display. He thus aestheticized reality by setting up relationships between viewing and being viewed, objectivity and subjectivity. The building becomes its own advertisement. (32) In his drawings for the Turun Sanomat, Aalto emphasizes this quality in a night perspective showing a common man pausing before the illuminated window to read the latest headlines. Dissemination of knowledge to all is a signifier of the holistic attitude that is evidenced in every aspect of this project from its conceptual basis to the physical planning of the spaces themselves. (33) Aalto wholeheartedly embraced the industrial age, but he always maintained that technology should be used humanistically to enrich rather than to invalidate life. He was aware of the ever present danger of sacrificing culture for technology and thereby losing the meaning of existence. He therefore used his vision and imagination to focus on combining carefully designed details extracted from life and culture to form a harmonious whole through the organic fit of scale and proportion. Without this kind of harmony, buildings have no spirit, because they are incapable of touching us. "...Architecture -- the real can only be found where tiny man sits at its center. His tragedy and his comedy -both."Ref.22 REFERENCES Ref.1: Alvar Aalto, Synopsis: Painting, Architecture, Sculpture. 2nd ed., Basel: Birkhauser Verlag, 1980, pp. 33, 34. Ref.2: Albert Christ-Janer, Eliel Saarinen: Finnish-American Architect and Educator, with a foreword by Alvar Aalto. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979, p. 2. Ref.3: Goran Schildt, "Alvar Aalto and the Classical Tradition," Classical Tradition and the Modern Movement, edited by Asko Salokorpi. Helsinki: Museum of Finnish Architecture, 1985, p. 110; Albert Christ-Janer, Eliel Saarinen, pp. xii, xiv. Ref.4: Alvar Aalto, Sketches, edited by Goran Schildt. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1978, pp. 19-27. Ref.5: Demetri Porphyrios, Sources of Modern Eclecticism: Studies on Alvar Aalto. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1982, p. 2. Ref.6: Ibid., p. 46. Ref.7: Aalto, Synopsis, p. 58; Schildt, "Alvar Aalto and the Classical Tradition," pp. 110, 114, 118. Ref.8: Schildt, "Alvar Aalto and the Classical Tradition," p. 110. Ref.9: Porphyrios, Sources, pp. 3, 18. Ref.10: Malcolm Quantrill, Alvar Aalto: A Critical Study. New York: Schocken Books, 1983, p. 55; Paul David Pearson, Alvar Aalto and the International Style. New York: Whitney Library of Design, 1989, pp. 78-81. Ref.11: Quantrill, Alvar Aalto, p. 57. Ref.12: Porphyrios, "Modern Classicism," Classical Tradition and the Modern Movement, edited by Asko Salokorpi. Helsinki: Museum of Finnish Architecture, 1985, pp. 1, 18. Ref.13: Quantrill, Alvar Aalto, pp. 30, 57. Ref.14: Schildt, "Alvar Aalto and the Classical Tradition," pp. 127-129. Ref.15: Ibid., pp. 130, 132. Ref.16: Pearson, Alvar Aalto, p. 78. Ref.17: Ibid., p. 76. Ref.18: Quantrill, p. 30. Ref.19: Porphyrios, Sources, pp. 191, 199 Ref.20: Aarno Ruusuvuori ed., Alvar Aalto, 1898-1976. Helsinki: Museum of Finnish Architecture, 1981, p. 39.

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Ref.21: Ibid., p. 88. Ref.22: Alvar Aalto, "Artikkelin Asemasta," Arkkitehti (1958, no. 1-2), pp. 27-28. Copyright 1993 Angela Mazzi EDITORS' NOTE: This article is accompanied by one graphic file. File v2n207.jpg displays an image of the Turun Sanomat. When retrieving this file, be sure the FTP mode is set to binary. To view this file, you will need a graphics application that will accept the JPEG compression standard.

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7. The Fiction of Reason

L. David Fox University of Tennessee, Knoxville (1) Freehand drawing is essential to an architect's acquisition of knowledge. It is important to think of drawing in these terms because drawing is vital to the process of making architecture. In many cases the drawing may not resemble architecture or even represent what architecture might be, but drawing is inextricably linked to the essence of making because the act of marking lines, images and symbols is the most direct and substantial connection between the mind and the image. (2) Thinking is where architecture originates; drawing is the first step in its realization. Drawing is the wellspring for the idea of building. In the light of Goedel's Proof, the idea of reason is called into questioned and intuition gain credence and validity. Freehand drawing is examined in the context of contemporary conditions and an argument is presented that posits freehand drawing as an essential means of understanding important intuitive forces that, in conjunction with rationalism, are implicit to the process of design. Rationalism and intuition are parallel themes that may sometimes contradict but must dramatically combine if critically challenging results are expected. (3) The topic of drawing and intuition is one that must be argued for and made accessible because too often intuition is overlooked and pushed aside in favor of the more easily explained rational and economic processes. We often go to extremes in presenting data, information, and diagrams to explain or at least prove to ourselves the necessity of reason, with little or no acknowledgement of the intuitive. But rationalism is inherently incomplete. If either rationalism or intuition is pursued to their extreme positions then one's results will be suspect. In concert, rationalism and intuition are equally important and vital to making architecture. Given this, I assert that drawing is a vital and accessible means of working intuitively and consequently it contributes to the success of making architecture. Quite simply, freehand drawing is essential to an architect's acquisition of knowledge. I. Goedel's Proof "What makes the desert beautiful is that somewhere it hides a well." Antoine de Saint-Exupery (4) In 1958, two mathematicians, Ernest Nagel and James R. Newman, published a little known book entitled Goedel's Proof. This small volume describes one of the most significant contributions to twentieth-century thought and philosophy: that of Kurt Goedel, a young mathematician at the University of Vienna, who in 1931 published a paper entitled, On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems. Newman and Nagel were mathematicians who, essentially, took the position of apologists for Goedel's thesis. Goedel received numerous honors and forever earned a place in history because this work essentially attacks and questions a vast amount of previously unchallenged mathematical dogma, and in so doing destroys the idea of an all-encompassing, passive model of thought. (5) Geometry is based upon deductive reasoning. This method of thought is founded upon the idea of axioms or postulates that must be accepted a priori, or without proof, in order to derive a set of theorems. An example of an axiom is: only a single, straight line can be drawn through two points. Axiomatic thought is a method created by the Greeks to establish conclusions based upon "explicit, logical proof." This method survived essentially intact until the twentieth century, and remains a critical means for understanding our world and almost every facet of it. This process is vital because it eliminates the tendency of the human mind to judge or evaluate simply through observation and instead posits the idea that a proof, or logical sequence of events, must occur repetitively before the results can be verified, known, and ultimately believed. Consider that if a projectile is launched from a certain point at a fixed rate, then it can be predicted where it will land. Such "if/then" rules put before us a series of seemingly limitless possible consequences. In its more pure form this model of thought represents, perhaps, the conception closest to perfection known and is, for many, God, because what makes the idea of logic beautiful is consistency. Logic exists outside the realm of language, culture, place and time. In essence, logic knows no boundary and burden; it simply is. (6) Goedel's argument, however, challenges logic's basic concept of consistency. Based upon the idea of consistency, mathematics (and its armatures: science and technology) have become increasingly abstract. This abstract complexity poses a serious problem, one that Newman and Nagel characterize in the following terms: "which is the question of whether a given set of postulates (axioms) can serve as a foundation of a system that is internally consistent, so that no mutually contradictory theorems can be deduced from the postulates. In other words, given any complex set of propositions can the proof be complete?" (7) They observe further "that the axioms are interpreted by models composed of an infinite number of elements. This makes it impossible to encompass the models in a finite number of observations; hence the truth of the axioms themselves is subject to doubt"Ref.1. Thus an increasingly larger number of axioms can effectively prove an increasingly larger number of theorems. Given a climate of thought that assumes that all circumstance and phenomena can eventually be understood and proven with number and formula, Goedel's revelation is enormous. He simply proves this assumption false, and concludes the axiomatic method has limits. As Nagel and Newman say,

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"he proved that it is impossible to establish the internal logical consistency of a very large class of deductive systems -- elementary arithmetic, for example -- unless one adopts principles of reasoning so complex that their internal consistency is as open to doubt as that of the systems themselves. In light of these conclusions, no final systematization of many important areas of mathematics is attainable, and no impeccable guarantee can be given that many significant branches of mathematical thought are entirely free of internal contradiction." Ref.2 (8) With Goedel's proof, doubt has not only been introduced but verified. No longer can we believe science will ultimately find all solutions to all problems. Simply, Goedel discovered a virus in the system. His work attacks the idea that one holistic paradigm of thought is possible. Consequently, another god was destroyed. (9) But Nagel and Newman, being mathematicians, cannot assault their deity so easily. They conclude, "Goedel's proof should not be construed as an invitation to despair or as an excuse for mystery -- mongering or that there are truths which are forever incapable of becoming known, or that a 'mystic' intuition must replace cogent proof." At once they confirm the fact that Goedel has undermined an entire system of thought but they never quite admit mathematics is entirely subject to doubt. Their conclusion acknowledges a genuine fear we all seem to possess even to the point of slandering intuition and intuitive thought with words such as "mystery-mongering." One can easily feel their angst and fright concerning what might occur if mysticism were to again become pervasive. But this fear characterizes the modern condition and points toward an important area of concern. (10) Goedel's proof calls to light the notion of absurdity. Mathematicians use a concept called reductio ad absurdum Ref.3 which is a method of proving that, if a proposition in question is not true, an absurdity results. This is one of the central themes of the twentieth-century philosophy as evidenced most completely by Albert Camus and is pervasive throughout modern philosophy. (11) The arguments set forth by many twentieth-century philosophers, including Goedel, carefully use logic to disprove logic and thereby set into motion a perpetual paradox. There is no solution to this paradox given our current conditions, but there is a means of stepping outside the argument where one can fully sense the totality of the situation and consequently begin to describe it. This stepping aside is the intuitive, inductive, view. One does not have to participate fully in the event to understand the event. At some point one must feel the circumstances as well as think them. Many philosophers carefully avoid the intuitive, sensual role of irrational thought because intuition is the origin of all proven or unproven assumptions. Goedel's argument, however, recognizes that to acknowledge intuition is to acknowledge the irrational as the basis for all rational thought. (12) Yet it is only through intuitive, empirical, and inductive means that we can begin to see. It is the role of the artist to enlighten. It is the method of the artist to feel. II. The Body and the Builder "By nature architecture must begin in the realm of the imagination and journey to the real." John Hejduk (13) The immutable fact of the human body explains why houses, hospitals, bridges, schools, and office buildings are built: they address specific needs concerning shelter from the elements, treatment of disease, travel, education and learning, and commerce. Here, the architect's role is simple because one builds to serve a need. (14) But the human mind, being a complex system of thought, inexplicably cannot accept this simplicity and we crave more. Why, for example, do cathedrals exist? They are often three or four times as tall as they need be and use very expensive materials. Why are some buildings of brick and mortar, others of steel and glass? Obvious as these questions may seem, the answers is extremely complex. No clear answer ever emerges, especially when one adds to the aesthetic equation issues of history, culture, and time. More and more ideas are piled on to the heap in such a way that the original intent is lost. To regress, we build in order to solve problems concerning the human body. Be it a problem of sickness or a problem of comfort, the body is central to the purpose. Consequently, the idea of logic and rational necessity is more easily understood architecturally when couched in terms of function and need. Complexity arises because the body is not only an end, or a problem solved, but it is also a means, or a method of solution. When we speak of means we address the idea of education, where method becomes one with necessity. (15) One of the earliest practitioners of architecture to write about his subject was Vitruvius. In his treatise, The Ten Books of Architecture, he grounds his entire thesis in education Ref.4. He succinctly states that both practical knowledge and theory are required to "attain object and carry authority." Consequently we see built before us that which we have created. Vitruvius then adds a curious caveat when he stated, "In all matters, but particularly in architecture, there are these two points: the thing signified, and that which gives its significance. That which is signified is the subject of which we may be speaking; and that which gives significance is a demonstration of scientific principles." This statement is important because it places before us the idea that two separate and distinct ideas are contained within one object: the human body. We both think and act. Our physicality determines both the built and imagined. When working in harmony with the other the results are, quoting Vitruvius, "firmness, commodity and delight." In effect, what Vitruvius did was to place architecture in the realm of psychology, and psychology is ultimately of the body. So what does this mean? In order to learn to design we must think and do. We must have ideas that can be built and we must have buildings that can be understood and explained to a large number of people. To facilitate this learning knowledge must be acquired physically. Learning, then, is first a physical act. Mixing mortar

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and picking up bricks becomes equally important to picking up a book and comprehending words. In the origins of the human mind, the signifier and the signified coexist. Immediately after realization, they are split, like atoms, into the physical and mental, keeping in mind each are contained within the realm of one body. One simply cannot be relegated to the passive role of observer and expect to understand how or why something exists. To completely understand architecture we must participate with it, just as to completely to understand philosophy we must live it. It does not matter which comes first, thinking or doing; we must do both. We must think and act. (16) Let us now address the contemporary role of the architect as practitioner and examine how the ideas of doing and thinking are manifested in current conditions. Most specifically two primary concerns are examined in the process of how architecture is made. The first is physicality of the body; the second addresses the role of intuition and the fear of the irrational. (17) In an architect's office one finds a world of drafting stations, computer terminals, meeting rooms, and racks of reference books. Upon entering the space where buildings are drawn and produced, there is very little evidence of the enormous complexity of what goes on in this largely bureaucratic process. As a rule, less than half of the total billable hours that comprise a project are spent doing drawings. Most time is spent in a conference room negotiating with clients, bankers, developers, contractors, and an assorted committee of lesser players. Once a contract has been signed and a schedule set, the primary conditions that determine whether or not a building will exist have already been determined. In a typical scheme of events, design and design development will account for approximately twenty to twenty-five percent of the total expenditure of time. This figure, by some accounts, is high. Economics and bottom line decisions account for most time spent. This is our reality and, hence, all architects must confront this to survive. What, then, are the salient characteristics of this process? Primarily, the methods and techniques used in bidding, negotiation, documentation, and administration are rational, calculated, scientific decisions that leave nothing to doubt and nothing to chance. As evidenced earlier, the rational thought process is inherently flawed. Truth can never be fully ascertained and no system is beyond reproach. If we continue to produce construction based largely upon rational, economic decisions, the built environment will become increasingly more banal. Intuitive decision-making must be acknowledged and allowed to flourish if architecture is going to remove itself from the rut. Intuition is needed to give architecture meaning; and economics cannot be the driving determinant if architecture is to have substance. We cannot continue to base our decisions solely on life-cycle depreciations and actuarial tables. The profession is editing the imagination from the process of making architecture and the ability, or even desire, to dream is no longer pertinent because how can one bill a client for such thoughts. Yet dreams are where architecture begins and these origins are inherently important. (18) The second important concern in the methods and manners of making architecture is the role of the human body in the production of both drawings and construction. Due largely to economics and time, the process of making architecture has more to do with assembly than with making. We take a kit of parts offered through catalogues, then pick, choose, and document this process before sending something out for bid. What occurs outside the office is nominally a process of shipping and connecting parts until the building is complete, ribbons are cut, and it's a done deal. What should occur in the office is in the nature of drawing. Traditionally, office drawings have been handproduced sheets that inherently called attention to a level of craft -- craft being an acquired skill gained through only hours of labor extended over years of practice. Quite literally, drawing has been a hands-on experience that necessarily puts the human body into an active role of production. This process has existed intact for many centuries and has served us well. But, as we are wont to do, we are liable to subject this process to revision. Indeed, we find computers and computer-aided drafting taking an increasing role in the production of architectural drawings. Once a database of details has been stored on a computer disc, the architectural "draftsman" increasingly becomes an assembler of various unrelated pieces until they become a unified whole. This method will continue to grow in importance because it is efficient and profitable. (19) What are the implications for an architecture of meaning and substance? Unless the computer is placed into a role subservient to the dreams and imagination of the designer the products we construct will continue to be increasingly more banal, owing much to the rational necessity of economics and very little to the thoughts, hopes and dreams of our culture and civilization. We must find ways to activate the physicality of the body and the critical nature of its irrational, intuitive imagination. III. Knowledge, Symbol, Thought "And yet what they are looking for could be found in one single rose, or in a little water... but the eyes are blind. One must look with the heart...." Antoine de Saint-Exupery (20) It is in this perspective that drawing appears essential to an architect's acquisition of knowledge. It confirms reality and consequently confirms existence. Very few activities do this -- very few indeed among those involved in the process of architecture. To make a drawing with one's hands activates the imagination and stirs the transient qualities of the human mind to create and find spiritual presence. Perhaps it is the incompleteness that is craved; a direct link to the question of the here and now. Computer screens, like televisions, beckon us to a world of electronic displacement where the role of artistic expression is suppressed or, worse, polished to a fine and precise level of order

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that will guarantee commercial success. It is no wonder this electronic artifice is so important because our world has largely been voided of meaning except for what someone tells us on television. What exists? What is truth? If it is not on television then it must not be real. We have created a culture in which Batman, Superman, and Elvis are as real as this building we inhabit. (21) Or are they? If we accept the premise that reality is that which can be known through all the senses, i.e., the human body as a whole, then these characters become nothing more than meaningless thoughts. Paul Ricoeur's writings speak of the idea that "the symbol precedes the thought." This statement acknowledges that an object exists first as an object then as a descriptive thought, i.e., language. Our media world reverses this process by telling us the language, or descriptive thought, exists first and the symbol is a secondary conclusion. In this context, nothing is real but what we think. Imagination is distorted and symbols no longer have meaning except to serve the media-maker. (22) Artistic expression; making art; using one's hands and body to shape a real and vital material, resists this tendency. Craft calls into question the material and the intent of the maker. Skill gained through this direct contact is meaningful; it describes time; it leaves behind a history of itself within and inherent to the process. For an architect, drawing with one's hand without the aid of a ruler or straight edge or fine line pencil necessarily connects one first to the symbolic thought and second to the means by which it exists. The origin has meaning. With meaning, culture is completed. We can have a history once more. Concluding Remarks (23) We must not allow the idea of rational necessity to control the building process. The computer cannot be thought of simply as a tool for producing more work, faster. Computer technology must be made subservient to the imagination so that mere cause/effect schemes are not the only products. We must seek out new, and perhaps undiscovered, methods that acknowledge the human body and its intuitive understanding of phenomena. (24) The challenge is to convince our colleagues in related disciplines of the importance of these issues: there is more to building than mere necessity and more to knowledge than merely thinking. REFERENCES Ref.1: Ernest Nagel and James R. Newman, Goedel's Proof (New York: New York University Press, 1958). Ref.2: Ibid. Ref.3: Horblit, Marcus and Kaj L. Nielsen, Plane Geometry Problems with Solutions (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1970). Ref.4: Vitruvius, The Ten Books of Architecture (New York: Dover, 1960). Copyright 1993 L. David Fox

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8. Exploiting the Classical Past: Student Restoration Drawings from the French and American Academies in Rome
Linda Hart Los Angeles, California (1) A comparative study of the systems of architectural education at the French and American Academies in Rome at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries reveals a complex yet profound relationship between academic education and classicism. Through elaborate systems of competitions, French and American architectural students were awarded the opportunity to study first-hand the monuments of the Italian Renaissance and the ruins of Classical Greek and Roman antiquity on which they were based. The production of archaeological extant-state and restoration drawings by members of each academy shows how the two institutions incorporated historical models into their curricula. Classicism and a classical style of architecture were interpreted differently by French and Americans, but exploited by both academies in Rome to achieve their respective goals. (2) Both academies used drawings as powerful didactic and propagandistic tools. Drawings are a more effective form of representation than models, for example, allowing the artist to force the viewer to experience the project from a predetermined, fixed viewpoint. Subject matter, the inclusion and exclusion of various elements, presentation, and format all contribute to persuade the observer to view the monuments in a particular way. (3) The classical tradition, the preferred academic style, was constructed as a deliberate incorporation of qualities imitated from antique art, providing support for the values of the antique past. The tradition has political, social, and artistic implications, all of which were utilized by the French and American Academies in Rome. (4) For the nineteenth-century French academicians, classicism included not only the antique and the Italian Renaissance, but also the works of the seventeenth century, the French Renaissance, Philibert de l'Orme, Franois Mansart and Franois Blondel Ref.1. The French understood classicism to be a rational concept with canons reducible to a series of easily explained rules and models. If classicism could be codified, subjected to measurements and laws, it followed that it could be taught and handed down to successive generations. (5) At the time of the establishment of the American Academy in Rome at the end of the nineteenth century, America was experiencing its own fascination with classical antiquity. A discovery and reinterpretation of the past led to the belief that America had a special relationship with the Italian Renaissance: a revival based on antique sources of art, architecture and writings. The founders of the American Academy drew parallels between social and political conditions in America and those of fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Italy. Carpetbaggers and wealthy industrialists were the American equivalent of Italy's merchant princes. Americans, with their nascent country, looked to the Renaissance, which itself emerged at a moment of rupture, for inspiration and architectural models which could be imitated and transformed to suit contemporary needs. Just as during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in Italy, there was growing interest in America in the elevation and professionalization of the arts; one of the strongest factors leading to the founding of the American Academy in Rome. (6) Long before the French and American Academies in Rome required their students to produce detailed extantstate and restoration drawings of monuments from classical antiquity as educational tools, there existed already a European tradition of this type of representation. Books illustrating classical monuments had been available since the Renaissance but during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries scholars published encyclopedic material about the ancients. In addition, archaeological excavations had begun with the rediscovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum in the 1730s and increased in Rome in the latter part of the eighteenth century. These excavations were published leading to a more critical approach to dealing with the remains of ancient monuments. Ref.2 (7) Drawings formed an essential component of the architectural program of these two institutions. They were the means for winning the entry competitions and once a student was admitted, served as the primary educational tool. Students learned about the classical past through measuring and carefully reproducing existing monuments as well as hypothetical reconstructions based on extant remains. For students, or pensionnaires, of the French Academy, these drawings served a pragmatic as well as aesthetic function. An integral part of the teaching of the Ecole des BeauxArts, they comprised a permanent collection at the Ecole, available for consultation by students preparing projects for competitions. Ref.3 The Ecole considered drawing from classical monuments to be the basic foundation of all the arts. (8) Pensionnaires at the French Academy in Rome were expected to spend the majority of their time during their three to five-year tenure producing sketches and measured architectural drawings of ancient and Renaissance monuments. Ref.4 As stated in the original statutes for the French Academy in Rome in 1666, the architectural students were to make plans and elevations of all the beautiful monuments of Rome and its environs. The pensionnaire was required to send back two sets of drawings, or "envois," to Paris. The first set was termed the "etat-actuel," drawings of the extant-state of the monument in which the work was studied scientifically in the manner of an archaeologist. These were executed with painstaking care. Before the use of photography, these representations of the existing monuments were the source of important first-hand documentation of the remains of antiquity, particularly valuable to archaeological research. The second half of the envois consisted of drawings of an ideal reconstruction of the antique site or monument. Unlike the extant-state drawings, these were often archaeological fiction; a product of the

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pensionnaire-architect's imagination. Ref.5 The restoration itself had two parts, a graphic and a written component, termed the Memoire, a description of the site's history and construction. Restoration drawings were based on published works, the comparison of different parts of a building and/or the study of other extant monuments. Ref.6 Toward the latter part of the nineteenth century architects competed to make larger, more colorful drawings of these ideal reconstructions of antiquity. (9) Drawings were also the fundamental didactic tool at the American Academy where there were no mandatory lectures or classes. Americans adopted the European tradition of making measured drawings, or "releves," of historical buildings. As was the case of its model and inspiration, the French Academy in Rome, the American Academy required Fellows to produce measured, rendered drawings each year of the three-year program of study. (10) The types of drawings produced by the students facilitated the manipulation of classicism advocated by the two academies. Two-dimensional plans, sections, and elevations dominated the studies. One- or two-point perspective drawing was rarely used for the restorations, preference being given for the more idealized flat projections. Drawings were considered incomplete until fully rendered. For the detail drawings this rendering was in the form of India ink washes and for the restoration drawings watercolor was used. The format of the drawings for both academies was always quite large, sometimes reaching sizes of more than four by ten feet. (11) Critical to the success and usefulness of these drawings was the adoption of an academic convention of representation. It was assumed that light came from the upper left to the lower right at a forty-five degree angle. This allowed the object to be read in three dimensions, with the depth of the shadow equivalent to the measurement of the projection of the object. An intricate systems of values was developed to represent the distance between planes. In this manner, elements could be compared with one another to determine scale. Before tone was considered, all of the information in the drawing had to be recorded. The drawing was then carefully transferred in ink to the watercolor paper which was then mounted on a board. Each tone of the rendering was built up through several layerings of wash so the ink appeared to be part of the paper. Ref.7 The entire process was extremely time-consuming and did not allow much room for error. (12) For the purposes of this study I have chosen to compare a representative set of drawings from each academy. The subject of both sets is the Tabularium and Temple of Concord in the Forum Romanum. The remains of the temple which were seen at the time of these studies belong to a restoration begun by Tiberius in 7 B.C. and dedicated by him in 10 A.D. as Aedes Concordiae Augustae. Excavations of 1817 show conclusively that the temple lay between the Tabularium and the Arch of Septimius Severus Ref.8. (13) The examples from the French Academy in Rome were made by Constant Moyaux in 1865. Ref.9 The subject was a popular one for pensionnaires of the French Academy, having been drawn by fifteen different students throughout the nineteenth century. Moyaux, alone, completed nineteen drawings of the Tabularium and the adjacent monuments. Among Moyaux's drawings are included the actual state of the plan of the Tabularium and adjacent monuments, actual and restored states of the elevation of the ensemble, elevation of the Tabularium and sections and details of the Tabularium. This project is an example of a fourth-year envois, intended to show the pensionnaire's understanding of the value of classicism, while observing issues of the program, materials, and methods of construction. The drawings successfully illustrate Moyaux's knowledge of the complete vocabulary of classicism, including multiple building types, and the interrelationship of the parts to each other and to the whole. Scale of the different monuments is determined by comparison of the different elements to each other. (14) In the extant-state and "restored" renderings of the site, the Temple of Concord was depicted by Moyaux in its hypothetical urban context, nearly half obscured by the Arch of Septimius Severus. All the structures in the drawings were given equal importance by means of their placement, lighting, and degree of detail. No single structure dominated the compositions. Each monument was lit uniformly with clear shadows cast at a forty- five degree angle to the right as dictated by conventions of elevation drawing. Changes in plan were produced by advancing or receding masses and are indicated only by cast shadows and minor variations in tone. The building materials were clearly articulated and the drawings were very detailed, giving the observer at first glance an extremely realistic appearance. The meticulously drawn and rendered restoration is idealized, glorifying and paying homage to the French classical tradition. The absence of people or landscaping encourages the viewer to concentrate solely on the architecture. In the introduction to the accompanying Memoire, Moyaux was one of the first pensionnaires to express doubts concerning the archaeological value of the exercise of the envois. Archaeologists had expressed reservations for years in relation to the restoration drawings, but the extant-state drawings produced by the pensionnaires proved to be quite useful due to their extreme detail and painstakingly accurate representation of the ruins. (15) In the spirit of collaboration on which the American Academy in Rome was founded, two fellows worked on this project for the Temple of Concord, produced in 1925. Ref.10 They were Homer Rebert, Classical fellow, who wrote the analysis of the remains, and Henri Marceau, an architect who was responsible for decisions on construction details and for executing the drawings. Their reconstruction depicted the temple as they imagined it looked during the time of Augustus when it was restored. Marceau's study includes the following drawings: Actual Remains on the Temple of Concord Site and of its Environs, Restored Plan of the Temple of Concord, Restored Longitudinal Section, Restored Cross Section, and a drawing of how the temple would have looked restored. They also included nine photographs of the actual state of the extant remains.

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(16) One of the most notable differences between these two sets of drawings is seen in the extant-state drawings. Typically, the French pensionnaires devoted as much energy to these as they did to the restoration studies. The Americans often supplemented or replaced extant-state drawings with photography. Even after photography was widely used as a documentary tool, the French continued to devote their efforts to drawing the ruins. A meticulously executed drawing was tangible evidence of their superior knowledge and talent. Drawings of the type the pensionnaires produced required years of training and practice to develop the necessary skills. For the Americans, photography replaced drawing as a modern, accurate way to study ancient monuments. They were not as bound to tradition as the French and therefore, more open to innovation. The use of photography reflected the progressive technical innovations attractive to contemporary American thinking. Also, unlike an enormous drawing, photographs had the advantage of being easily reproduced and transported. (17) While some aspects of Marceau's renderings appear to be more realistic, such as the inclusion of landscape and figures, it shows a view of the temple that would probably have been impossible to apprehend all at one time because of the scale of the building and the proximity of the other structures. The temple, placed nearly in the exact center of the composition is clearly the subject of the restoration drawing. (18) In the Americans' drawing, lighting, in the form of shade and shadow, provided additional clues to the importance of the subject matter. The lighting in the restored elevation drawing is very dramatic. The Temple of Concord is shown brightly lit by sunlight and the Tabularium, the only other building visible in the drawing is in deep shadow, leaving little doubt as to the importance of the temple in the drawing. If any doubt remained on the part of the observer, the title block clearly spelled out the focus of the work. This is the type of drawing that would have been useful as a "blueprint" to take home to America as a model for the construction of large public buildings such as banks and libraries based on this design. (19) These two sets of drawings show the generally greater degree of completeness and thoroughness associated with the projects from the French Academy. In this one project, nearly all the goals of the French Academy were illustrated. The almost photographic quality of the rendering shows that the artist possessed an expert degree of skill and knowledge. An awareness of classical antiquity and its rules, required in the fourth-year envois, is clear in the drawings, as is the required understanding of the building materials and methods of construction. (20) These drawings also show how the system of competition at the French Academy was replaced by a spirit of collaboration at the American Academy. The American Academy drawings result from the combined efforts of a Classical fellow and an architect. According to the American Academy's founders, this type of cooperation among the Fellows from different disciplines would elicit the best results. Continued contact between classical, architectural and archaeological Fellows was intended to foster an elevation of standards and taste. (21) It appears that although the founding members of the American Academy stated a strong interest in and appreciation of classical antiquity and the architecture of the Renaissance, the Fellows' drawings prove that this interest only extended to the degree that it could be utilized to promote the ideals and aims of the American Academy, particularly the professionalization of architecture and the creation of a national identity through architecture. When they existed at all, the extant-state drawings done by Americans were fewer in number and far less detailed than those of the French pensionnaires. The real interest for the Americans was in the restoration studies. It was there that they were able to propose a monument adaptable for their own contemporary needs and purposes. By establishing a link between American architecture and the architecture of the ancients they hoped to appropriate those qualities of classicism that they valued, and to acquire culture through the process of association. (22) While formal aspects of academy restoration drawings often appear similar, the goals and philosophies of the two institutions varied. The American Academy, modeled on the French Academy, was concerned with the establishment of a national identity through architecture, as well as promoting individual careers in the profession. In their drawings, this is made manifest through the isolation of particular buildings from the rest of the site and the more stylized, individualized manner in which the Fellows executed their drawings. (23) The French, who already had a clearly established identity, were seeking instead to show continuity from classical antiquity to contemporary French architecture and to prepare "pensionnaires" for careers in the service of the French government. These goals are evidenced by the way they typically depicted the entire site or urban concept, giving equal attention to each monument in the landscape. Additionally, the enormous amount of time spent on extant-state drawings reflects the French concern for establishing a direct link between the classical past and contemporary French architecture.

REFERENCES
Ref.1: Chafee, Richard. "The Teaching of Architecture at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts," The Architecture of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, ed. Arthur Drexler (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1977), 63. Ref.2: Holliday, Peter J. The Fascination with the Past: John Henry Parker's Photographs of Rome (San Bernardino: California State University, 1991), 2. Ref.3: Marie-Christine Hellman, Philippe Fraisse, and Annie Jacques, Paris Rome Athenes: Le voyage en Grece des architectes francais aux XIXe et XXe siecles (Houston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1982), 15.

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Ref.4: Egbert, Donald Drew. The Beaux-Arts Tradition in French Architecture, ed. David Van Zanten (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), 29. Ref.5: Hellman et al., xvii. Ref.6: Levine, Neil. "The Romantic Idea of Architectural Legibility: Henri Labroutse and the Neo-Grec," Architecture of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, ed. Arthur Drexler (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1977), 358. Ref.7: Hector d'Espouy, Fragments from Greek and Roman Architecture: The Classical America Edition of Hector d'Espouy's Plates, introd. by John Blatteau and Christine Sears (New York: Norton, 1981). Ref.8: Platner, Samuel Ball. A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (London: Oxford University Press, 1929), 138. Ref.9: For the French Academy drawings please refer to: Annie Jacques et al., Roma Antiqua: Forum, Colisee, Palatin (Rome: Academie de France a Rome, 1985), pls. 25-28. Ref.10: For the American Academy drawings please refer to: Homer F. Rebert and Henri Marceau, "The Temple of Concord in the Roman Forum," Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome (Rome: American Academy in Rome, 1925), V, pls. 44, 49-51. Copyright 1993 Linda Hart

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9. Founding Nietzsche in the Fin d'out hou s

William T. Willoughby Kent State University

What can be the model for architecture when the essence of what was effective in the classical model -- the presumed rational value of structures, representations, methodologies of origin and ends and deductive processes -- have been shown to be delusory? What is being proposed is an expansion beyond the limitation presented by the classical model to the realization of architecture as an independent discourse, free from external values -classical or any other; that is, the intersection of the meaning- free, the arbitrary, and the timeless in the artificial. Peter Eisenman, "The End of the Classical," Perspecta 21, (1984):166
(1) Little doubt arises today at the influence of Nietzschean philosophy both in the arts and in popular culture. Allan Bloom asserts in his article, "How Nietzsche Conquered America," that the underlying premise of the contemporary cultural attitude is based on Friedrich Nietzsche's (1844-1900) philosophic teaching.Ref.1 From such a premise, the post-modernist movement in contemporary art and architecture is found to owe a great deal to his philosophy. Thus, major Nietzschean themes can be uncovered. This conjecture does not imply that Eisenman consciously subscribes to Nietzsche's thought but rather it attempts to compare and contrast the architectural themes in the theoretical projects of Eisenman with the philosophical themes developed by Nietzsche. (2) As an aside, it appears appropriate to explain the extent of architectural investigation as a creative endeavor in order to perceive further how it might directly relate to philosophy: Architecture is more than building, just as literature is more than journalism. Architecture stretches into the realm of ideas with the intent of signifying those ideas in built form. Architecture attempts to express human attitudes and emphases, and, like any other art form, is dependent on philosophy for direction. (3) The primary work by Peter Eisenman discussed in this essay is a theoretical house designed in 1985. Eisenman's early house designs were meant to be theoretical exercises (experiments) -- usually existing totally in abstraction -- not meant to be built. Eisenman developed his architecture without the influence of a client, without concern for its use, and outside of a specific context. The significance of this architectural work lies in the conceptual procedure by which the architecture is generated. (4) In order to formulate a basis for drawing parallels, the development of Nietzsche's thought shall be discussed first. PART I (5) Nietzsche's first work, The Birth of Tragedy (1872), already presented a strong-willed critique of his contemporary culture: an attempt to rustle faith in the "Socratic" or the "theoretical"; a faith in the ability to understand existence fully; and, to some extent, our ability to correct it. In this early work, Nietzsche saw the desire to comprehend life as deception and illusion. He perceived that the Socratic impulse is that of contemporary science -the will to understand and, in understanding, to alleviate the conflicts of existence. He foresaw the inescapable limits of scientific logic: to accept finally that, perhaps, that which is not understandable is not necessarily confused. Hence, the statement, "For it is only as an aesthetic phenomenon that existence and the world are eternally justified."Ref.2 (6) Nietzsche continued the critique of his own contemporary culture in Untimely Meditations (1876). In the first meditation, Nietzsche's attack on David Strauss, a contemporary theologian, utilized Strauss as an exemplar of the cultural philistinism that existed in Nietzsche's Germany. Nietzsche argued, contrary to Strauss, that the FrancoPrussian War (1870- 1871) was not an expression of the triumph of a superior Germanic culture -- an idea commonly held after German victory -- but rather an exposure of the superficiality of German culture.Ref. 3 All four essays comprising Nietzsche's Untimely Meditations critique and expose a Germany which lacked creative minds, a Germany of the cultivated and knowledgeable. His structured attacks challenged the common notion of culture as a thing about which to be educated, a grouping of all proper names and notions. Nietzsche opposed to this view of cultural learnedness one of a cultural wholeheartedness. In this new perspective, culture was a thing that was constantly becoming. Society must look toward creating an even greater culture to be successful and fresh; such a culture, for Nietzsche, must affirm life. Thus, by propounding the development of culture as a creative and life- affirming activity, Nietzsche developed a notion of culture that fundamentally opposed his contemporary age. (7) In The Case of Wagner (1888) Nietzsche diagnosed the affliction of the modern soul. This affliction he characterized as a contradiction of values in a society that says, "Yes" and "No" to life in the same sentence. Nietzsche

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felt modernity as false, lacking the wholeheartedness of a consistent morality.Ref.4 In Ecco Homo (1888) Nietzsche typified his concept of modernism in a quotation from Vischer: "The Renaissance and the Reformation, only the two together make a whole: The aesthetic rebirth and the moral rebirth."Ref.5 For Nietsche, it is this flagrant contradiction that exists simultaneously in the modern and expresses its decadence. Thus, it was his longing for a better (more coherent) culture and a stronger morality that determined the course of his philosophy. (8) Through Nietzsche's writings, both the madman and Zarathustra speak of the "death of God" and the implications of this circumstance. That faith in God was dead, had become a matter of cultural fact. The prevalent scientific attitude was seen by Nietzsche as a substitute for the loss of Christian faith. Yet science also remains a dead end in the pursuit of universal truth, for science through its own means discovers its own limitations. Humanity discovers a great difficulty in confessing the inherent nihilism of existence. (9) As a popular phenomenon, the philosophic work of Nietzsche has been characterized negatively.Ref.6 Arguably, however, Nietzsche was actually a great affirmer of life. The whole of his philosophy is a "Yes-saying" attitude towards existence, offering the ability to live life wholeheartedly. Therefore, his philosophy attacks all lifenegating tendencies. (10) In his profound critique, The Genealogy of Morals (1887), Nietzsche presented the basis of Christianity and its morality as being "ressentiment" (revenge and resentment). Nietzsche branded Christianity as a great "No- saying" attitude toward life; it negates the value of this world by placing emphasis on the afterworld. Nietzsche's explanation of the development of Christian morality further emphasized the life-negating powers of the priestly class: It was the Jews... (one of Nietzsche's priestly classes)..., who with such awe-inspiring consistency dared to invert the aristocratic value- equation (good = noble = powerful = beautiful = happy = beloved of the Gods) and to hang onto this inversion with their teeth, the teeth of the most abysmal hatred (the hatred of impotence) saying, 'The wretched alone are good... and you, the powerful and noble are, on the contrary, evil.'Ref.7 (11) Christianity had inherited this attitude and reinforced it with the hopefulness of an afterlife, further negating existence in this world. As can be demonstrated historically, it is the priestly man whose revenge has triumphed through the prevalence of Christian morality. Thus, Nietzsche arrived at the concept of the "slave revolt in morality." (12) "Man would rather will nothingness than not will."Ref.8 In the third essay of The Genealogy of Morals, Nietzsche explains how through religion man has been transformed into a goal-oriented being. Thus, by augmenting guilt in the human psyche, Christianity gained control over humanity's hedonistic impulses. The question, "why do I suffer?" implies a way out through active means. Christianity motivated human endevours toward goals of resolution and completion. The instrument of God satisfies a basic fact of human will: our fear of nihilism. A horror vacui necessitates a goal to which Christianity gave meaning. (13) Nietzsche left his challenge thus: Can man exist without a goal? How can man face the inevitability of the statement, "God is dead"? Can man face the abyss of nihilism? Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1884) indicated the impending nausea that resulted from this realization, the nausea impending in a thing which must be overcome.Ref.9 However, two possible attitudes arise with respect to nihilism are set forth by Nietzsche in Book One of The Will to Power (1888).

Nihilism, it is ambiguous: A. Nihilism as a sign of increased power of the spirit; as active nihilism; B. Nihilism as decline and recession of the power of the spirit; as passive nihilism.Ref.10
This is to say that the nihilistic attitude can result in two tendencies: one that is life-negating, a Buddhistic resignation to give up on life because of its valuelessness; the other, the way of the overman -- the person who finds value in living -- who constantly attempts self overcoming, whose enjoyment is the creation of self. Thus is stated one of the most powerful aphoristic transformations of Nietzsche's philosophy: "All is false, everything is permitted."Ref.11 PART II (14) There exists little doubt that Eisenman has been influenced by the philosophic works of Nietzsche. During an interview with Charles Jencks, Eisenman was asked what the major influences on his works were. Eisenman replied, "...I also read Derrida and Kipnis and Vidler and Wigler and Nietzsche. It is not clear to me how much is consciously or unconsciously present."Ref.12 The influence on Eisenman's works appear at first glance extensive, but it is Eisenman's prerogative to forward the attitude and consciousness of the architectural profession in a way that expresses the sensibilities of the present age. He attempts to wrest architecture from its traditional inspirations and extend it outwardly, pushing the boundaries of architectural understanding. (15) Eisenman continually refers to his contention that the world has changed since the cataclysmic events of 1945. His belief is that humankind is now in a period after Modernism, a period of changed sensibilities. As stated in his essay, "Misreadings:"

With the scientifically orchestrated horror of Hiroshima and the consciousness of human brutality of the Holocaust, it became impossible for man to sustain a relationship to any of the dominant cosmologies of the past; he could no longer derive his identity from a belief in a heroic

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purpose of the future...; for the first time in history man was faced with no way of assuaging his unmediated confrontation with an existential anxiety.Ref.13
(16) According to Eisenman, the society of people born after World War II subconsciously feels a fundamental change; there exists a collective anxiety resulting from this "futureless present."Ref.14 With the cosmology professed by Eisenman, a world which is human-created (anthropocentric) or based on hierarchical value is impossible, leaving a world which is decentered and fragmented in nature. (17) Eisenman acknowledges that architecture is bound intrinsically with the fundamental need for shelter, but that shelter has both physical and metaphysical implications. The physical aspect of architecture obviously requires that it be built -- that it possess a material reality. Thus, building asserts the condition of presence. Therefore, "any act of building will necessarily be an act of presencing." Yet to Eisenman, architecture, as distinguished from building, resides in the area of critique, "... the initial act of architecture is an act of dislocation."Ref.15 (18) The metaphysical aspect of architecture, according to Eisenman, resides in the critique, transformation, and creation of institutions.

"Thus architecture can be considered paradoxically, contradictory to building, to its institutionalizing presence. Such an architecture cannot be except as it continually distances itself from its own boundaries; it is always in the process of becoming, of changing, while it is also institutionalizing. It has the potential to be simultaneously a creation and a critique of the institution it builds."Ref.16
Thus Eisenman exposes an architectural process that is a critique of itself, an object which expresses both its presence and absence. (19) In his article, "The Futility of Objects," Eisenman defined this process of criticism -- of both presencing and absencing -- as an act of "decomposition":

Decomposition goes further in that it proposes a radically altered process of making from either modernism or classicism. Decomposition presumes that origins, ends and the process itself are elusive and complex rather than stable, simple or pure, i.e., classical or natural... By proposing a process which at root is the negative of classical composition, the process uncovers (or deconstructs) relationships inherent in a specific object and its structure, which were previously hidden by a classical sensibility. Rather than working from an original type toward a predictable end, decomposition starts with an heuristic approximation of end, an end which is immanent within the new object/process. The result is another kind of object, one which contains a nonexistent future, as opposed to an irretrievable past.Ref.17
(20) The Fin D'ou T Hou S (1985) is just such an object. Even the title of the Fin D'ou T Hou S contains allusions to the absence of a singular truth; many interpretations could exist within the title: find out house, find doubt house, end of where (French), end of covering (French), or end of august (French).Ref.18 (21) The Fin D'ou T Hou S is purely an object whose significance is based on process. By questioning its own composition it decomposes itself in order to create itself further. Here the question of origin begins with the "el" form. The "el" is an unstable geometric form. If one were to extend the indented quadrant of the "el" form outwardly along its diagonal axis, the form completed would be a whole cube. If the opposite movement were to occur (the indented area moving inwardly on the diagonal axis), the form of the "el" would lose all volume. The "el" is unstable in that its origin is unknowable as a process of addition or subtraction. Therefore, Eisenman's whole exercise begins at an unstable point of origin. (22) The object that results is an attempt (on the part of the "el") to uncover its own teleology. So, two "el" forms -- one inserted in the other -- dialogue by presuming that their origins are unknowable; they guess at or approximate their origins in order to further decompose themselves, in a kind of de-ontology. (23) The Fin D'ou T Hou S is an object based on process, unknowing of its origin and realizing its final outcome is indeterminate. Since the object did not begin from a single point of origin, it can never arrive at a stable end. The condition of the two "el" forms remains ambivalent; their nature is indeterminate. Eisenman describes:

Thus suspended between substantiation and ephemeralness, the condition of the object is part presence, part absence. It is an object-in- process which began nowhere and ends nowhere, existing in a present of absence and presence, suspended between reason and madness, between art and folly.Ref.19
(24) One could suggest that Eisenman has attempted to create an object that expresses the dysfunction of goalorientation: an object that exists outside of meaning and significance as a product of schizophrenic nihilism; one that

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internally searches itself for meaning outside of metaphysics. The Fin D'ou T Hou S is something that exists no longer as arbitrary once it is realized that there is not necessarily one correct understanding. Thus, the object remains in a decentered state; the object acknowledges in itself the absence of a singular truth, "while continuously positing a variety of subversive 'truths'; in other words, it decenters while it centers."Ref.20 PART III (25) Eisenman's architecture appears to be a product of accepted nihilism, his suppressed realization of an irreparable estrangement from absolute truth, and thereby paralleling the themes grounded in the later works of Nietzsche. Eisenman's architecture makes an attempt to undermine the goal-oriented man (reason as ends and means) by creating an architecture born out of pure process. His concept of the "futureless present" fortifies his fascination with a design process that denies the attainment of any goal in so far as it relates to the future. (26) Eisenman develops an architecture devoid of consistent meaning. It is the result of a decentering process; that is, the full knowledge of the loss of common truth results in the superimposition of substitute truths which constantly and consistently deconstruct themselves. Hence, his architecture results in the recording of this critical process. (27) Furthermore, the architecture of Eisenman could be reinterpreted in Nietzschean terms as a process of self over- coming, since the only goal of his architecture is to analyze itself constantly and critically. Just as Nietzsche placed all value in the action of life fulfilled through the will to power, Eisenman expresses this in his architecture. The value or significance of Eisenman's architecture is projected internally to the procedure of decomposition. (28) Thus comes Nietzsche's question and challenge: Can man face a world which contains no truth? Is it possible for man to affirm a life that contains no metaphysical value? These questions are implicit in Eisenman's teleological questioning of origin and stability in his architectural process, a questioning which manifests itself in the conditions of the architecture that results from it -- part absence, part presence. REFERENCES Ref. 1: Bloom, Alan. "How Nietzsche Conquered America." Wilson Quarterly, Summer 1987: 80 - 93. Ref. 2: Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Birth of Tragedy and the Case of Wagner, translated by Walter Kaufmann (New York: Vintage Books, 1967): 52. Ref. 3: Nietzsche, Friedrich. Untimely Meditations. Translated by R. J. Hollingdale. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983): 3 - 55. Ref. 4: Nietzsche. The Birth of Tragedy, 192. Ref. 5: Nietzsche, Friedrich. On the Genealogy of Morals and Ecce Homo. Translated by Walter Kaufman. (New York: Vintage Books, 1967): 319 - 20. Ref. 6: Bloom, Alan. 80 - 93. Ref. 7: Nietzsche. On the Genealogy, 34. Ref. 8: Ibid., 163. Ref. 9: Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Portable Nietzsche. Edited and translated by Walter Kaufman. (New York: Viking Penguin, 1982): 271. Ref. 10: Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Will to Power. Translated by Walter Kaufman and R. J. Hollingdale. (New York: Vintage Books, 1967): 17. Ref. 11: Nietzsche. On the Genealogy, 150. Ref. 12: Jencks, Charles. "Peter Eisenman, An Architectural Interview." Architectural Design, 58, no. 3/4 (1988): 49. Ref. 13: Eisenman, Peter. House of Cards. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. 170-172. Ref. 14: Interview, "Leon Krier and Peter Eisenman." Interview. Skyline Magazine, February, 1983: 12-15. Ref. 15: Eisenman. House of Cards, 168-86. Ref. 16: Ibid., 182-83. Ref. 17: Eisenman, Peter. "the Futility of Objects." Lotus International, 42, (1984): 67. Ref. 18: Eisenman, Peter. Fin D'hou T Hou S, Introductory Essays by Jeffrey Kipnis and Nina Hofer, (LOndon: Architectural Association, 1985). Ref. 19: Eisenman, Peter. "American Architecture." American Design Profile 55. n. 1/2 (1985): 48-55. Ref. 20: Eisenman. House of Car ds, 186. Copyright 1993 William T. Willoughby

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10. Internet resources: Expanding the Reference Power of the Architectural Library
Jeanne Brown University of Nevada, Las Vegas Originally presented to the Association of Architectural Librarians May 14, 1994, Los Angeles Architects have varied and eclectic needs for information. Some types of information are needed repeatedly. Some types are needed only occasionally. A university branch library or a firm library attempts to handle the ongoing needs with in-house resources. As for the occasional need, space and financial considerations have necessitated a reliance on larger libraries, a situation which works with varying degrees of success. So it has been until now. Now the Internet is starting to change the ground rules. I say STARTING, for several reasons. First, many libraries and firms do not yet have access to the Internet. Second, awareness of what is on the net is uneven, primarily because while the information on the Internet is growing dramatically, intellectual access to it is not. And third, the usefulness of net resources in toto has not been fully established. In fact, while there is a wealth of useful information on the net, there are also tremendous gaps in what can be found. I would like to address the second area, that is, awareness of what is on the net that could be of use to us, grouped by type of information. This will be a whirlwind tour, with many sources mentioned and few described in detail. My objective here is to give you a flavor of the net's diversity, some specific net sites of interest, and a handle on where to start. The included list of Internet addresses will hopefully allow you to explore at your own speed, and to the depth you require. BIBLIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION: PERIODICAL ARTICLES Even small libraries have hundreds of periodical issues in their collections. Some libraries cannot afford the indexes needed to find that particular article someone is positive they saw last year or the year before in one of the issues almost surely in the library! Even those libraries with indexes will frequently be faced with queries relating to periodical issues which are more current than their indexes. Now, libraries accessing the Internet can retrieve citations to these articles. The Uncover service, operated by the Colorado Alliance of Research Libraries (CARL), offers a free index to about 17,000 journals, among which are the most prominent architectural journals. It includes the five journals identified in an AIA poll (reported in the AIA Memo, May 1991) as being most read by architects-Architecture, Architectural Record, Progressive Architecture, Engineering News Record, and Building Design and Construction--and of course many others. Uncover is a table of contents index, so for in-depth research it has obvious deficiencies, but for retrieving citations to articles about a particular architect or building it is quite adequate. Citations are added to the database within 48 hours of receipt of the issue. In addition to Uncover's index, a new service called Uncover Reveal has recently been announced by Uncover. This service, also free, allows anyone with access to e-mail to specify journals for which they would like tables of contents when the journal issue appears. Uncover will send, by e-mail, the tables of contents of the journals selected. If, for instance, your firm specializes in building hospitals and medical facilities, but you cannot afford all the periodicals which may have relevant materials, you can use this method to monitor what is being written in the field. Document delivery can also be provided by Uncover -- but not for free! Providing the article is where Uncover makes its money, in case you were wondering how they managed to provide all these services without charge! The cost is $8.50 per article, plus copyright fees set by the publisher, and a fax charge if speed is of the essence. In addition to Uncover, there are many other sites on the Internet to which you can turn for bibliographical information. In terms of specialized subjects, you may be interested in the Solar Energy Index at Arizona State University (which includes much more than solar energy, and indexes not just periodicals, but also reports, pamphlets etc.). The National Trust for Historic Preservation Library holdings are included in the online public access catalog (opac) of the University of Maryland College Park. While their in-house index to periodicals is not yet online, they anticipate it being available through the opac by the end of 1994. The Transportation Library at the University of California Berkeley is accessible on the Internet through Melvyl, and their periodical index is currently online. BIBLIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION: BOOKS Several library online catalogs have already been mentioned, including Melvyl, the University of California Library catalog with links to many additional library catalogs. Other library opacs of special interest to architecture, accessible via the Internet, are the Avery Library, and the Library of Congress. In addition to libraries, publishers are providing bibliographic information on the net, and purchasing information, too, of course! One World Wide Web site, maintained by Peter Scott at the University of Saskatchewan, contains catalogs from 41 publishers. In addition to the catalogs of individual publishers, several bookstores, including those at Stanford and University of California Irvine, have provided searchable databases of their stock -probably a more productive approach, unless you are looking for a specialist publisher's offerings (e.g. O'Reilly's Internet books).

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Another effective means of identifying bibliographic information is to consult a bibliography. We are just beginning to see these being provided on the net. One of the goals of the recently established web site, ArtSource, is to solicit bibliographies and library reference guides to include at the site. Several libraries have added bibliographies to their library gophers. The University of California Berkeley gopher section on architecture includes several useful bibliographies created by the librarians at the Environmental Design Library, including one on their video resources. Perhaps I should take a moment to briefly explain the World Wide Web, since I have just mentioned two web sites, and will be mentioning more as I proceed. The World Wide Web is a hypertext/hypermedia environment on the Internet. Some web sites are still text only. Many web sites include images, sound, video -- in a word, media. If you can telnet, you can access the text portions of any web site, including those with media. To access media takes a higher level of technology. Images are viewable onscreen on the web, if you have a client such as Mosaic, a freeware product which you can download from the Internet. To use Mosaic, however, also requires a certain level of technology not available to many of us. BUSINESS INFORMATION There are several spots on the net which contain pointers to a wide variety of business sources, and thus provide entry to the incredible amount of business information now on the Internet. These include gophers at Babson College, and at the University of Missouri St. Louis, as well as the Economic Bulletin Board at the University of Michigan gopher. There is also a web site (Finweb) which provides access to economic and financial information at various sites throughout the Internet, including web sites, which gophers generally do not do. Some of the titles which you will find at these locations are: The U.S. Industrial Outlook (of particular interest is the predicted demand for construction and construction materials in 1994), the Small Business Administration Industry Profiles (including construction), the International Business Practices Guides (addressing joint ventures, taxes, regulatory agencies, etc.), the U.S. Budget for 1995, Department of State travel advisories, foreign exchange rates, the Occupational Outlook Handbook, U.S. Census information, and much much more! Much of this business information is published by the government. Tsang and Austin's Guide to Government Business and Economics Sources, which you can find at the University of Michigan Clearinghouse for SubjectOriented Research Guides, is an excellent introduction. You might also be interested in reading some issues of the Internet Business Journal. Its focus is the use of the Internet for doing business, and one of its features is the Internet Advertising Review. EMPLOYMENT AND FUNDING OPPORTUNITIES The Commerce Business Daily is on the net, but there is a fee for the full text. You can search without charge the last day's listings, and the last ten days listings, and come up with tantalizing glimpses of what is there in the form of partial one-line titles of the announcements. I haven't investigated the cost for full access to CBD online. However, I did come across an offer by a company called SmartDocs Data Services, to create a custom Commerce Business Daily according to your criteria. The service would also take care of ordering any bid packages you might want. This service is free until May 30, at which time they anticipate charging between $5 and $15 per month. Other sites offering news of employment and funding opportunities are the U.S. AID gopher, which lists procurement and business opportunities; the Chronicle of Higher Education job ads; and the Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance. Many of these are included in the collection of grants resources at the RiceInfo gopher. Additional gopher collections can be identified through gopher-jewels, which lists the best gopher sites in each of many subject categories, including grants. LEGAL/LEGISLATIVE INFORMATION The Library of Congress is a good place to start for this kind of information. You will find at MARVEL (LC's gopher) the status of current legislation, copyright law, members of Congress, Supreme Court decisions -- for a start. Of interest, too, is the Americans with Disabilities Act, which can be found at the Library of Congress and at many other sites. In fact, the Cornucopia of Disability Information gopher contains the ADA, along with accessibility guidelines, and a good deal more on this topic. Another site with a good collection of legal materials is the Cornell Law School gopher and web site. Included at this site are hypertexted versions of selected laws, including trademark law, commercial law, patent law, and copyright law. Another feature of this site are the full-text documents in foreign and international law. GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES Many agencies have set up their own Internet sites. Some have been referred to above. In addition to those, the Environmental Protection Agency, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, National Technical Information Service, National Science Foundation, the U.S. National Archives Center for Electronic Records, the National Institute of Standards and Technology, and national labs such as Oak Ridge and Lawrence Berkeley are on the net. Collections/pointers to these gophers and other government agency sites or documents can be found at many sites, including the Library of Congress and the University of California Santa Cruz.

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The quality and amount of data varies from agency to agency. At the least, you can expect directory information. Amongst agencies going a step or two beyond that are the EPA and OSHA. The EPA provides access to its library holdings, and the EPA Futures Studies gopher provides full-text material, including a report of the AIA workshop on sustainable architecture held October 1993. OSHA has also made full-text documents accessible. What one must remember is that what is not there today, may well be there tomorrow, and visa versa unfortunately! GENERAL REFERENCE There is no doubt that this is one of the strengths of the Internet. It puts a wide range of ready reference tools at your fingertips! Many of these tools you can find at site after site. To name just one location which offers a good collection, I would suggest the Virtual Reference Desk at the University of California Irvine. There you will find an acronyms dictionary, the CIA World Factbook (searchable), Webster's and the American English Dictionary (searchable), foreign currency exchange rates, the geographic name server, zip code directory, Roget's Thesaurus, area codes, weather information, and links to other gophers and information about the Internet itself (such as e-mail addresses, and directories of electronic forums). SPECIFICALLY ARCHITECTURE Thus far I have covered general resources which I think can be of use to architects, and the architectural library. There are specific architecture sites on the Internet as well. At this stage, however, they are more readily likened to a patchwork quilt than a carefully woven tapestry. Nonetheless, there are a couple of starting points if you would like to explore the architecture sites. I have compiled a guide to resources in architecture and building which is available at the University of Michigan Clearinghouse for Subject-Oriented Internet Research Guides (a revised version will be posted by the end of May). This guide is being converted to html hypertext format by Mary Molinaro, and will soon be available at ArtSource -so you can go to that one site and choose each place on the list in turn, without the grief of inputting each address one by one. The gopher of the School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture at the University of Minnesota has created links to most of the architecture and architecture school gophers in my guide (in addition to gophers the guide includes, web sites, library catalogs, indexes, image collections, government documents, ftp sites, electronic journals, and full-text sources). If you want to simply hit the high spots, you can access the architecture sections of the gophers at Rice and at Calpoly. There is, however, considerable overlap, as is typical of gophers in all subjects. For instance, both point to ArchiGopher, Archpics (Carnegie Mellon's index to architectural illustrations in books), Architronic (the one architecture electronic journal), and the Istituto Universitario di Architettura in Venice (an architecture school gopher, with information about the school, about Venice, and, in Italian, about the research of its illustrious faculty). Let's look at ArchiGopher, since it figures prominently in many of the architecture sections of gophers organized by subject, and since it is representative of earlier approaches to providing architecture images on the Internet. ArchiGopher, which might be termed an "image" gopher, since that is basically all that is there, was one of the first architectural gophers. It created a great sense of anticipation when it first came up in 1993. It contains about 90 images -- not very many really. It is not growing significantly. It is an admirable pioneering effort, but the advances being made today in image collections on the net are on World Wide Web sites, not gopher sites. The Australian National University has put up 2500 images of classical architecture of the Mediterranean Basin (unfortunately it is only available for xmosaic users). The University of Virginia Digital Image Center of the Fiske Kimball Fine Arts Library has put up images from an architecture history class, on Renaissance and Baroque architecture in France and Italy (mosaic is necessary to make viewing these feasible). Both are great resources. In addition, 8000 images from the UC Berkeley slide library are accessible over the net, but only with xwindows, a commercial software. As impressive as these resources are, in terms of images they represent a mere fraction of what is possible and desirable. Someday -- how soon? -- we will have images from the full corpus of architecture work, a prospect to stir the imagination! It will also take some time for the appropriate technology to be available to the "masses". Many of us do not have mosaic or xwindows. Many of us do not have machines powerful enough to handle them if we did! The patchwork of architecture resources on the Internet is composed primarily of information from individual institutions. The information is often useful in proportion to your interest in that institution. Examples include the gophers of the Technical University of Eindhoven, and the Netherlands R & D Consulting Center TNO. More and more schools of architecture are making their course descriptions accessible on the net (several of these are listed in my guide; if you are interested in a particular school you can go through the gopher hierarchy to that school and see what is available). Another class of gophers state their intentions to provide documents, but at the moment all that is provided is a mission statement and links to other sites. An example of this type is the ICARIS gopher (Integrated CAD in AEC Research Information Server). On the other hand, there are also more substantive initiatives being undertaken. The Rice Design Alliance, for instance, has this spring sponsored a series of lectures on the virtual city, and posted the full-text of those lectures to

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their web site. The Daedalus gopher at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology has text of six papers produced by the Centre for Design, as well as information on their research projects and a directory of the participants in the Cooperative Network of Building Researchers. The H-URBAN discussion list moderators are including substantial materials in postings, as well as "conversation." They have posted and archived papers, bibliographies, book reviews, and journal tables of contents. CONCLUSION There is much of interest to architecture on the Internet. It is difficult to understand how we could have a situation of information overload, and information deprivation at the same time, but that seems to be what's happening! The scene is constantly evolving, however, and as more and more people become involved in the process, we may see some dramatic leaps in terms of both quality and quantity of information provided. Even now, at this stage of development, the Internet brings a wealth of resources within reach of the keyboard, and links each of us with colleagues and experts through email and discussion lists such as ARLIS-L and AASL-L. ADDRESSES OF SITES MENTIONED ABOVE BIBLIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION: PERIODICAL ARTICLES Uncover: telnet database.carl.org [choose Uncover. To exit type //exit] Arizona State's Solar Energy Index: telnet pac.carl.org [choose other library catalogs, then Arizona State] National Trust for Historic Preservation Library: telnet victor.umd.edu [choose pac, vt100, UMS Campus Library Catalogs/UM College Park] (Index to periodical literature coming soon!) University of California Berkeley Transportation Library (part of the Melvyl catalog): telnet melvyl.ucop.edu BIBLIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION: BOOKS The Avery Library, Columbia University: telnet columbianet.columbia.edu Library of Congress: telnet locis.loc.gov Scott's list of publishers: http://jester.usask.ca/~scottp/publish.html Stanford Bookstore: telnet melvyl.ucop.edu [forward through the screens until you reach the list with Stanford, type Stanford, type select stanford bookstore] University of California Irvine Bookstore: http://bookweb.cwis.uci.edu:8042 or gopher gopher.cwis.uci.edu [choose departments, then books] University of California Berkeley, Environmental Design Library bibliographies: gopher infolib.lib.berkeley.edu [choose research databases and resources by subject, then architecture] ArtSource: http://www.uky.edu/Artsource/artsourcehome.html BUSINESS INFORMATION Babson College business collection: gopher vaxvmsx.babson.edu [choose business resources] University of Missouri St. Louis business gopher: gopher umslvma.umsl.edu [choose library, then subjects, then business. Some of their business resources are in the government documents section -- choose library, then government documents] Economic Bulletin Board at the University of Michigan: gopher una.hh.lib.umich.edu [choose social science resources, economics, economic bulletin board] Finweb: http://riskweb.bus.utexas.edu/finweb.htm Tsang and Austin Guide to Government Business and Economics Sources on the Internet: gopher una.hh.lib.umich.edu [choose inetdirsstacks, then business and economics by Tsang and Austin] Internet Business Journal: gopher gopher.fonorola.net EMPLOYMENT AND FUNDING OPPORTUNITIES Commerce Business Daily: gopher cscns.com [choose Special -- Commerce Business Daily] SmartDocs Data Services for the CBD: send mail to cbdnews@netcom.com U.S. AID Procurement and Business Opportunities: gopher gopher.info.usaid.gov Chronicle of Higher Education: gopher chronicle.merit.edu [choose ads] Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance: gopher marvel.loc.gov [choose government information, federal information resources, information by agency, general information resources] Rice grants gopher: gopher riceinfo.rice.edu [choose subjects, then grants] Gopher-jewels selection of grants gophers: gopher cwis.usc.edu [choose other gophers, gophers by subject, gopher jewels, grants] LEGAL/LEGISLATIVE INFORMATION Library of Congress gopher: gopher marvel.loc.gov

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Cornucopia of Disability Information gopher, including ADA: gopher val-dor.cc.buffalo.edu [choose government documents to retrieve the ADA] Cornell Law School gopher or web site: gopher fatty.law.cornell.edu or telnet fatty.law.cornell.edu, login:www or http://www.law.cornell.edu GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES Environmental Protection Agency: gopher gopher.epa.gov EPA Futures Studies gopher: futures.wic.epa.gov Occupational Safety and Health Administration: gopher ginfo.cs.fit.edu National Technical Information Service: telnet fedworld.gov National Science Foundation: gopher stis.nsf.gov U.S. National Archives Center for Electronic Records: ftp ftp.cu.nih/gov/NARA_Electronic or gopher marvel.loc.gov [choose federal government information, then national libraries] Oak Ridge National Laboratory: gopher jupiter.esd.ornl.gov or http://jupiter.esd.ornl.gov Lawrence Berkeley Lab: http://www.lbl.gov Library of Congress collection: gopher marvel.loc.gov University of California Santa Cruz collection: gopher scilibx.ucsc.edu [choose the community, then guide to government] GENERAL REFERENCE University of California Irvine Virtual Reference Desk: gopher gopher-server.cwis.uci.edu SPECIFICALLY ARCHITECTURE Brown's Guide to Internet Sources in Architecture and Building: gopher una.hh.lib.umich.edu [choose inetdirsstacks] University of Minnesota gopher links to gophers mentioned in the Brown guide: gopher gumby.arch.umn.edu Rice collection of architecture sites: gopher riceinfo.rice.edu [choose information by subject area, then architecture] Cal Poly collection of architecture sites: gopher library.calpoly.edu [choose subject guides, then architecture] ArchiGopher: gopher libra.arch.umich.edu Archpics: telnet library.cmu.edu, login: library, ESC 2 to change databases Architronic: subscribe by sending message to listserv@kentvm.kent.edu, or view on various gophers including the one at Rice (gopher gopher.saed.kent.edu), or ftp from zeus.kent.edu (login: architecture, password: archives) Istituto Universitario di Architettura: gopher gopher.iuav.unive.it Australian National University images collection: http://rubens.anu.edu.au University of Virginia Digital Image Center: http://www.lib.virginia.edu/dic/class/arh102/ SPIRO, the UC-Berkeley slide collection: xhost pflueger.ced.berkeley.edu, then telnet or rlogin to pflueger.ced.berkeley.edu. At the prompt enter "netspiro". When prompted for the name of your x window display, enter in this format: your.machine.full.address:0 Technical University in Eindhoven: gopher gopher.tue.nl [choose Information Servers Technishe Universiteit Eindhoven, then Faculty of Architecture Building and Planning] Netherlands TNO Organization: gopher gopher.tno.nl [choose Information about the TNO Organization, then Building and Construction Research] ICARIS gopher: gopher gopher.fagg.uni-lj.si RiceDesignAllianceVirtualCity-lectures: http://riceinfo.rice.edu/ES/Architecture/RDA/VC/VirtualCity.html Daedalus gopher: gopher daedalus.edc.rmit.edu.au H-URBAN: H-URBAN@uicvm.uic.edu ARLIS-L: ARLIS-L@ukcc.uky.edu AASL-L: AASL-L@unllib.unl.edu **Note: several addresses in the format starting "http://" have been given above. For those without web browsers, you can access those sites by telnetting to fatty.law.cornell.edu, login as www. Then type g [for go] and the address. For example, to get to ArtSource: telnet fatty.law.cornell.edu login:www g

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http://www.uky.edu/Artsource/artsourcehome.html infosources:aal May 1995 Copyright 1994 Jeanne Brown

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11. Issues Regarding Architectural Records of the Future Planning for Change in Libraries
Douglas Noble, AIA, Ph.D. Karen M. Kensek School of Architecture University of Southern California INTRODUCTION To discuss the future of architectural records is not an easy thing to do. It means that we must we predict the future not only of architecture, but also of technology. Predicting architectural trends is certainly difficult enough, but the pitfalls in predicting technology may be even more difficult to navigate. Further, we recognize that we are also not blessed with remarkable predictive capabilities. In the early 1980s, when computers were just beginning to become popular in many architectural offices, as well as businesses in general, dot-matrix printers seemed like a wonderful combination of computer technology and the written document. Unlike daisy-wheel printers, which delivered a "letter-quality" document at the price of speed, the dot-matrix printers combined speed with a technological aesthetic. I predicted that this would replace the business standard Courier or Times-Roman letter forms in business practice. Within months of the prediction, laser-printing technology was available from mail-order firms. . . . Still, after some serious considering, we realized that our viewpoint as outsiders to the library field might mean that there would be something we could add to help librarians avoid at least some potential pitfalls now and in the future. Many of our comments are computer related. This is probably primarily due to the belief that many of the records and documents that will need stewardship in the future will be computer generated and potentially only retrievable with computer technology. It may also be due to the overwhelming influence computers have on our lives as faculty members teaching design computing. If we concentrate on the near future and look for general trends rather than specific projects, we believe we can have insights which are likely to be useful to those planning for the future. WHAT TO SAVE The decision as to what to save has always been a major problem. Its magnitude has been compounded with the advent of new technologies and storage media. There may also be a growing split between what architectural librarians in academia save versus librarians in professional practice. The former need to concentrate on the historical value of the work while the latter may need to worry about the aspects of architecture that demand up-to-date material specifications and preserving legal documents. Obviously, much of this is a resource driven problem, but we will suggest what ideally could and should be saved. Currently architectural librarians are responsible for a wide range of material: books, samples, drawings, slides, product binders, etc. There is going to be much more to manage and much more to keep. As no strong standards have developed, there will be more formats and more chances for losing information even with the best intentions of preserving it. You will not be out of a job. Information management is your specialty, and the best informationhighway managers will be in strong positions. Not only is there more to keep, but the material appears both in different media and with different content. With the media more types of things are available: diskettes, CD-ROM, laser discs, and videos to name a few. The standard guidelines apply to electronic files just as they did to drawings: "if you throw it out you will need it, and if you save it, it will never be needed again." Seriously though, saving magnetic and electronic documents is much more difficult than saving paper-based drawings and photographs. In fact, they are not documents--they are just containers for information. They are also not useful on their own; they need extra peripherals such as hardware and software to retrieve the information from them. As a case in point, some years ago, a friend of mine obtained a large number of videocassettes of popular (and less popular) films. He chose the Beta format due to lower prices. When that technology faded away, he responded by purchasing a quantity of used Beta VCR's to use for spare parts (an intelligent response towards keeping his film collection accessible). However, for a permanent collection this type of planning is not just good sense, it is a necessity. It is not only new media, but also additional content within the documents that will be difficult to save, catalog, and access. An electronic drawing is more than just an image on paper; it is a database. Minimally, it is a complete, accurate two-dimensional depiction of a building. Yet it usually includes filenames, views, and layers. It may also be three-dimensional with rendered images and animations. Other documents may also be associated with the drawing: correspondence, cost projections, project management, client presentations. Building analyses in structures, energy, solar zoning, and wind are becoming more important to keep: not only the results but the computer files themselves that were input. You could imagine the legal reasons for these circumstances but this documentation is also useful as part of the history of the project for bidding and coordinating future projects. Keeping track of general model databases such as a three-dimensional model of a city or geographic information about soil types or land use development, so that this material can be reused in future projects, becomes important. In early developments, these

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used to be unusual items and everyone "just knew" where they were kept. Now that the larger offices are starting to have many of these models, it is time to develop a plan. Do not forget to keep track of current and historic software manuals, training guides, copies of software (application and system), and tutorials. Often these are in the realm of the system manager of the computer system, but especially reference materials and third-party books could easily become part of a library collection. Keep the original application program for projects that have been documented with computers. Those familiar with the Macintosh computer have seen the infamous dialogue box, "This was made with an incompatible version of the application software." Now that you have all of these databases of various kinds, you will need the software it was made with to be able to use it again. Worse yet-- there are entire sets of software support files that are needed to generate a computer document (CAD, modeling, or even word-processing). You will need to keep track of style sheets, fonts, texture files, and preference files. And don't forget the system software! A computer project is a combination of hardware, system software, application software, data files, and support files. Just keeping the data files will result in embarrassment later. You will not be able to count on the software companies to be in business when you need them most. Recent surveys document the vast range of software products Ref.1. There are literally hundreds, possibly thousands, of software companies in the architecture field alone, some of which go in and out of business quickly. Remember that what to save, including new media, comes with the added responsibility of saving everything that it takes to actually retrieve the information. Otherwise, all you have is an useless diskette/tape/CD. WHAT WILL THE PROBLEMS BE? There are many sources of danger to the new technologies. As librarians you already worry about sunlight, humidity, information obsolescence, misplacement, patron damage, and perhaps theft. You now have these problems and more. There is a greater emphasis on "nothing is permanent" as not only does the information itself become obsolete, but so does the file type and storage media. New evils will come in the form of magnets, computer viruses, ordinary wear and tear (magnetic disks can just wear out), bad computer hardware (misaligned read-and-write heads on magnetic drives). The patrons can easily do more damage now than ever before. Files, computer software, and even the hardware are not particularly durable. Files are susceptible to damage from a variety of unconventional sources. Never before have you had books in your library that can be lost or damaged if the electrical power suddenly spiked or went out. You should keep backup copies of electronic files off-site (this is easy to do, but easier to overlook). Of course, there are no guarantees against fire, floods, earthquakes, and riots. New skills will be needed for recovering lost or weird data. Patrons will tax your creativity to the limit with requests for new and ever changing digital solutions. Another problem area is related to the perception that electronic files often do not look inherently valuable. At least blueprints looked like work had been expended in making them. Floppy disks look like they cost less than a dollar. You cannot tell by looking that the contents of a disk actually represents hundreds of hours of work and would cost thousands of dollars to replace, or that the diskette is empty and you kept the wrong one. STORING DOCUMENTS The problems associated with keeping electronic data are essentially the same as those associated with keeping any other large files. It is difficult to find exactly what you are looking for. The information may be incomplete or inaccurate. It may be out of date, (it is estimated that about two-thirds of the material in an architect's office is over four years old). It is environmentally wasteful to produce and then throw out (recycle?) binders that vendors supply, especially considering that approximately only a third of them ever get looked at. Also there are space problems in keeping the over 1000 binders on average; there is never enough space. Even though the computer has occasionally been touted as a possible resolution for these issues, it really is not. It is an additional technology more than a replacement technology. Unlike in some businesses, nothing already in a library will automatically go away. Storing documents in the electronic age will not take less physical space or be paperless. Architecture libraries have always been "multi-media" environments (and may have been among the first to be so). This will increase. Do not be fooled by the advertisements about materials samples on disk. They will exist, and they will work, but the designers will still want to touch materials and keep them. A screen image is not the same as a carpet sample: you cannot touch it. Also, computer monitor colors cannot be trusted to represent accurately the colors of the object. Certainly it will be possible to have "samples-on-demand" so that offices do not have to keep all samples. Still, space problems will become more acute as we add new technology, and vendors still would like their material directly on your desktop (in addition to telling you about products in person and through electronic means). Technology is changing at an increasing rate. The old stuff never goes away. Scan all the blueprints you want, there will be more. You will never catch up, and there will not be a time when it will all be electronic. Even if it is, there will be new advances in technology that will require another update. There seems to be little advantage in spending time and money to bring "standard details" up to date with a particular technology. If there is no present

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need for a particular detail, who is paying for the update? It is likely that updates like these won't be completed before the next technological advance renders the work obsolete again. Who will help? Is anyone besides you worrying about this already? There are some partial solutions for having access to reference materials that are up to date and immediately available. CD-ROMs show some promise as a reference material. Vendors are supplying the material on disc and sending out updates as needed. There is an attempt at standards and supplying specifications and details in machine readable form (unusual term, because it does not imply at all that the information is in PERSON-readable form!). AIA Online is thus far a not very successful attempt to provide a centralized source of information. It will improve over time as the AIA discovers what types of information and communications services to supply to their members. There will be also be other attempts to provide centralized information for the architecture, engineering, and construction industries. Clients may be supplying electronic information to their architects. This is implied from the fact that clients are now asking for computer documents of their projects. It seems as though clients will eventually show up with electronic media in hand for an architect to use on a new project. This is a mixed blessing. Clients will bring information in from old projects that optimistically will allow the architect to start up more quickly on a project. Of course, it may be that he or she will also have to cope with unexpected, incomplete, and obsolete electronic information. Does this mean that architectural librarians will then have to become wizards of archaic formats in order to read clients' files? DIVERGENCE BETWEEN ACADEMIC LIBRARIES AND PROFESSIONAL-PRACTICE LIBRARIES Most of the examples discussed previously in the immediately preceding section dealt with easing the burden primarily of librarians in professional offices. It seems likely that there may be a growing divergence between academic and professional libraries. For both, incremental change is necessary; this includes the integration of computerized databases. In the office, perhaps samples on demand will become a realistic solution; you do not have all of them, but can call when you have a more detailed idea of what you are looking for. There may even be a split between those who have most of the material in-house versus those that use an outside service bureau/computerized network for their main source of information. Of course, keeping up with the legal issues of documents, paper-based and electronic is crucial. When will the courts address head-on the legal document status of electronically stored drawings? Change is coming. ACADEMIC LIBRARIES Academic libraries have additional responsibilities such as historical preservation, sharing information, and providing new services to students, staff, professors, and the community. Preservation of historical architectural records such as the Maybeck collection at Berkeley, will continue in importance, only now there will also be electronic records to preserve. Video collections, electronic books -- heaven help the library that inherits my memoirs with its dearth of paper and wealth of bytes. Architecture libraries will have a role in preparing material for other libraries (slide CD-ROMs, multimedia books, etc.), sharing information. Slide libraries (such as those at Berkeley, Michigan, and MIT) are striving to make their collections available digitally and are working out the glitches in technology to make their collections thus more accessible. Someone needs to step forward to help make sure we do not duplicate these digital efforts. Many possibilities exist for "trades" of digital materials so that libraries can spend their limited resources to enlarge the scope of documentation, so that more different things are kept and managed. Libraries are also providing new services to students, staff, professors, and the community. Interdisciplinary electronic classrooms, seminar rooms with computer tools to encourage collaboration, and high-tech teaching theaters are becoming part of a library's domain. Course curricula, school events, and class evaluations are provided on-line. There is a continuation and expansion of the role of the library in teaching people how to access information at other places. Academics are not the only users. Architects will depend upon local university resources to augment their own collections. As the community becomes more empowered to change its built environment, there will be a need to assist, inform, and teach community members to access and apply architectural technology. Architecture librarians will ultimately become some of the map builders on the information superhighway. REFERENCE Ref.1: Karen Kensek and Douglas Noble Software for Architects: The Guide to Computer Applications for the Architecture Profession (Los Angeles: The Center of Architectural Technology, 1992). This guidebook lists over 400 products intended for use in the architecture profession, and the authors are aware that they did not uncover many other products that they have since learned about. Copyright 1994 Douglas Noble and Karen Kensek

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12. Politics and Policy: Investigating the Imperial View of the Planning of British Colonial Cities in North America, 1660-1710
Diane Shafer Graham Nazareth College of Rochester Rochester, New York (1) Many are now arguing, some more cautiously than others, for a new approach, or new approaches, to the study of colonial urban planning and development. Established methods or frames of reference which have been applied to our field from sociological, philosophical, economic, semantic and material-culture studies have provided a certain amount of insight and direction, but none, I believe, has so far sufficiently addressed what I perceive as the human intention in colonial urban history. (2) It seems to me that conclusions reached in the study of colonial urban history no longer require justification in the light of those theoretical models developed within other disciplines. Early studies of the colonial phenomenon, in my view, were aimed at just that -- justifying (and in the process, largely condemning) the behavior of the colonizers over the colonized. The term 'colonial' came to mean, as Anthony King has put it, "a form of cultural oppression". It cannot be denied that, in reality, such oppression does and did exist, but it came to exist in certain situations only as a result and not as an intention of colonial practice. (3) The view that identifies and defines colonizer/colonized with oppressor/oppressed is an antagonistic one, and has promoted almost wholly negative assumptions with regard to European colonial enterprise in both the scholarly and the general view. My position, which my research is aimed at substantiating, is that this antagonistic approach represents the result of the study and explanation of colonialism from the point of view of the colonized ('oppressed'). In an effort to effect a semblance of balance in the understanding of our subject, I have attempted to approach it from what I call the imperial view; that is, from the aspect of the intentions and motivations of the colonizers. (4) The construction of a methodology is an intellectual exercise in organization. The frame of reference I have chosen for investigating the planning and planting of British cities abroad in the latter half of the seventeenth century is that of the decision-making apparatus of British society of roughly the same period. This apparatus consists of institutions of two types, which I call the formally constructed and the culturally logical. In the first category fall the central government of Britain, its form and internal relationships; local systems of government such as the parish; the structure of the overseas companies and of special organizations such as the Royal Society, which contributed in substantial ways to overseas ventures. Secondly, Bourdieu's notion of the 'habitus' corresponds to the section of the framework which I term 'culturally logical'. This means that to study such aspects of British cultural practice as land tenure, inheritance traditions and the constitution and construction of towns or the extensions to towns is to understand these forms as they then appear in British culture abroad. (5) The method of investigating these decision-making institutions I call an analysis of the 'mode of consumption'. That is, knowledge of the process by which ideas were introduced, put into practice and the degree to which they were enforced, generates the information necessary to form thoughtful conclusions. (6) In the case of the central government, once the form is recognized, the actual process of dealing with a problem, from its introduction to the final decision, has to be determined. For instance, during this period Britain sponsored overseas ventures through the use of chartered companies, so the chartering process, its use by the Crown for financial gain and eventually for control of overseas settlements are of central importance. If there is any doubt in today's world about the power of those charters, one need only study the very recent realignment of the government of Hong Kong by the Governor, Christopher Patten, much to the consternation of China. This summary change was effected under the terms of the colony's charter, prompting the comparison in the press of the governor's actions to those of a Tudor monarch. (7) The study of the organization and operation of the chartered companies themselves leads to an investigation of their financial structure and to the social as well as formal relationships through which ideas and problems were introduced and processed. The joint stock financing of these companies became more complex over the course of the seventeenth century, affecting not only the stability of the companies and their ventures, that is, the colonies, but also contributing to the establishment of more sophisticated financial structures in Britain, specifically the founding of the Bank of England in 1698. (8) These companies, however, were ultimately only successful if their representatives or agents were. In the case of Pennsylvania, the Free society of Traders, which William Penn established to handle the commercial activities of his new colony, was out of business by the end of the seventeenth century, due to mishandling and lack of attention by its principal agent in Philadelphia and the subsequent lack of confidence and further investment by the backers in Britain. The proof of this point may be observed by making a comparison with the practices and successes of the most famous of such chartered companies, the East India Company. (9) In terms of social and/or formal relationships within the companies, the prime example would be the connection and relationship between Josiah Child and John Child of the East India Company, one being the financial adventurer in London, serving for years as the head of the company, and the other, of still undetermined family

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relationship, serving as the company's representative, or undertaker, in Bombay. In the founding of Pennsylvania, it was to the Quaker community that William Penn appealed for financial backing, as in his earlier venture in West Jersey and later in East Jersey. As long as communications remained open between Penn and the Quaker representatives chosen by him, Pennsylvania grew along the lines designated by the proprietor. When this communication (not swift under the best of circumstances at this period) broke down, then close control of the venture was lost. This is exemplified by the period of fifteen years (1684-1698) when Penn was absent in England lobbying for further support. Another example is the case of East Jersey, centered on Perth Amboy, which became a Scottish settlement, not a Quaker one, as its Scots Quaker administrator was interested in settling Scots, and not necessarily Quakers, as immigrants there. (10) This illustrates my concern in bringing into focus the human intention in colonial activities, the reintroduction of the study of individual behavior and relationships and of the focus on the importance of historical events in colonial enterprise. This I would offer as a balance to the current theoretical focus on the material, the artifactual and the collective aspects of colonial urban endeavor. (11) Another example to illustrate this point would be in the investigation of the traditions of land tenure, or the 'culturally logical' institution in Britain, and its subsequent adoption in overseas settlements. Here an event in Britain may be cited as of utmost importance in the later division and disposition of land in the colonies. That event is the dissolution of the monasteries ordered by Henry VIII (the same Tudor monarch associated by the press to the current governor of Hong Kong) in 1536. (12) Taken as a whole, the land made available by this move, all of it within three years or so of the decree, was the largest single collection of real estate on the market in the history of Britain, after the distribution of lands following the Norman Conquest and before the potential of North America was realized. No one person, however, took advantage of such a vast opportunity as the Dissolution offered, and for the most part the land was acquired piecemeal by the wealthy for partial resale to smallholders. This style of real estate investment and distribution was that provided for by William Penn in his directions to fellow investors in Pennsylvania and subscribed to in other colonies such as Carolina and Georgia. (13) It would seem, again using Pennsylvania and the policies of William Penn as the example, that the use of the grid plan in laying out the city was essentially a method or tool for controlling the disposition of the land. This was true both for the lots available without payment to those who invested in large tracts of land outside the city, and for the smaller lots made available for sale to smaller freeholders and to merchants. Penn and his agents wanted not just the maximum return for the sale of the land, but also wished to control the disposition of the best sites for those who had invested most heavily. The grid depicted in the famous 'Portrait of Philadelphia' site plan, drawn by Penn's surveyor Thomas Holme in 1683, is now known to have been suggested by Penn soon after his arrival in the colony in 1682, because the city was developing in a way which he could see would not be to his and the other investors' advantage. (14) Penn had been thwarted in his first plan for the city, previously conceived by him in England, it being also a grid, but one on a very grand scale, so that each lot would have comprised 100 acres. In fact, the plan was not for a city as such, but for a series of small neighboring country estates (covering a total area of approximately 100,000 acres) arranged on the land in a regular manner, with provision at the appropriate site for a small harbor and business district. From studying Penn's intentions and behavior and after the second plan was accomplished, I conclude that Penn was laying out an urban space in which he actually chose not to live. The city lot reserved for himself was not permanently built on, and it seems he planned his principal residence to be a 'country estate' on land near what is now the site of the Philadelphia Museum of Art, reserving the land known as Pennsbury Manor in Bucks County as a 'home farm' for the provisioning of the other two properties, but where he came to live from 1698 to 1702. (15) This admittedly aristocratic idea and practice of the ideal residence being in the country but within a convenient commuting distance of the city for business and social reasons, follows the pattern of privileged life in which Penn, and many of his investors and contemporary planners of other colonies, participated in late seventeenth century Britain. A similar pattern may be studied for instance in Lord Shaftesbury's Carolina, where Drayton Hall outside Charleston is referred to as a "plantation," but in reality was a country seat within convenient commuting distance of the port. (16) One of the conclusions which may be stated regarding the rejection of the city as the first place of residence by the proprietor and his wealthy friends may be that the grid plan consisting of small city blocks was understood at that time not just as a control device for financial gain and for purposes related to health, but as a pattern associated with the whole of commercial life. This would seem to be supported by the adoption of a large grid pattern for the new city of Kingston, Jamaica, in 1692, a strictly commercial venture, as the colonial administration of this Caribbean city remained at the political capital of Spanishtown. (17) And further, if this is so, then the fashionable conceits of the cypher and Baroque plans proposed by Governor Francis Nicholson for Annapolis and Williamsburg become more understandable, as those sites, chosen for administrative and residential, rather than commercial, purposes, did not have to conform to the grid and commercial demands. This is also supported by the evidence of the grid used for the commercial settlement of Baltimore early in

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the eighteenth century and by that imposed on Manhattan in 1810, when New York City had gained commercial ascendancy over Philadelphia. (18) And in England, where the primary example of city planning was London, studies have been made of the seventeenth century development of Covent Garden and St. James' Square, without much scholarly regard as to who was actually going to live there. The answer to that is, "not the developers," at least not as the principal place of residence. Squares were a new fashion from the continent, as well as making urban space more salubrious. And further, the failure to wholly adopt the Baroque plans of Wren and Evelyn for the rebuilding of the City of London after the Great Fire in 1666 has as much to do with their commercial impractibility as it did with established, pre-fire patterns of ownership. (19) Of course, other institutions contributed substantially to the colonial effort. These include the Royal Society, where ideas such as continental Baroque town planning and the necessity for healthful urban environments were explored and discussed; the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, organized in 1698 and instrumental in establishing the presence of the Church of England and the parish system in the colonies; and the military, just establishing itself in the latter half of the seventeenth century as a professional full-time standing army. (20) Rather than exhaustively describing such initiatives, this discussion is limited to the possibility of a methodology -- an approach to the study of colonial urban history -- which is generated from within the boundaries of the discipline itself. In following my interest in the motivation and intentions of the colonizers, I offer one such alternative, which seeks by its nature to address or redress the balance in contemporary theories of colonial urban planning and development. Copyright 1994 Diane Shafer Graham

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13. The Architect as Superhero: Archigram and the Text of Serious Comics
David Walters Professor of Architecture and Urban Design University of North Carolina at Charlotte (1) This article discusses the architectural collages and polemics produced by the Archigram group in England during the nineteen sixties. It presents two sets of interconnected arguments: firstly, a discussion of the medium of collage, characteristic of the Archigram magazines themselves; and secondly, a consideration of the architectural content of the Archigram collages and associated comic strips. In relation to the first argument, the essay examines: i) how collage itself is central to the development of modernist aesthetics, notably in painting and literature; and ii) how the practice of collage enters architectural discourse not as a device of modernism as in the other arts, but here under the guise of postmodernism, with fragmentary and discontinuous compositions used as devices to critique and dismantle the aesthetic structures of modern architecture. This second discussion considers another, paradoxical set of issues; that while the collage and comic book medium of the architectural "texts" is confrontational to modernist paradigms, the content of the comics -representing as it does various visions of a consumerist and democratic techno-topia -- is close to the ideological core of this same modernism. (2) The article concludes by suggesting an interpretation in which the work of Archigram, despite the above indications to the contrary, can be seen not as an early manifestation of postmodernism, nor simply as an anti-modern polemic, but rather as a reuniting of the sundered strands of modernism. The architectural strand of a highly sophisticated technological and democratic utopianism is here made manifest through an aesthetic language predicated upon the other strand of (contrary) modernist themes -- the literary and painterly paradigms of fragmentation, discontinuity and ironic commentary. *** (3) But first let us refresh our memories about Archigram itself. The movement came into being in late 1960, in the Hampstead area of London as a self-generated forum for several young and recently graduated architects, the major participants being Peter Cook, Warren Chalk, Ron Herron, David Greene, Dennis Crompton and Mike (Spider) Webb. The uniting theme of the group was their impatience and dissatisfaction with the limited horizons and stultifying practices of contemporary modern architecture. Following the tradition of radical modernism enunciated by Nietzsche ("Whoever wants to be creative . . . . must first . . . . annihilat[e] and destroy values"); and Henrik Ibsen ("The great task of our time is to blow up all existing institutions - to destroy"), this formative group of young architects set out to dismantle the apparatus of modern architecture through a series of consciousness-raising and confrontational manifestos. (4) These documents were based not on esoteric theory but upon stunningly provocative graphics as the medium of their equally provocative statements and themes. The primary aim was to expand the territory of architecture from its narrow bureaucratic confines and elitist aesthetics into all aspects of cultural production, particularly pop culture and the explorative frontier technologies of space and the ocean depths. The message was urgent, and communicated in terse, staccato bursts of text and images after the fashion of an aerogram or telegram - hence the name Archi(tecture)gram. Early issues of the group's home-produced broadsheet dealt with major issues in contemporary society that were not being addressed elsewhere: themes like Throwaway Architecture in an age of consumerist planned obsolescence; or the Living City, a confluence of people, technology and creative choice, where situation, based on changing activity and participation, was more important than place, based on static architectural form; and Capsule Architecture and Plug-in City, where ideas were developed from expendable buildings to a whole urban environment programmed and structured for change. (5) These home-produced magazines utilized collage (or more accurately, montage) as their primary medium, with photographs, drawings and text defying any attempt at conventional reading. Later issues, while continuing to deal with the major themes of personal choice and participation as the creative engines of the urban environment, began to involve other softer technologies. This was done literally with projects like the Cushicle, the Suitaloon, and the giant dirigibles of the Instant City, and it was done etymologically with computerized software and information technology. (6) However, most striking of all the images remain those that illustrate the group's fascination with the genre of science fiction and the hardware of space exploration. In Archigram 4 (May 1964) the architect is personified by a comic strip hero involved in a political and environmental struggle in a futuristic society. With conscious acknowledgement to the parallel world of Pop Art, and Roy Lichtenstein in particular, the comic strip charts the adventures of the city dwellers interwoven with detached commentaries on the genre of the space comic itself (as the venue for the depiction of today's wish dreams of the future); and the relationship of the space cartoon medium to 'serious' architecture (as a two-way exchange between space comic imagery and the more advanced 'real' concepts and prophecies of geodesic nets, mobile computers, environmentally-controlled domes and hovercraft-buildings). As Peter Cook wrote in the editorial to Archigram 4, "Our document is the space comic; its reality is in the gesture, design and

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styling of the hardware new to our decade. . . . [Can] the space comic's future [vision. . . relate to] buildings-as-built? Can the near-reality of the rocket-object and the hovercraft-object . . . . carry the dynamic building with them into life?"Ref.1 It was this fecund cross-fertilization of science fantasy and near-reality that was seen by Archigram as the catalyst of change from the stereotyped modernist world of architectural banality to the explorative modern world where, in the words of Warren Chalk, a ". . more sophisticated humanity. . .(and) . . . more sophisticated technology, working together in harmony, will help our children's children."Ref.2 (7) For the early issues of the Archigram magazine the choice of the collage medium was a conscious one, a deliberate collision of form and content designed to frustrate conventional synthesis. To understand this better let us briefly examine the place of collage in twentieth century artistic production. (8) In the book Collage: Critical Views, editor Katherine Hoffman suggests that "collage may be seen as a quintessential twentieth century art form with multiple layers and signposts pointing to a variety of forms and realities".Ref.3 Clement Greenberg is of the opinion that collage was ".... a major turning point in the whole evolution of modernist art in this century."Ref.4 And Gregory Ulmer has noted that ".... collage is the single most revolutionary formal innovation in artistic representation in our century."Ref.5 Within the tradition of western art it is recognized that "collage was introduced into the 'high arts'.... by Braque and Picasso as a solution to the problems raised by analytic cubism, a solution which finally provided an alternative to the 'illusionism' of perspective which had dominated Western painting since the early Renaissance."Ref.6 (9) It was not only in the visual arts that a new aesthetic was apparent. In the music of Stravinsky, the choreography of Diaghilev, and the literature of Pound and Joyce new aesthetic structures transformed their respective arts. Literature in the first decades of this century was, in the words of critic Malcolm Bradbury ". . . an art of crisis. The new fragmentary forms, the strange and often parodic structures, the pervasive sense of ambiguity and tragic irony . . . . express this."Ref.7 (10) Around the end of the First World War, Ezra Pound began work on an epic that he entitled The Cantos, "a fractured work . . . of the age of disunity and lost wholeness."Ref.8 Pound's ambition, like many of his literary contemporaries, was to sift through the literary tradition, and construct from its fragments and usable remnants a whole new language and set of modern forms. Amongst the techniques Pound explored was one that he referred to as 'superpositioning'. Here two or more images were set in relation to each other, no one subordinate to the others, with the intention of creating an explosion of linguistic energy through the concentration of fragments. This aesthetic and compositional structure clearly has much in common with cubist painting and collage, but very little to do with the developing aesthetic of the new architecture. This, by contrast, sought the smooth platonic expression of machineassisted icons in the purist works of Le Corbusier's early period and in the art / machine synthesis of the Bauhaus. These two predominant strains of architectural aesthetics defined the developing style of modern architecture and by the nineteen thirties modern architecture had crafted its own set of norms from new relationships with machine production and fledgling social utopianism. Fragmentation and pastiche, parody and irony had no place in these new aesthetics, and the opportunities presented by the cubist experimentation with collage, and by Pound's technique of superpositioning were spurned for other goals and horizons. (11) It was not until the mid 1970s that any scholarly or critical discussion of the medium of collage re-entered the theoretical discourse of architecture in any meaningful way. In the August 1975 issue of Architectural Review, Colin Rowe and Fred Koetter set out their theory of Collage City,Ref.9 where the authors envisaged the city as an aggregate of discontinuous fragments, creating ". . . a highly impacted condition of symbolic reference. . ."Ref.10 This seems very like Pound's superpositioning, or Braque and Picasso's early cubist collages, and indeed, in a key passage Ref.11 Koetter and Rowe quote Alfred Barr's analysis of Picasso's "Still Life with Chair Caning" as an incitement to architects to engage in the manipulation of multiple levels of urban reality, all constructed from disparate elements, artifacts and allusions. The "Collage City" article achieved a highly rigorous theoretical tone, and thus stands as an important benchmark in the evolution of postmodern urban aesthetics,Ref.12 but it was not the first instance of the reemergence of collage in architecture and urban design to be published in the mainstream professional press. (12) In 1971 the Review published a series of provocative collages of modern buildings illustrating the vision of a new dense and complex urbanism under the title of "Civilia: the End of Sub-urban Man".Ref.13 These collages were used to develop a picturesque townscape as a critique of the urban typologies of the modern movement, but they were self-consciously architectural and composed to reproduce the illusion of perspectival space. However, it was Archigram, nearly a decade earlier, as we have seen, that in fact brought back collage into the repertoire of architectural aesthetics Ref.14 as a major element in their confrontational polemics against these same typological orthodoxies. (13) The collages of Archigram were intentionally shocking, brash and 'difficult', deliberately fracturing the illusion of real space, or providing multiple overlapping views, as opposed to the cultured urban elegance of "The Civilian Dream." The intention of Archigram was to break down real and imagined barriers of form and statement on the page just as much as on the ground in actual construction, and the media of collage and montage were the means of assault. The ambition of Cook, Herron and the others was to provoke discussion by evocative, colliding images, layered one over another so that the argument was not decipherable by the standards of conventional text or linear reasoning, but rather by the simultaneous collage of the information board. The group had particular literary

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objectives in their manipulation of the printed word and evocative image. They felt that in this way their message would be transmitted most effectively, and at the same time remain free from the deadening embrace of the architectural literary and critical establishment. *** (14) To understand how these architectural polemics can be simultaneously central to modernist ideology, yet critical of the apparatus of modern architecture, we must remember the extent to which, from the point of view of the "angry young men" of the 1950s and 1960s, the utopian ideals of early modernism had become contaminated and subverted by the second and third generations of the modernist establishment. Modernism had, in simple terms, become a "style" like any other, and the control and manipulation of these brittle aesthetic codes had passed into the hands of designers who had all too often become part of the bureaucratic world and thus detached from the everyday life of the ordinary people; people who lived their lives in a built environment that increasingly failed to deliver the promises of betterment of life, and where technical sophistication in the building industry was a bad joke. (15) Archigram distinguished between the ossified culture of modern architecture and the vibrant culture of modern life; the movement was counter-cultural only in an architectural sense. In other ways it sought out and amplified trends and values embedded in modernity -- technological expansiveness (in science fiction and space exploration) and popular democratic culture -- in companionship with contemporary Pop Art movements. The group's ambition was to expand the territory of architecture, to include everything connected to contemporary life; indeed to emphasize the transient changing elements of the situation over the static architectural and formal frame. As Peter Blake writes, remembering his early encounters with the movement, "Suddenly everything became architecture".Ref.15 Ideas of planned obsolescence, individual choice and action, and technological sophistication imported from other, non-architectural genres were seen as the hallmarks of a sophisticated, dynamic and pluralistic urban society. They are clearly visible in projects such as the group's "Control and Choice Housing Study," and Ron Herron's "Free Time Node," both from 1967. *** (16) From our critical vantage point it is tempting to read, or re-read, these serious comics as early manifestations of postmodern attitudes, utilizing as they do the concepts and strategies of pluralism, irony, fragmentation and discontinuity, terms that are currently enshrined in our critical vocabulary. Indeed Archigram was utilizing these strategies several years before Koetter and Rowe brought them again to our attention. But this is to look at history only from the linear perspective of the present, seeking to reclassify fragments of the past on the basis of our current preferred position. (17) Trawling through history with a postmodern net may indeed catch some juicy morsels ripe for reinterpretation, but Archigram's "Space Comics" are most fairly apprehended in their own cultural context of production and precedent. The collage of intentional paradox, discontinuity, referential gesture and attack on the aesthetic codes of modernist architecture does seem to qualify the Archigram group and their comic book heroes for retrospective induction into a Postmodern Hall of Fame, but to pursue such a postmodern reading of Archigram misrepresents the movement, and obscures an argument that challenges the postmodern critical position within architectural discourse. We have seen from the early history of modernism in painting and literature how irony, paradox, fragmentation and discontinuity were the hallmarks of the modernist avant-garde. Only in architecture did these aesthetic paradigms and operational devices fail to make their mark, for the goals of modern architecture became formulated around other foundations of modernist ideology, those of the machine and social utopianism. The Archigram group stepped outside the dogma of modernist aesthetics, and through their love of draughtsmanship and their interest in non-linear simultaneous means of communication, they re-connected techno-utopian architecture with the aesthetics of literary and painterly modernism, in short, the aesthetics of collage and superpositioning. These modernist aesthetics, long atrophied within architecture, contained the seeds of a radical critique of their fellow modernists and the built environment. This strongly suggests that far from being an illustration of early postmodernism, the work of Archigram is a powerful example of an attribute at the core of modernism,Ref.16 that is, the capacity for perpetual and radical self-critique. (18) This dialectic of disparate and contradictory ambitions within modernism should not really surprise us: after all it was Marx who taught us that "all that is solid melts into air" - that what makes modern life truly modern is the fact that it is radically contradictory at its base.Ref.17 What we are able to see in the work of Archigram is not therefore an early manifestation of postmodernism in the guise of an anti-modern polemic, but rather a reuniting of the sundered strands of modernism - highly sophisticated technological and democratic architectural utopias made manifest through an aesthetic language predicated upon literary and painterly paradigms of fragmentation, discontinuity and ironic commentary. The larger question of whether postmodernism in architecture is only the aesthetic language of a larger modernism at last making its presence felt in the realm of architectural discourse is an issue that deserves to be debated rigorously and continuously as we move into the twentifirst century.

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REFERENCES
Ref.1: Reprinted in "Zoom and 'Real' Architecture," Archigram, ed. Peter Cook et al., (New York, 1973), 27 28. Ref.2: Chalk, Warren. "An Unaccustomed Dream," in Archigram, op. cit., 32. Ref.3: Hoffman, K. ed. Collage: Critical Views, (Ann Arbor, 1989), 1. Ref.4: Greenberg, C. Collage, in Art and Culture, (Boston, 1961), 70. Ref.5: Ulmer, G. The Object of Post-Criticism in The Anti-Aesthetic: Essays on Post-Modern Culture, ed. Hal Foster, (Port Townsend, Washington, 1983), 84. Ref.6: Ulmer, 84. Ref.7: Bradbury, Malcolm. The Modern World: Ten Great Writers, (New York, 1989), 7. Ref.8: Bradbury, 7. Ref.9: Architectural Review 157 (1975): 65 - 91. Ref.10: Ibid., 82. Ref.11: Ibid., 87. Ref.12: Along with the same authors' earlier article "The Crisis of the Object: the Predicament of Texture," in Oppositions 16: 108-138. Ref.13: Edited by Ivor de Wolfe, Architectural Review 149 (1981): 326 - 409. Ref.14: Kasimir Malevich had used photomontage in some of his suprematist architektons in the 1920s, but by and large collage was not the preferred medium of the architectural avant-garde. Ref.15: Blake, Peter. "Introductory Comment" in Cook, op. cit., 7. Ref.16: This is discussed, for example, in Jurgen Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity, trans. by Frederick G. Lawrence, MIT Press, 1987; and Marshall Berman, All That Is Solid Melts Into Air: the Experience of Modernity, (London 1988). Ref.17: Berman, Marshall. op. cit., 19. Copyright 1994 David Walters

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14. Building Codes as Dress Codes for the protective Clothing of Buildings
Jeanine Centuori School of Architecture and Environmental Design Kent State University Building codes provide quality control for life safety and technical matters. In order to be safe and technically sound, a building must protect its inhabitants from several natural elements. This emphasis on protection inadvertently implies a bias for surface integrity in construction. Although the building process may begin with small units such as bricks, panels, and other prefabricated components, the protection must result in continuous wrappings. The many layers of a building's protective skin are much like clothing. Understanding this implication is key to achieving sensitive design within the confines of a code. There are many hazardous and uncomfortable elements from which a building is designed to guard its occupants. These elements are defined and quantified by the building code, and, according to the degree of danger or discomfort, are remedied by a particular surface wrapping. The structural skeleton is clothed to suit the anticipated conditions.

Fire Protection
A building is defined in the Ohio Basic Building Code as "any structure used or intended for supporting or sheltering any use or occupancy. For application of this code, each portion of a building completely separated from other portions by fire walls complying with Section 908.0 shall be considered as a separate building" (OBBC, Article 2: Definitions). This definition implies that the limit of a building, whatever its surface configuration may be, is the material manifestation of fire protection. A "fire wall" is assigned a number (of hours, 1 to 5), designating the length of time it may be expected to survive in the event of a fire. Density and thickness affect a materials rating; a more massive material tends to have a better rating. Whether by their manufactured nature, or by joining in construction, the layers composing the envelope of the container must achieve the given fire protection rating. Each building with a designated fire rating is designed as a zone whose boundaries must contain or resist fire. The walls, floors, and roof/ceiling assemblies must all come together to work uniformly against the potential fire. The places where walls meet floors, walls meet roofs, etc., must be sealed in order to effectively maintain a barrier. There are many leaky places in building construction such as the spaces between wall studs. These places are given special attention in the OBBC, and are expected to be firestopped. Great pains are taken to make all the disparate materials join as though they were one continuous wrapping, coating, or membrane against fire. The building can thus be understood as a container whose continuous exterior surfaces are clothed in a fire protection suit. When openings puncture these sealed containers, the closures, such as doors and windows, must also fall under the same fire ratings as the walls and floors. A tightly sealed zone is more protected against fire; therefore, the fewer openings, the better. During usage, people may break the fire seal by opening and passing through the boundary; however, when occupying the space, they are effectively wearing the fire suit, and are protected. Elements other than people need to go in and out of these containers: heated air, cooled air, gas, electricity, etc. These mechanical penetrations are considered to rip open the blanket of protection. For these locations, the OBBC has rules for maintaining the level of fire barrier. For example, at the juncture of a duct and a wall surface, a fire damper must be installed. The valve-like piece works to seal the opening in the event of a fire. The fire coating is treated as though it is a uniform fabric with special considerations at the openings for passage into the volume of space. Fire protection is manifest in a building as an outfit which continuously wraps the space. The many small units and materials of the building process are made to behave as though they are one wrapper. The struggle (of fire protection within the confines of the code) is between the individuality of these disparate components and their homogeneity as surface.

Water Protection
Another of the primary functions of a building is to protect its occupants (and its contents) from water. The code makes a distinction (with its methods of protection) between water from the ground and water from the sky. Buildings sit on or in the ground. Water in the ground would seep into a building if it were not prevented from doing so. The code presents ways to waterproof and dampproof a building against ground water. First, the foundation walls and slabs are to be made free from holes and recesses. Once they are made as slick as possible, there are several ways of coating their surfaces to achieve an impervious membrane. The waterproofing consists of some combination of coating the surfaces with a liquid, and wrapping the surfaces with a sheeting material. Essentially, this process creates a rubberized membrane like a rain boot, continuously sealed around the footings yet stopping at a level above the ground where the water is not a threat. As for water from the sky, the walls and roof must protect the inside body of space from becoming wet. The code provides a list of weather coverings along with their required thicknesses. These skins (aluminum siding, asbestos shingles, plywood with sheathing, stone facing, etc.) are specified in order to keep out rain and snow. Even

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though these materials consist of small individual pieces, by overlapping, seaming, and sealing, they can be forced to behave as one membrane. The methods of attaching and layering each of the pieces are very specific, because of the strict necessity of achieving watertightness. If the exterior surface has "wall pockets or crevices in which moisture can accumulate," (OBBC, 2104.6 Exterior Wall Pockets) the pockets should be capped or filled in order to provide a slick surface. Just as an umbrella or rainhood is designed to repel water, so too is the upper casing of a building. As an extra protection against moisture, the interior spaces of walls and roofs are given a vapor barrier. This plastic material (usually) keeps air borne moisture from entering and condensing in the interior. Like a rain-coat, it provides a continuous wrapping around the body/space, and completes the protection between ground water and sky water. A building protects itself from water by wearing three garments. A vapor barrier lining creates a rain-coat around all extremities and appendages of the space, a rubberlike membrane provides a boot around the foot of the structure, and a variety of materials are stitched together to make an umbrella of protection around the top. Whether these garment-like layers begin as small units or as sheeting materials, their end results must take the form of homogenous coatings. With water protection, the buildings' units give up their identity for the sake of their unified effort to keep the interior dry.

Thermal Protection
A building is supposed to protect its occupants and contents from extremes of hot and cold weather. Through physical means with insulation materials, and mechanical means with equipment, a building's internal temperature is maintained at a comfortable level. Building codes present formulas with which to design heating and cooling systems. Heat gain or loss for the whole building is calculated relative to the building envelope. The conception of the envelope, or exterior surface of the building, implies that when combatting air temperatures, all exterior surfaces must act as a uniform skin. Surface areas are tabulated, and the temperature differences are calculated from one side of the wall to the other. Based on material characteristics, transmittance values of heat/cold are applied. In order to make a building more protected from the temperature, insulation of various kinds can be applied to the envelope. Either in between the layers of wall materials, or literally wrapped around a structure, insulation is similar to a layer of thermal underwear. By following the contours of the outer material, it gives the space a snug fit. The hidden layer which wraps itself around the container of space needs to be broken for passage. At these junctures, such as doors and windows, there is air leakage and infiltration. Caulking and other sealants are used to seam together joints between the different materials in an attempt to maintain the continuity of the thermal layer. Because heat and cold completely surround a building, they seek rips, tears, and slivers in the outer and underlayers through which to rush into the space. To protect the insides from this condition, the thermal layer especially must act uniformly. Any crack or crevice weakens the whole. Again with thermal protection, the units of material (rolls or sheets of insulation) behave as though they are one homogenous lining between outside and inside.

Protection from the Force of Wind

Codes require that buildings be designed to resist the destructive forces of excessive winds. These winds are considered to act or push on the building, which in turn, is considered to push back in the opposite direction. The building's structural frame and/or envelope is designed to resist these lateral loads. The building's skeleton and skin join to stand against these threatening forces. The physical manifestation of the protection may vary; however, conceptually they are similar. Whether by cross-bracing, moment-resisting frame, or shear walls, resistance against wind is accomplished by some sort of armor that either covers the whole building or is made up or details which cause the entire structure of the building to be effective against the forces. Standardized units join forces to compose a faceted, flexible shell.

Noise Protection
The OBBC requires sound transmission control in residential buildings only, structures comprised of many individual dwelling units. The code enforces protection from noise at the boundary of each separate unit. The code calls for protection from both "airborne noise" and "structure borne sound" (OBBC, Section 714.0: Sound Transmission Control in Residential Buildings). Walls, partitions, and floor/ceiling assemblies which mark a dwelling unit's edge must be insulated from noise. Both horizontal and vertical planes are filled with a substance to stop the noise from penetrating. At fasteners such as the door where sound may leak, it must be closely tailored to be a tight fit. Noise is ubiquitous. Noise protection can be understood as an ideally seamless layer bounding a dwelling container. Densification of the skin to collect sounds and to prevent them from entering the space. The building can be called a gathering of muffled sound chambers, many enclosed containers within the larger whole.

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Natural Light Provision

Building codes enforce the provision of natural light in all habitable and occupiable rooms. Each room/container must have a minimum glazing area, the size of which is based on its floor area dimensions. This requirement treats each room as though it were a separate and distinct entity. The glazing can occur on any of the exterior edges of the room. It is measured in surface area, in terms of the amount of sunlight that can enter the space. The internal units of rooms are treated as though they have individual wrappers around their boundaries, which can be punctured by light for the health and well-being of the inhabitants. The room can perhaps be considered to be the smallest unit of space in a building, bound with solid enclosures. Provisions of natural light infringe upon the privacy created by the opaque barriers; each addition of light causes erasure of solidity. Just as clothing only partially covers the body, the room partially drapes its occupants, allowing some exposure so that the sun can light the body/container. The provision for natural light treats each room as a complete container, defining the boundary between outside and inside of the room itself, a smaller scale version of the previous conception of the whole building as a container.

Conclusion
Each of the elements vary in their physical nature. Some are ubiquitous and intangible (temperature, noise); some may never materialize in the life of the building (fire, destructive winds), and some are constantly prevalent (water, heat/cold). Through the filter of building codes, they become quantified. After this has been done, an appropriate surface wrapping can be designated to deal with the element. These wrappings treat the building (or part of building) as though it is a container of space which holds people and objects. When it comes to protection against these elements, the walls, roofs, and floors ignore the forces of gravity. The mission of the exterior envelope is to make a barrier against the outside. Although buildings may be constructed out of heterogeneous building units, the resulting protective casings must behave as though they are homogenous and continuous in their place to define outside from inside. This bias in the OBBC and other building codes for surface strength and integrity implies particular attitudes for design. The drawing that affects much of the typical design process is the section, a conceptual cut in space (horizontal or vertical). A section implies infinity; an endless number of sections can be taken through a building. It is within this paradigm that the architect searches for form; yet one comes to a place of closure with a building. Imagining that one draws upon the infinite to enclose space, one fills the blank paper with section cuts. Slivers of all the materials comprising a wall are present in a section, yet the wall's surface makeup is absent. The section-based method of design is incompatible with the surface bias of the building codes. Given the assumption that the codes are here to stay, is it possible to invent a design method which is ideologically aligned with the notion of surface wrappings? Clothing begins with flat patterns, shapes which become three-dimensional after a series of operations: folding, cutting, and stitching, a direct means of translation between a two and three-dimensional realm. On the other hand, the architects section drawings must be interpreted by the builder as materials of specific lengths and widths. Sections must become flat surface templates in order to build. The section imposes a rift between two and three-dimensional design, an interference of the connection between designing and making. Perhaps the methods of making clothing can be used as a model for a more direct means of designing the wrappings for the containers otherwise known as buildings. Copyright 1992 Jeanine Centuori

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15. 'Bridging the Gap' - Points of Contact between the Architect and Engineer
Tom F. Peters Building and Architectural Technology Institute Lehigh University

Introduction
Architecture and structural engineering were originally aspects of a single profession. They began to develop apart in the sixteenth century, and, for the last century, the chasm between them grew to a deep lack of understanding. This chasm forced building into two camps with the separation fueled by a mutual inferiority complex. Today, with the independence of architects and structural engineers threatened by the new professions of general contractor and developer, we need a clarification of our common intellectual base so that we can continue to develop. Engineers think primarily in mathematical and architects in visual language. The split occurred in the Industrial Revolution when physics was raised to be the basis of technology under the influence of the encyclopedists. Now this split is slowly closing under the influence of what we call the "media." Films and television, CAD, advertising, and international sign language, they all strengthen our visual language capacity. (Will we end up by inventing another vile word, like "visualcy"?) We "read" the world differently from the way our parents read it while our professional "languages" remained conservative. That has to change.

Contrasts
Let us first examine what separates us before we attempt to find points of contact between the two professions. An engineers sees a "point" in a simple steel connection while an architect may see a "mess of steel beams." Both observations are correct according to the standpoint of the observer. The engineers translates reality into an analytical model while the architect seeks a visual statement. What we see and how we express it are conditioned by our goals and that can easily lead to misunderstanding. An engineer calls a "bowstring truss" a "simple beam." The architect, interested in its formal aspect, calls it an "arch with a tie- rod." Builders of the last century concentrated on the building process and called it a "suspension bridge" because the deck is hung from the arch. Beam, arch, and suspension system - they are all correct interpretations of the object. Each group will base its view on the form of logic specific to that field and era. Architects are interested in objects. Their fascination is captivated by finished building more than by questions of manufacture or life cycle. That is why architectural journals preferably show new and pristine buildings, and architectural feasibility studies are concerned with what can be built on a specific site. Clearly, under such conditions, architecture will develop design theories but no design method. Engineers, on the other hand, are primarily process-oriented. Their journals prefer to show sites at work; a mess of machines and men, and an engineering feasibility study will be concerned with how a given design can be realized. Engineering theory serves their method of calculation. It is not what an architect would call "theory" at all, just the development of method.

Technological Thought Is Common To Both

In spite of these differences both have important points in common. They are both concerned with building and use a hitherto little appreciated form of thought that I call "technological thought." Engineers mix it with strategic and scientific thinking to serve their process-orientation, while architects include their bias toward art. What I term technological thought is a mixture of scientific and empirical thought. It unifies two contrasting concepts, swings opportunistically between analysis and creation, and manifests characteristics that are invisible in its progenitors. We all know scientific thought from our school years while empirical and creative thinking is underrepresented in our education. Empirical thought operates associatively,Ref.1 creating matrices of thought without hierarchy. We need it to design, in the creative process, and we cannot capture it analytically. More and more people are beginning to recognize the advantages of this horizontally organized thought form. Management consultant are even beginning to counsel their clients to increase productivity by organizing corporate structures horizontally instead of rigidly hierarchically. A scientific system has to be independent of its user while associative thinking is strongly conditioned by its user. In itself it neither categorizes nor prioritizes, the user does that within the context of a specific culture. It is the user who determines the relationships between the elements. Design uses both the objective-analytical and the subjective creative forms of thought. The sciences and the arts together form what we normally call "culture." Our schooling stresses them and forgets the interstitial area of technology. If it is celebrated at all, then only in the form of industrial production. For the most part, however, it is counted as the lowly "applied science" or resisted as determinism. The first view is based on the analytical aspect of technology and the second on the directness of problem solving that rarely transcends the object itself. But technology is neither application, nor is it pure determinism. It is the thought mode that drives our times

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and we cannot wish it away. As building professionals we all experience the conflict between technological thinking and its two parents. Architects and engineers are concerned with the world of making. They, therefore, speak a language different from that of natural and social scientists. In technology, the very word "system" changes its meaning from "ordering principle" to "functioning object" or "building set." The goal of technical thought is neither knowledge nor insight, but the creation of objects, and its method is the complex activity of real problem- solving. A partial problem can sometimes be more interesting than the whole to which it belongs, and the word "detail" means "small-scale problem" rather than "hierarchically subordinate part" as it does in the sciences. The engineering works of an Eiffel that contributed to the systematization of iron construction, or of a Maillart that researched the formal implications of monolithic structural behavior in reinforced concrete, or of a Leslie Robertson that advance the concept of composite construction in skyscrapers, are all full of examples that demonstrate the importance of detail design. The same is true for the architectural works of a Palladio that created new relationships between layering, form, and space, or of a Schinkel that translated space, geometry, and form in a new way, or of a Frank Gehry that questioned the accepted relationships between material, space and detail. As building professionals we are hardly interested in the method of knowledge, in so-called "epistemology." Engineers are particularly disturbed that we aren't since they draw their methods of calculation from physics that does. But approximative computation of load-bearing capabilities suffices in the world of building. The proof of the correctness of a technical method lies in the functioning of the object Ref.2 and not in the formulation of a systematic logic. This shift in meaning is rarely recognized by mathematicians and scientists. They consider what engineers do to be a naive misunderstanding of theory. That is why engineers often suffered from a false sense of inferiority in the nineteenth century. They were neither architects, whom they held to be "artists," nor were they scientists. They stood outside the pale of culture and felt themselves to be under pressure to demonstrate their artistic and scientific capabilities. They did the one by applying superfluous decoration to their objects and the second by the pursuit of presumed "truth" in partial problems. The overly exact computation of catenary form and chain cross-section for every conceivable loading condition resulted in a senseless precision and complicated and needlessly expensive suspension bridges.Ref.3 Architects, on the other hand, often try to argue a design decision objectively where they should be using an associative and subjective argument. Both apparent "weaknesses" come from the desire to explain technological thought using scientific criteria instead of accepting its independence. Architecture includes fields ranging from technology to art. The step is a small one, and architectural theoreticians and practitioners, therefore, lie closer to one another than engineering theoreticians and practitioners where the overlaying of technological, strategic, and scientific thinking leads to internal stresses. This stress is especially noticeable in French and Anglo-Saxon culture where practitioners and theoreticians often cannot understand one another. The practitioners find theoreticians irrelevant and abstract, while theoreticians consider their colleagues to be fuzzy thinkers. There's nothing new in this. One hundred and sixty years ago differences of this nature led to the formation of the "Ecole Centrale" in Paris by a group of disenchanted practitioners Ref.4 who sought to distance themselves from the concepts of the "Ecole polytechnique." Both Gustave Eiffel and William Le Baron Jenney, two of the most influential iron builders of the second half of the nineteenth century, came from this counterschool.

A New Aesthetic
The similarities and differences in architectural and engineering thought provide the basis for considerations that can be useful for both professions. If we consider the aesthetics of an engineering structure, we automatically adopt the standards and criteria of art history. Architectural critics use these standards that relate to the evaluation of objects,Ref.5 and they fit more or less well. If we accept the premise, however, that aesthetic considerations should build at least in part on professional interests, it would make sense to develop an aesthetic of process.Ref.6 This would provide us with novel possibilities: the field would become broader and more fascinating to professionals. And if we construct an aesthetic of building on our own inherent professional mode of thinking, it could develop from a passive means of evaluation into an operative means of design in both fields. Architects have been seeking ways to make the building process visible in the finished product at least since the 1960s. Beginning with the projects of the "Archigram" group, we can trace this theme in the work of Renzo Piano, Richard Rogers, and Santiago Calatrava to name a few of the most prominent. At the same time engineers are also looking for new criteria for the design of structures. With the advent of "designer steels" and new forms of reinforced concrete with increasingly variable characteristics, traditional material constraints are quickly disappearing as design criteria.Ref.7 On the basis of such questions how could an aesthetics of making be organized? Aesthetics is logical thinking about form. Like statics, it belongs to the realm of the analytical aspect of technological thought, and it defines a visual order.

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Technological Criteria
Material constraints used to belong to the most important technological criteria that influenced the appearance of engineering structures. If they are no longer critical to design, and if we replace them with the manufacturing criteria of materials, we gain new possibilities. Hot-rolled I-beams and H-columns, drawn wire, cast steel, or cold-formed sheet metal -- they all provide ready-made detail form. Each material form implies an inherent connection typology and each form stands as a testimonial to its "making," or its method of manufacture and the erection process. Engineers rarely use this information consciously, and it is even rarer that it is communicated in architectural detailing. Herein lies an untapped source of formal design.

The Kit-Of-Parts
The most impressive engineering structures are built up using an hierarchical order of parts and connections. If their design submits to the constraints of such an order, both the details and the overall form appear logically conceived. If it does not, the form appears chaotic - unless an apparent lack of logic subtly stresses the form. In this case it becomes sculpture, and that is where designs of the kind Calatrava makes are to be considered. Calatrava considers the economy of means, that basic principle of any engineering design, to be secondary. And that is one reason why engineers find his work interesting as architecture, while architects admire his work, in which he singlemindedly pursues structural form, as engineering design. No one claims him for their own; each field strangely considers him to belong to the opposing camp. An object that is structurally complex or difficult to build is not necessarily visually complicated. It can be simple as in the case of the Brooklyn Bridge. The main cables and diagonal ropes are both carried by the towers. While the deck hangs from the main cables on suspenders, it is also directly attached to the diagonal ropes. The first system is easily deformed, while the second is not. The diagonals and the suspenders are connected to form a net by means of clamps: simple formally, but exceedingly complex structurally. The vertical and diagonal components of the net not only flex differently, but the clamps also slip a little when the net is slowly loaded and the net adapts to the load. However, the clamps jam under impact loading and the connections behave almost rigidly. The engineering firm that rehabilitated the structure for its centennial in 1983,Ref.8 worked for years to develop a computer program that described its structural behavior accurately.

Cultural differences: Typology and the Relationship between Verbal and Visual Language
If we regard the engineering structure as an object, we try to comprehend it as a type and compare it to an abstract model. We ask ourselves whether it is a beam, an arch, a shell, a folded plate, or a suspension system. If a structure, like Maillart's "three-hinged, hollow-box, deck-stiffened, polygonal arch," transcends the typology, we have to describe it in a roundabout way. We can only categorize a form if we can name it. This is how variations in design behavior come to be preferred in different cultures. In architecture, for instance, all languages had to introduce the "loggia" from the Italian in order to use it formally in design. In engineering, German differentiates between the "Platte" (a planar, structural surface element that supports outof-plane loads and is, therefore, primarily subjected to bending stresses) and the "Scheibe" (a similar element that supports in-plane forces and withstands shear forces). Both are described in German by the way they support their loads and not by their spatial position. Folded plate structures can be conceived using such members. We lack this conceptual clarity in English. Both the "slab" and the flat plate" are horizontal elements, one with and one without visible joist support. Our "shear wall," or more abstractly, "shear membrane," is a vertical wall element that deals with shear. Elements of this type are defined by their spatial position. They cannot lie diagonally and we can only describe a diagonal loadbearing surface in a roundabout fashion. That inhibits our conceiving of folded plate structures or of other combined forms such as Maillart's, Christian Menn's, or Calatrava's. Our language and what we design are inseparable.

Light-Wood Framing
Because of language differences of this type, technological thinking developed differently in Europe and America. I have been examining the North American light-wood framing system for several years now as a vehicle for understanding the development of a specific building culture. Today, Germany has begun examining the possibility of using this system to contain spiraling building costs, so this concern is becoming of interest internationally. Light-wood framing uses sticks and plywood sheets that are too thin to support themselves reliably and nails that are poor connectors. But when they are used in large numbers, they form a versatile construction system with surprising novel characteristics. The lack of structural and material quality is compensated for by an increase in the number of components and connections, in the same way that the trade-off of quality for quantity in industrial

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production is a characteristic of the American lifestyle. The trade-off may not appeal to the European, but Americans consider it to be positive. American culture prefers pragmatism to conceptual thinking, and the light-wood frame masterfully matches this preference. The intellectual approach is basically different from the European which is conceptual. It is indeed impossible to determine whether the light-wood frame is a frame stiffened by a skin nailed to it, or whether it is a panel system in which the surfaces are stiffened by ribs. Both viewpoints are correct, and both lead to different erection methods and architectural expression. An American contractor has no compunction in treating the two ends of the same building differently and finds it natural to do so. But the European who is accustomed to striving for conceptual clarity, will find this attitude simultaneously confusing and liberating. What we consider too weak sections and flimsy plywood form apparently poor buildings, but only apparently. The homogeneous spread of weak connections throughout an entire building makes it structurally so redundant that it paradoxically behaves monolithically. This allows such buildings to carry loads in unexpected ways without collapsing, something that traditional heavy timber-framed buildings cannot. This monolithic behavior is attained through the simplest of means, and it permits an unusual flexibility in the use of such wooden buildings. We can modify them radically before they will collapse. In the mid-nineteenth century contractors applied this characteristic to cast-iron construction. James Bogardus's public relations brochure of 1856 Ref.9 demonstrated an extreme modification of his cast-iron building system by means of an exaggerated illustration. Monolithic structural behavior and the extreme ability to modify a building formed American residential construction and lifestyle. Our "do-it-yourself" mentality is one of its major characteristics. Only a small step separated quasi-monolithic wood construction from steel framing for bridge and than for highrise construction. The intellectual threshold that had to be crossed was determined by the shift of stabilizing methods from the applied surfacing material to the stiff frame corner. This transition preoccupied the energies of contractors and theoreticians for half a century from about 1870 to 1920. In high-rise construction, the development of stiffening methods sought to free both plans and installations from structural constraints. Open-space planning, first propagated by European architects such as Ludwig Mies van der Rohe or Le Corbusier in the 1920s, was influenced by the American development as was the separation of structure from building skin that proved so attractive to the modernists. The development also influenced the preoccupation of engineering theoreticians with the monolithic behavior of steel framing systems.

European-American Transfer
The pragmatic American building culture strongly influenced European thinking. Cass Gilbert exhibited detail models of the frame of his New York Broadway-Chambers Building of 1900 at the Paris International Exhibition where they were studied with interest by German and French architects and engineers. Travel reports by European engineers discussed primarily bridges. The reports of Ghega, Ref.10 Culmann, Ref.11 Tunner, Ref.12 and Ritter Ref.13 proved as important for the development of steel construction and theory in Europe as the work of German-speaking emigrants to America. Lewis Wernwag and Adolph Bonzano from Wurttemberg, Albert Fink from Hessia, Julius Hilgard from Bavaria, Gustav Lindenthal from Moravia, and John Augustus Roebling from Thuringia, all contributed importantly to the development of American iron bridge construction. And Charles Strobel from Cincinnati, who studied engineering at the famed royal engineering school in Stuttgart, erected Eiffel's loadbearing structure for the Statue of Liberty in 1884 and made major contributions to the development of steel framing in Chicago. The architectural reports and manifestos of Neutra, Ref.14 Hilbersheimer, Ref.15 Mendelsohn, Ref.16 and Le Corbusier, influenced European construction at least as strongly as the European architecture schools did building in America. The conceptual skyscraper projects of Le Corbusier and Mies in the early 1920s reflected their reactions to American prototypes. Europe's contribution to the development of light-wood and steel framing in America and the transfer of this knowledge back to Europe is living testimony to mutual cultural exchange and "creative misunderstanding." Ref.17 The examination of the intellectual parameters of this development can help clarify our design and construction thinking. Perhaps they can even influence out future.

Conclusions
We are currently faced with many professional and educational questions have to be answered. How can we prepare ourselves to build across political and cultural borders in an open Europe and an open world? What will the role of architects and engineers be in such a future? How can we help prepare both for their new tasks? What are the crucial linguistic and cultural differences? Many relationships will develop differently. Many changes will be needed so that we cannot only follow the development, but also control it. One way to begin walking down new paths is to learn how to better use the logic of our own professional thinking. REFERENCES Ref.1: The technical terms "vertical" and "horizontal" thinking that I here call "associative" and "hierarchical," were adopted from Edward de Bono: The Use of Lateral Thinking, 1967 London: Cape.

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Ref.2: That is why uneducated inventors continue to try to invent the perpetuum mobile, in spite of all proof of its impossibility. They argue, logically from their standpoint, that theoreticians and their theories have been proven wrong before, therefore, why should they not be wrong again! Ref.3: "The problem of the catenary and its role in engineering research," in T.F. Peters: Transitions in Engineering, 1987 Basel: Birkhaeuser Verlag, pp. 75-76. Ref.4: The railway engineer Perdonnet led this revolt in 1829. He reacted against the opinion of G.G. de Coriolis, Navier's replacement at the Ecole polytechnique, who abandoned project- oriented teaching, claiming that young engineers should be theoretically educated. His argument was that they would get practical experience later. In fact, the best students were recruited directly from the classroom to the faculty, thereby exasperating their alieniation from generation to generation. Ref.5: For instance: Friedrich Hartmann: Aesthetik im Brueckenbau unter besonderer Beruecksichtigen der Eisenbruecken. 1928 Leipzig & Vienna: Franz Deuticke; Fritz Leonhardt:Bridges. 1984, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; David P. Billington: The Tower and the Bridge. 1983 New York: Basic Books. Ref.6: Tom F. Peters: "Considerations on Bridge Aesthetics" in: Richard Margolis Bridges - Symbols of Progress. 1991 Bethlehem PA: Lehigh University Art Galleries; Tom F. Peters: The Aesthetics of Steel Bridges, report to the American Iron and Steel Institute 1991 (unpublished). Ref.7: There will be a symposium with international participation, to be held at Lehigh University in 1993, that will examine new methods in the formal design of bridges based on the premise that material constraints have essentially disappeared. Ref.8: Steinman Boynton Gronquist & Birdsall, New York. Ref.9: James Bogardus: Cast Iron Buildings: Their Construction and Advantages By J.B., C.E. architect in iron, iron building, corner of Centre and Duane Sts. 1856 New York: J. W. Harrison, printer, 4-16 p., 3 pls. (incl. frontis.) Ref.10: Carl Ritter von Gehga (1802-1860): Ueber nordamerikanischen Brueckenbau und Berechnung des Tragungsvermoegens der Howe'schen Bruecken mit Tabellen ueber die absolute, relative und rueckwirkende Festigkeit einiger Baumaterialien und zwei Zeichnungstafeln. 1845 Vienna: Kaulfuss Wittwe, Prandel & Compagnie. Ref.11: Carl Culmann: "Der Bau hoelzerner Bruecken in den Vereingten Staaten von Nordamerika. Ergebnisse einer im Auftrage der koenigl. Bayerischen Regierung in den Jahren 1849 und 1850 unternommenen Reise durch die Vereinigten Staaten," in: Allgemeine Bauzeitung 1851 Vienna, pp. 69-129 w.ills.& pls. 387-397; and: "Der Bau der eisernen Bruecken in England und Amerika," in Ibid, 1852, pp.163-222, w.ills.& pls. 478-487. Ref.12: P. Ritter von Tunner: Das Eisenhuettenwesen der vereingigten Staaten von Nordamerika. beurtheilt nach einem im Auftrage des k.k. Ackerbau-Ministeriums vergenommenen Besuche der Centennial-Ausstellung in Philaelphia und der vorzueglicheren Eisenhuetten noedlich von New-York. 1877 Vienna: Verlag von Faesy & Frick. Ref.13: Wilhelm Ritter: Der Brueckenbau in den Vereinigten Staaten Amerikas. Weltausstellung in Chicago, 1893, Berichte der schweizerischen Delegierten. 1894 Berne: Haller'sche Buchdruckerei. Ref.14: Richard J. Neutra: Wie Baut Amerika?. 1927 Stuttgart: Julius Hoffmann Verlag. Ref.15: Ludiwg Hilbersheimer: Grozstadt Architektur. 1927 Stuttgart: Julius Hoffmann Verlag. Ref.16: Erich Mendelsohn: Amerika; Bilderbuch eines architekten. 1926 Berlin: Rudolf Mosse. Ref.17: The term "creative misunderstanding" first appeared in the 1960s in the works of William J. Gordon and George M. Prince on design methodology, that they called "synectics." This phenomenon, so familiar to artists, was adopted in architecture through Harold Bloom: A Map of Misreading. 1975 New York: Oxford University Press. It has nevertheless been largely ignored by architectural theory. Copyright 1992 Tom F. Peters

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16. Michael Graves: Restoring a Language to Architecture

Ivan Zaknic Lehigh University On the corner of Nassau Street and Harrison Street in Princeton, New Jersey, there are two attached historic houses, one built in 1740 and the other in 1840. About ten years ago, Michael Graves moved his expanding office practice there. Some eighteen years ago, his architectural practice consisted of two or three dedicated, bright, freelance kids, and Graves was practically out of work. Most of his commissions were for modest house additions, which earned him the sobriquet, "Cubist kitchen king" -- a nickname he later admitted publicly, with considerable pride and humor. This was the time Graves also began painting seriously. From these modest beginnings in small house additions and mural paintings, Graves eventually became what many have called the most influential designer in America -- not only in architecture but also in drawing, painting, furniture and artifacts. Graves not only designs, however; he has also emerged as one of the most versatile theorists and critics of the contemporary architectural scene. In the mid-1970s, he rejected the broadly accepted and widely practiced philosophy of modernism in architecture. Graves's "post-modernism conversion" became exemplary of an entire new movement. Is Graves a modern architect, a post-modern, a late modern, an eclectic, or a classicist? He would answer: I am just an architect. "I don't care what people call me," he says in response to the publicity; "labels have the negative value of making smaller boundaries for people" Ref.1. Graves makes analogies between architecture, poetry, and literature; speaks of the need for symbolic references in all those fields. Architecture has to do with myth and ritual, Graves insists. "I see architecture not as Gropius did, as a moral venture, as truth, but as invention, in the same way that poetry or music or painting is invention." Or, as he puts the point, "I don't believe in morality in architecture" Ref.2. Architecture understood as invention or as "social myth" must communicate with a culture, not treat itself or its clients like machines. Machines can do many things well, Graves intimates, but they cannot function in the world of the symbolic. And, in addition, machines are only expected to function well; they do not have to explain their function. Explanation is superfluous to a genuinely successful abstraction. Graves decided to create buildings that would avoid such a degree of abstraction. "The dialogue of architecture has been centered too long around the idea of truth," he observes. "It has made the language of architecture thinner, and poorer." What truth in architecture requires most of all, Graves feels, is literacy. Until the public can read it-just like the languages of literature or music -- there can be no real communication. "I am trying to reinstate the language of architecture," he says, bring back its nouns and verbs Ref.3. Rather than take its inspiration from the painterly, the technical, or the purely functional, post-modernism asks that we re-learn or re-activate the classical languages. "Figurative architecture" is architecture that speaks, makes itself accessible, and therefore permits us to participate in it without difficulty. But a price is paid for this accessibility. Some have argued that the logic of Graves's vocabulary is limited entirely to appearances. The distinction between structural and ornamental elements is often blurred; propped post-and-beam is structurally redundant, a "grammatical inconsistency." Such artifice is liable to misinterpretation. When audiences are taught to "read" appearances rather than construction, might not language itself be thrown into crisis? Graves defends this "inconsistency," however, as part of figurative architecture. "In any architecture," he contends, "there is an equity between the pragmatic function and the symbolic function." Alone, neither would suffice. "Like a good piece of music," Graves insists, architecture is "not all up front" Ref. 4. In other words, understanding involves creative work, the application of real imagination and metaphor, not just the deciphering of an embedded code. When asked about his architectural style, Graves has answered: "If I have a style, I am not aware of it." His is indeed a rich mix of styles: Cubism, Art Deco, Constructivism, Renaissance, Mannerism, as well as ancient Egyptian. "I have no requirements for a style of architecture," Graves explains, "I have a requirement for myself in making designations of elements. I need to have full language and I do not want the language to be only space" Ref.5. However, he is determined to bring back into architecture the concept of the room, with all its "anthropomorphic and psychic needs" given full expression, not just as enclosed space. Modernism was too successful in "stripping down" art. What we have now long demanded from painting and literature -- a broad emotional spectrum with which individuals can identify -- we must begin to demand again from architecture. The crucial thing about any language, verbal or spatial, remains the fact that people speak it. Re-appropriating a language of architecture thus means starting with the most basic needs: where is the door? What does the window look out on? What do I do in this room? But here a paradox presents itself. Graves has admitted that to the extent he has a style at all, he is "not working within the styles of the culture" Ref.6. What are the styles of American culture today? Perhaps they can be summed up in one value: "transitoriness." The sense that whatever you create will soon be outdated is what makes the culture modern. But buildings are not transitory things, they are statements in space that

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are built to endure. How can an architect make these buildings responsive, "readable," and yet not immediately dated in a culture where styles pass so quickly? Graves wishes to find a language for a culture that is losing it. That is, he tries to resurrect elements of a language and give them fresh "currency." One can never start from scratch or from abstractions, since living languages never work that way. One must concentrate on what is already present, but inarticulate; one must remind a given community that it does have a language, even if it is in bits and pieces. The central theme in Graves's architecture since the late 1970s has been the use of archetypal elements derived from the need for shelter and support (enclosure and structure). As with music and painting, the "modern" continues to be produced in many areas, but it is no longer mainstream. Any mainstream activity in architecture must make its primary task not to investigate pure form or relationship, but to restore literacy to "readers" and users of buildings. There are three basic categories of building in Graves's oeuvre: first, additions to existing structures; second, buildings especially challenged by the local or vernacular context; and third, buildings designed to "humanize the corporate world."

Adding on
Modest "additions" were featured early in Graves's career. They are still important today not only as architectural accomplishments in their own right but as an index to the degree and direction of Graves's subsequent growth as an architect and artist. One of these early projects, the Benacerraf House Addition in Princeton (1969), is especially instructive as an approach that Graves was soon to outgrow. The Benacerraf addition is rich in forms and in historical and painterly references~so rich, in fact, that the addition is almost impossible to "read," even by other trained architects. The Benacerraf project was conceived not only as an addition to an existing house, but also as a free-standing pavilion in the garden, a sort of "cubist folly." It gives the feeling of being a stage set, a theatrical prop where Graves tried to blend the real and the representational. The color symbolism of the addition was intended to interact with the natural world and its laws, thus forming a "metaphorical landscape." In this early work, we see Graves at his most abstract (although more recently the colors have been subdued at the request of the client). Concerning this addition, Robert A. M. Stern has said: "It is so complex in its modernity that it deprives the original house of all meaning" Ref. 7. Graves, however, has vigorously contested this criticism, insisting on juxtaposition as a valid strategy for achieving formal compatibility.

Challenging Context
Both juxtaposition and congruence seem to have been principles governing Graves's designs for the expansion of the Whitney Museum of American Art, begun in 1984. The addition, first proposed by Graves in 1981, was to adjoin the landmark building by Marcel Breuer, built in 1966. At an estimated projected cost of $37.5 million, the addition was to be ten stories high, the first major building for Graves in New York City and the most prestigious commission of his career. The most important challenge for Graves seemed to be how to integrate this new bulk -- not only his new addition adjacent to Breuer's extremely powerful modernist building, but also how to integrate both of them into the larger neighborhood. Graves chose to expand more horizontally than vertically, around and above the Breuer building, embracing it. In this way, Graves established a visual balance to the whole one-block-long composition, keeping the front the same height as the existing building and then stepping back the remaining mass and bridging the old and the new with a symmetrical volume furthest back from Madison Avenue. The "style" proposed by Graves for the Madison Avenue frontage is a very personal mixture of styles, evoking Egypt and Greece, Baroque and Renaissance England and France. As soon as Graves's first plan was revealed to the public, cries and controversy broke out. Architects in New York City were quick to circulate a petition denouncing the new design and asking for a recall. Graves himself remained stoic and tenacious vis-a-vis the critics, and ever more creative with his subsequent proposals. On several occasions he presented his design to the public, and took a great deal of hostile criticism very gracefully. No one in the profession could remain unaware of the raging controversy, which became the cause celebre of the decade. One of America's most controversial architects, Philip Johnson, was probably correct when he said to his younger colleague and protege: "Michael, from now on they're going to introduce you at cocktail parties as 'the Whitney architect.' It almost doesn't matter whether you build the building or not" Ref.8. Johnson, however, turned out to be very positive about the project: "It's a beautiful building.... Michael's been very sensitive to his predecessor. He has paid decent a respect" Ref.9. On the other side of the controversy, Constance Breuer, widow of the architect, has said that she would rather see her husband's building demolished than integrated into the expanded Whitney as proposed by Graves. Responding to this controversy, Graves has to date presented three designs. The first proposal (1985) was an artful integration of the Breuer building that gave the entire ensemble a feeling of architectural unity. Aware of the problems and public criticism facing approval of this first design, the trustees of the museum soon withdrew the proposed project, early in 1986.

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In 1987, a revised design for the Whitney was unveiled, very similar to the first but reduced in size by 24% and forty-seven feet shorter than the original 1985 proposal. The revised project had a smaller library, a smaller auditorium, and less space to serve museum administrative offices and rentable office space. (The price tag remained the same: $37.5 million.) But even this scaled-down proposal was by no means guaranteed; it too had to face a long review process. The longest aesthetic battle over a building addition in U.S. history was continuing while Graves was being assured of an international reputation. In December 1988, Graves presented a third proposal to the public. It contained approximately the same amount of space as the second proposal, but is aesthetically quite different from the earlier two attempts. Graves seems to have given up his strong imagery and potent symbolism. This time he proposed something simpler, far less personal and elaborate. The original Breuer building is no longer embraced, but remains intact; next to it Graves would add his own building, about the same size. This third and last attempt to date to scale down the Whitney addition demonstrates that in such a "battle of styles," there are no winners. Graves has managed to be more abstract, simpler, and more distant, but he does not attempt to imitate Breuer in any way. The third proposal clearly respects the modern master's presence and vocabulary -- regardless of how harsh this original building seemed to its own neighbors when built in 1966. In the end, what should be questioned or challenged is not Graves's ability to design, but the wisdom of those in the Whitney Board of Trustees who define the scope of such a large expansion at a critical urban location. From the architect of small house additions in the late 1960s and early 1970s in Princeton's modest residential lots, hardly visible to passersby, Graves has emerged to world prominence on Madison Avenue, elbowing Breuer's recently designated "landmark building." Criticism of Graves's proposed addition continues, even as he has continually softened his unique vocabulary of "surrogate forms" and architectural motifs such as rotundas, arcades, and pavilions. Ironically, Graves became obliged to make impossible contextual gestures toward a building which in 1966 made no gesture to reflect its own immediate environment at all. The question of context leads us to a second category of Gravesian buildings, those whose setting and environment create special challenges for the architect. Here two examples will suffice, illustrating two quite different problems: the Environmental Education Center in Liberty State Park (Jersey City, N.J.), and the Public Library in San Juan Capistrano, California. In Liberty State Park, more distant references were powerful -- the Statue of Liberty on her own island, and the southern tip of Manhattan Island -- but the immediate context was simply nonexistent. The building site was a large and empty lot, covered with wild brush and grass. At the time of its design (1980), the building was to stand alone in the wilderness. It was to serve as a "wildlife interpretive center" devoted to indoor environmental education through lectures, exhibitions and conferences. On the outside the building was to extend into the existing landscape through a path system interconnecting future pavilions. Graves sited the building in such a way as to respond to and to link these requirements for both internal and external "exhibits." The entry gate into the precinct serves as a sort of propylaeum between two pavilions. Within the courtyard, on the axis with the main door, a trellis is aligned leading toward the wildlife landscape and toward future pavilions yet to be built. While the landscaping and pavilions are only a "shadow context" at the present time, Graves has clearly conceived the ensemble, which can grow and expand over time while preserving its unity of place. Here Graves framed the most majestic images of the New World: the Statue of Liberty and the southern tip of what began as New Amsterdam and is now one of the world's most vital and powerful downtown districts. Graves was obliged to create the context, a bridge between an immediate "unworked" natural environment and a visually distant cultural and historical presence. While Liberty State Park had no immediate context to work with, the Public library at San Juan Capistrano had too much. The spirit of the prevailing "local vernacular architecture" in this small southern California town (located between Los Angeles and San Diego) is, if anything, "overcontextualized": local zoning ordinances often dictate a Spanish Mission style. In response to this powerful and mandated precedent, Graves organized his design around a courtyard that ties all the various activities together. The building shares a front door entry with a reconstructed stone church. The location of the building was carefully studied and placed not only to relate to its internal functions but to become part of a well-developed urban fabric. All the elements have been scaled down to the proper and relative size of this modest library, whose arrangement echoes an inward-looking Carthusian monastery in its plan. The conspicuously "human scale" of the library follows the design guidelines developed for the town by the firm of the well known architect, Charles Moore. The consulting architects' guidelines, which later became official, suggested the proper (and improper) variations on the "California Coastal Mission Style." The city ran a competition for the library, and the forty-two submissions were reduced to three finalists. Among the finalists were two other well known firms, Robert A. M. Stern and then Moore, Ruble, Yudell -- the very firm that had developed the guidelines for interpreting the proper and improper use of vernacular elements. Michael Graves won the competition because of his virtuoso ability to interpret the guidelines in a creative and poetic way. As built, the library was slightly modified and reduced in scale. But it remains a complex and picturesque ensemble, comprising 14,000 square feet distributed about sixty indoor spaces and organized by as many as twenty axes aiding the ritual of circulation and arrangement of large spaces without the frustration of feeling lost. Graves demonstrated how formal order, the classical tradition, and the mandated vernacular vocabulary of the Spanish

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mission could be brought together with various pre-Columbian and Mediterranean references to create an "anthropomorphic building" that makes its users feel both cultured and completely at home.

Humanizing the Corporate World

In the final group of buildings, Graves extends this "humanizing" impulse to the corporate world. Two of his most successful projects in this category are the Portland Municipal Office Building in Oregon (a low-budget public building) and, at the other financial extreme, the well funded corporate Humana Building in Louisville, Kentucky. In 1980, Graves at last got the opportunity to challenge the glass box, the abstract and prevailing symbol of the speculative office building and the modern corporate world. The public has always had difficulty relating to these buildings. In 1979, Johnson had become the first major figure in American architecture to provide an alternative with his headquarters for AT&T on Madison Avenue in New York City -- in fact, his client reputedly had explicitly stated: "not another glass box." One year later Graves took up a similar challenge. What he brought to the scene was a warmer, more whimsical, less pretentious and much less expensive solution. Like a classical column, Graves's building, too, had a base or feet, a middle or body, and an attic or "head" (as Graves likes to call these parts). But his budget was not as generous as AT&T's, and he had to beat competitive bids while at the same time bringing back the humanism of architecture, with its associative language. The fifteen-story Portland Municipal Building was Graves's first major building after more than a decade of small-scale residential buildings or additions, and many beautifully drawn and unrealized projects that were widely exhibited, published and praised. In addition to the classical tripartite subdivision, Graves introduced ornament, statuary, and color into the plans for his municipal office building. Graves's submission was both the most innovative and the least expensive: at the time of competition, 1981, under $52 per square foot. His building was also judged to be the most energy- efficient of the eleven final submissions. (It was also completed on schedule, and within its allocated budget of $22.4 million.) As completed in October 1982, the building gives the impression of some huge temple of antiquity: oversize pilasters rise seven stories high, on top of which a four-story lintel is placed. On the roof there was to be a village-like cluster of small buildings, a refreshing release from so many flat-top modernist buildings. Since 1% of a building budget is usually devoted to the cost of art, Graves specified "as a 'nature reference,' huge ornamental garlands" (made of fiber glass) "flying from the sides of the building and a female figure holding a trident over the front door" Ref.10. (Later during the design development these garlands and the sculpture entitled "Portlandia" were removed.) City ordinances required that all new buildings have fixed glass panes that were accessible to window-washing equipment traveling up and down the facade of the building; the tolerances are very small for this equipment (only ten inches) so the extravagant garlands, instead of being completely erased, were reduced to eight inches deep and made to look deeper by trompe-l'oeil illusion. Graves is actually responsible only for the exterior of the Portland building, and for the design of the public spaces on only two floors out of fifteen inside. The remaining part was given to a local architect, a fact which many later felt was a mistake. At the opening, the mayor of Portland said enthusiastically: "It will be our Eiffel Tower." And as in the case of the Eiffel Tower, the criticism and hostilities began even before the foundations for the building were laid. A well- known prize-winning architect, Pietro Belluschi, christened it "the juke box" Ref.11. Time magazine called the building a piece of "dangerous pop surrealism" Ref.12. Negative feature articles in the national press were balanced, however, by cautious praise from some of the country's most respected critics. Ada Louise Huxtable of the New York Times declared the Portland building the "Post-Modern Building of the Year" in 1980 Ref.13. Graves's next great corporate commission was the Humana Building. At 56,000 square feet, the building is about the same size as the Portland Office Building, but with twice the budget. Humana, a hospital management company, is best known around the world as the home of William Schroeder's pioneering heart transplant. In the international competition for its new headquarters, Graves was competing against Norman Foster, Cesar Pelli, Helmut Jahn, Ulrich Franzen and Richard Meier. The winner of such international commissions is usually given a certain amount of "design control." Often such competitions produce landmark structures: the Chicago Tribune Tower Competition of 1922, the Centre Pompidou of 1971, the Grande Arche Tete Defense of 1983. Humana's administrators felt the need to organize a competition in order not only to attract the best talent, but to guarantee a "landmark status" building. For Graves, this was a wonderful opportunity to establish respect and credibility at the higher level of the corporate worldfor corporate clients are usually reluctant to commit major funds for architectural "adventures." Here the executives of Humana showed great interest and sophistication in the design of their headquarters. Even in the final choice of architect, they did not seek the outside advice of an established and respected leader in the field, as is usually done (Johnson provided that service in the Portland commission). Graves was contracted to design both the exterior and the interior of the Humana Building, thus avoiding the incongruities of the Portland building. And, in an unusual step, Humana acted as its own contractors for about half of the building, and began construction immediately before the cost of materials rose. The budget was $60 million, or about $100 per square foot in 1985. In the Humana Building, Graves created a corporate skyscraper that had no historical precedent whatsoever. Twenty- seven stories high, the structure is in pale pink and rosy granite capped with what appears to be a small Greek

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temple. In its use of historical motifs and variations on a theme, it is quite unlike any other building except Graves's own Portland building. Like the Portland building and in keeping with Graves's "humanization" of architectural form, Humana is also divided into the classical tripartite elements: base, shaft, and capital. Although the building's parts can be described in the language of neoclassical architecture, Graves develops out of it a very personal vocabulary. Some might object to the metal truss near the top of the main body of the building, which is reminiscent of Russian Constructivism in its "scaffolding" metal aesthetic. Here Graves tried to make visual reference to the metal-truss bridges across the Ohio River, as well as to the bridge in the building's own vicinity. Humana is skillfully integrated into the site and streetscape of Louisville, a city without much distinctive architecture. It is hoped that Graves's elegant and dignified building will act as a catalyst for architectural awareness along Main Street with its "civilizing presence." There is general agreement that Humana is Graves's finest building to date. Where does a successful architect on the rise to world prominence go next? For a long time Graves has been designing many other things, not just buildings but furniture, artifacts, silver tea and coffee services, dinner plates, salt and pepper shakers, beds and lamps, rugs and stage curtains, storage and display cabinets, vases, fruit and sugar bowls, candy dishes and candlesticks, wrist-watches and bracelets, necklaces and cigarette boxes, award plaques and medals, desktop telephones and jewelry collections, posters and shopping bags.... Where does a great designer go next? To Disney World, to the new kingdom at EPCOT Center in Orlando, Florida, and eventually to EuroDisneyland near Paris. This new direction in Graves's career was not kids' stuff, not Goofy or Dumbo, Mickey or Pluto. It was a serious business proposition: a $375 million hotel and convention complex as part of Disney's new Florida expansion program to be developed over the next twenty years. Finally, here was a chance for Graves to put his whimsy and talent into entertainment architecture, to build buildings that will not only speak the common language of the people but "buildings that will make them smile." Two hotels in Florida opened in 1990 (Walt Disney World Dolphin and the Swan Hotel), and one outside Paris in 1992. The Dolphin is twenty-six stories high with 1510 rooms, easily recognizable because of its central pyramidal roof, a sort of artificial mountain visible from afar and adorned with two dolphins fifty-five feet high. Across the lake from the Dolphin Hotel will be the twelve-story, 760-room Swan Hotel, distinctive not so much because of its unique forms but because of its pair of 47-foot-tall swans and the whimsical waves painted on the exterior of the building. Graves has chosen the two classic symbols of water and warmth, and an expansion of his vocabulary into new and friendly bestiary forms that enrich the existing Disney animal kingdom. How appropriate they are to this adventurous entertainment empire, among the most successful of American corporations, cashing in on the childlike fantasy in all of us. REFERENCES Ref. 1: Diana G. Undercoffer, "An Interview with Michael Graves," Visual Merchandising & Store Design 114 (April 1983), p. 68D. Ref. 2: Hiroshi Watanabe, "Interview with Michael Graves," A + U no. 147 (December 1982), n. p. Ref. 3: Cynthia Saltzman, "Architect Michael Graves: Changing the Horizon," Wall Street Journal, 1 May 1981, p. 25. Ref. 4: Alexey Grigorieff, "An Interview with Michael Graves," The Princeton Journal: Landscape 2 (1985), p. 157. Ref. 5: Philip Smith, "Michael Graves: A Modern Architect," Arts Magazine 54 (April 1980), p. 148. Ref. 6: Smith, "Graves," p. 148. Ref. 7: "Five on Five," Architectural Forum 138 (May 1973), p. 47. Ref. 8: Carter Wiseman, "Why Is Everyone Talking About Michael Graves?, Saturday Review 9 (March 1982), p. 44. Ref. 9: Charlotte Curtis, "Drawing the Battle Lines," New York Times, 2 July 1985, p. C8. Ref. 10: Saltzman, "Michael Graves," p. 25. Ref. 11: Charles Jencks, Kings of Infinite Space: Frank Lloyd Wright and Michael Graves (London: Academy Editions, 1983), p. 87. Ref. 12: Wolf Von Eckardt, "A Pied Piper in Hobbit Land," Time 120 (23 August 1982), p. 62. Ref. 13: Michael McTwigan, "What is the Focus of Post-Modern Architecture?: An Interview with Michael Graves," American Artist 45 (December 1981), p. 8.

Editor's Note
A condensed and illustrated French-language version of this article has appeared in L'Information Immobiliere, no. 44 (printemps 1991), pp. 88-101. Copyright 1992 Ivan Zaknic

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17. Michelangelo: The troubled genius and his times

Stamford, Connecticut: 1995. Even a brief perusal of conferences for artists and art historians points to the growing interest among college and university instructors in incorporating multimedia experiences into curriculum and classroom settings. At the most recent College Art Association annual meeting in New York City in February 1997, there were no fewer than thirteen panels devoted to such issues as developing a pedagogy to accommodate new technologies, copyright issues in electronic media, and teaching on the Web. Faculty are recognizing the high level of computer skills students have attained by the time they reach college, and such sessions at professional conferences respond to this awareness. The positive side of this is that, as their instructors, we can expect a degree of competence on the part of students in traversing the Web in search of information. This very positive aspect, however, points to the downside of computer, more specifically internet, literacy -- with so many resources available in a format so much more inviting than their college libraries, how are distinctions made between what instructors consider valuable resources and a given home page on someone's favorite artist such as Michelangelo. Once upon a time it was possible for instructors to know the literature for assigned research topics; this is no longer the case as we discover unexpected, and unreviewed, electronic citations in our students' bibliographies. However, we cannot avoid the fact that our students are relying on their dorm computers to carry out research for term papers. One way to address students' uncritical dependence on internet research is to offer them what they are looking for, i.e. "fun" research, in another format, the CD-ROM. We have reached the technological ability to offer students an experience of works of art that is almost as good as being in front of the object. In addition to being fun, instructors have the ability to guide students to selected CD-ROMs, while discouraging students' reliance on less suitable resources. The two CD-ROMs considered here, "Michelangelo: The troubled genius and his times" and "The Renaissance of Florence," both offer spectacular images for study and teaching purposes along with an interactive format that allows individual users the freedom to work at their own pace. In terms of critical content, however, the two differ greatly, and should be directed to two very different audiences. Once "Michelangelo" has been installed, the first screen offers the following selections: Index, Gallery, Biography by Places, the Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, the Last Judgment, and Game. The Index offers a monograph of Michelangelo's works starting with his drawings, followed by a chronological listing from the Head of a Faun (after Michelangelo?, ca. 1489, Palazzo Vecchio) to the Porta Pia (1562-64, Rome). Highlighting any of these titles brings up in a second window a list of views, details, and studies, along with location and date; double-click on any of these for the relevant text and image. Characteristic is the account of Michelangelo's creation of the Roman church of Sta. Maria degli Angeli out of the ruins of the ancient Baths of Diocletian, a project which occupied the final years of the artist's life. This entry would benefit from a diagram of the Baths indicating the area developed by Michelangelo into the church. This is particularly the case because the text is careful to point out that "Michelangelo's design consisted of a roof with a groin vault over the main hall (originally the "tepidarium") ... He also adapted the old structures to their new functions as chapel, apses, and vestibules ..." For a building so dependent upon earlier foundations and walls, it is essential to see at least the outline of the original structure for a full appreciation of the architect's adaptation of what remained, as well as his contribution. One is left asking "What is known of Michelangelo's work at the church?" Indeed, two interior views are given and dated 1561-64, suggesting that the wildly ecstatic angels at the window over the crossing are Michelangelo's. The text explains that "the first stone was laid [in 1561] but work immediately slowed down and was soon halted altogether, with the result that it was not until the eighteenth century, following an intervention by Vanvitelli, that the church assumed its present appearance." The audience for whom this CD-ROM is intended may not know that Vanvitelli was an architect, and they may not distinguish the elaborate Rococo overlay of the interior as eighteenth century from the information given in the text. More is needed here to clarify the extent of Michelangelo's contribution. Similar criticism could be made of the entries on San Lorenzo, where a plan of the entire church would be useful since Michelangelo worked on the facade, the library, and the New Sacristy. The text points out that "the [New Sacristy] was to be constructed alongside Brunelleschi's Old Sacristy," so the physical relationship between these structures needs to be made apparent. There are entries on each of Michelangelo's projects at San Lorenzo with breathtaking interior views of the architecture and sculpture, as well as numerous details and sketches. In spite of this reviewer's criticism of what is included and what has been left out, the gaps provide for more conventional teaching formats, i.e. lecture with slides and discussion, thereby keeping the instructor and students in contact with one another. The Gallery is another way to access a selection of Michelangelo's works. Here material is presented in thumbnail images and presented in chronological order, making it easy to browse. Upon finding the desired work, the user clicks on the image for detail views, text,and an occasional video. For example, there are moving videos for the dome of St. Peter's and the Florentine Piet?; the quality of these videos varies depending on the capabilities of your computer. Other videos offered, for example the Doni Tondo, are spoken narratives with excellent still views of the work and related works, in this case Raphael's Doni Portraits. Such comparisons allow the viewer to appreciate not

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only Michelangelo's accomplishment as a young artist in Florence at the beginning of the sixteenth century, but something of the distinctive and dynamic artistic options available to patrons in this city. The Biography by Places opens with an interactive Early Modern map of Europe which allows one to access information on the Italian cities of Caprese, Michelangelo's birthplace, Florence, Bologna, and Rome, as well as entries on Europe. Choosing Caprese, for example, brings one to the options His birth, His childhood and youth, and The Portrait. His birth is a brief, but enlightening narrative that includes Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni, Michelanglo's father, noting the birth of his son, as well as an account of the astrological, Christian, and natural signs that occurred at the time of the birth as interpreted by Ascanio Condivi, Michelangelo's friend and biographer. These primary sources are accompanied by still views of Tuscan hill towns and vistas, Michelangelo's study of the Madonna and Child of ca. 1520-25 (Casa Buonarrotti), and works by Michelangelo's contemporaries (unfortunately unidentified) that add to anappreciation of the artist's lif e through a kind of "art as reflection of historical method," an approach much appreciated by general audiences and our undergraduates. At the conclusion of each narrative, the text appears. Here, one find words or names highlighted in red or blue. Clicking on Ascanio Condivi, in red, brings one to a brief account of Condivi's life, his relationship to Michelangelo, and the importance of his biography. Clicking on Rome, in blue, brings up Bellotto's Capriccio with Triumphal Arch (Galleria Nazionale, Parma), a fantastic view of Roman ruins; one is given the option here of enlarging this painting to full screen - an impressive view, indeed - but no further information on Bellotto is offered. These red and blue options are excellent references for the student of Michelangelo; it is, therefore, all the more unfortunate that they can only be accessed within these texts, and not through a dictionary or similar independent glossary. Offerings on the Sistine Ceiling and the Last Judgment may be the most popular, and perhaps the most timely. There are abundant images, both before and after conservation, of the Sistine Ceiling frescoes, in addition to an illustrated audio history of Michelangelo's project and descriptive texts on such topics as Michelangelo the Colorist, The Painted Architecture, and The Scaffolding. The Scaffolding includes the artist's caricature of himself painting the ceiling (ca. 1508-12, Casa Buonarrotti), but no view of the original scaffolding holes found by conservators in 1983 and used by them in the most recent and dramatic cleaning of the vault. The Last Judgment, unfortunately, is represented only by pre-conservation images, so it is impossible for the user to make comparisons between the two frescoes. The details of the Last Judgment are as good as can be expected, and allow for as close an examination of the dead, the demons, and the angelic crowds as one could wish to have. The audio portion of the Last Judgment is The Scandal, an account of sixteenth-century criticisms of the fresco. The chronology within the Biography by Places begins with the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and concludes with the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre of 1572, thus extending the historical context beyond Michelangelo's lifespan (1475-1564). This is a much welcomed outline because it allows for consideration of social, philosophical, and religious events which played such a significant role in Michelangelo's development as an individual and artist. The chronology encourages users to see Michelangelo's life and work within the context of the diaspora of Greek scholars after 1453 and the support of Neoplatonism at the Medici court where Michelangelo resided for a period around 1489 and 1490, and the Counter-Reform movement which gained momentum during the final years of the artist's life, and to which his late work, especially the Florence and Rondanini Piet?s, so powerfully respond. Although the narrative here does not state connections between the events of 1453 and 1572 and the work of Michelangelo, such connections are implied by the selection of these dates, and offer yet another occasion for class discussion about how Michelangelo is studied as a maker of history, and not merely a creator of objects that reflect a history. The Game will challenge even an expert's memory of Michelangelo's work. Three levels of difficulty offer the user an ejoyable opportunity to test her or his eye. The viewer chooses one of eleven works, sometimes only details; the selection is then presented on the screen as scrambled. The object of the game, of course, is for the player to unscramble the image within a period of time. To reduce one's frustration in piecing together the puzzle, one may click on the question mark at the lower right corner of the screen for a reminder of the work. For those of our students most adept at fighting galactic aliens, the Game may be an enticing introduction to the world of Renaissance art. In areas, the text needs revision and editing. Some problems may be the result of awkward translations from Italian into English, causing confusing suggestions, such as that Nicolo dell'Arca (ca. 1435-94), "had contacts with the late Gothic sculptor Claus Sluter" (active 1379-1405); given these artists' dates, the nature of these "contacts" needs clarification. There are other instances where typographical errors further confuse, such as referring to Bernardino Ochino, the Vicar General of the Capuchin order in the 1530s, as "Ferdinando Ochino." One wonders if the publisher brought the CD-ROM to the market too soon before the text was fully edited. Nonetheless, the text is admirable for a general overview of Michelangelo's work, and it is, after all, this work which will inspire viewers to go further in their study of the great artist. "Michelangelo: The troubled genius and his times" is an excellent value for the money; indeed, the cost of printing even half of the images in color would make a book affordable to few private purchasers, and even art history departments would balk at the expense. For example, the recent publication by Frederick Hartt, et al., The Sistine Chapel, A Glorious Restoration, costs $990.00. Available on this CD-ROM for careful study and comparison, however, are numerous views of the Ceiling frescoes, both before and after conservation. For $60.00, there is probably no better source for color images of the artist's work. In fact, as a resource for

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exceptionally fine reproductions of much of Michelanglo's work, this CD-ROM is sufficiently inexpensive to offer as "recommended reading" in any seminar on Michelangelo at the graduate or undergraduate level.

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18. The Renaissance of Florence: The Art and Architecture of Florence

Stamford, Connecticut: 1995. Upon opening the user is treated to a passage from the First Day of Boccaccio's The Decameron: "Here we shall hear the birds sing ... We shall see fresh green hills, and fields of corn undulating like the sea." While listening to this reading, our eyes feast upon spectacular views of Florence and the Tuscan countryside. After this short introduction, the user is brought to the Piazza Grande (the image is the edited piazza of Perugino's Christ Giving the Keys to St. Peter in the Sistine Chapel). Here, the user may select one of the following options: an Overview, History, The Arts, Epilogue, or Credits and Exit. Selecting History summons a narrative which presents a general discussion of why the Renaissance happened in Florence, and probably confirms most of our introductory lectures regarding the importance of urban centers, the investment of capital in the arts, and the use of arts for political propaganda. This is followed by the History Courtyard, where the backdrop is the architecture of Veronese's 1573 Feast in the House of Levi. Here, one may choose entries on The Woman, The Medici, or The Popes. The Woman opens with the comment "The Middle Ages had not been kind to women ..." explaining that girls learned to read only if they went into a convent, that the Church viewed women as "a suspicious source of lust and physical indulgence," and that "to the common man, women were little more than domestic property." These sweeping statements oversimplify what was, in fact, a complex period for women in western Europe. Nevertheless, it is important that there is a place here for some account of the history of women, although one could ask why Woman is so singular and universal, while Man is presented in his particular roles as statesman, warrior, patron of the arts, and religious leader. Throughout this narrative the user views works of art that contain representations of women, works which are here presented as art reflecting society. For example, the point is made that ancient Roman authors not only "[taught] the Florentines about art, [they] bestowed upon women a new sense of respect. . . The new attitude shows in the paintings of the period. [Fade to Fra Filippo Lippi's Madonna and Child of ca. 1455 in theUffizi] There is a new tenderness for women, without the shame and guilt that had ruled art for so long." The Woman concludes with a view of Raphael's Galatea, a curious choice for a CD-ROM on the art of quattrocento Renaissance Florence. The Galatea, a work of 1513, is very much a product of Raphael's Roman period; in fact, the fresco is in the Roman Villa Farnesina. Unforunately, Raphael's work is unidentified, but even without identification it would seem to be difficult to accept the muscular, even masculine, and barely draped body of the mythological nymph as analogous to the contemporary Renaissance Woman referred to in the text. Selecting The Arts brings the user to The Arts Courtyard, the setting is a variation of the background of Domenico Veneziano's St. Lucy's Altarpiece of ca. 1445-47. Here, one selects either Architecture, Painting or Sculpture. There is no general narrative introduction, as in History, but introductions are available within each section. Within Architecture, one is offered two options: an entry on the life of Brunelleschi and a Tour of major architectural monuments of the city. Brunelleschi opens with Giorgio Vasari speaking from his 1568 Life of Brunelleschi, as well as Vitruvius's comments on proportion. There is also a discussion of perspective, although the opportunity is missed to define perspective with the aid of computer generated imagery. One can imagine a grid superimposed over the arcade of the Ospedale degli Innocenti, and these morphing into a diagram of single-point perspective. The tour includes entries on the Duomo, Palazzo Vecchio, and San Lorenzo, for which there are videos, as well as the Ospedale degli Innocenti, the Baptistery, the Bargello, Sta. Croce, the Uffizi, and the Ponte Vecchio. The narratives are brief; for example, that for Sta. Croce states only that the church is the burial place for many artists, but does not refer to the frescoe by Giotto and his followers that were so influential on the art of Renaissance Florence. Sculpture and Painting are similarly organized with an overview, a catalogue of works, and brief entries on particular artists. The artists' entries usually include excerpts from Vasari's biography for evidence of Renaissance ideas, although these are unanalyzed. One may easily go to the text for each of these selections by clicking on the page fold at the lower right corner of the screen. Here, the text appears with some words highlighted in green; the viewer clicks on these words to hear this passage in its original Italian. It would, perhaps, be more useful if the Italian was given alongside the English in the text. The catalogue is the most useful in both Sculpture and Painting for it provides a full view and details (of fair or good quality) of numerous works by the artists. Each work is shown with the name of the artist, title, date, location, and source; details are projected for a few seconds only, and unfortunately cannot be stopped for careful study. By way of summary, the Epilogue points to the directions art will take in the sixteenth century in Italy. There are references here to how Venetian artists elaborated on the accomplishments of Florentine quattrocento artists by focussing on the "sensuous element of the new Renaissance style: the sfumato of da Vinci, the richness of fine cloth, the inner spirit of the Renaissance individual." Rome, it is stated, became the new center of art through the sense of the heroic instilled by Michelangelo. For the city of Florence, alas, the sixteenth century brought only "the end of a golden age ... What remained for the city was to remember and preserve." This sentimental notion is underscored by the final image - a view of Piazzale Michelangelo at sunset with the copy of Michelangelo's David overlooking the city of Florence. The Epilogue opens with Vasari stating "I have endeavored to distinguish between the good, the better, and the best ... to show people the sources and origins of various styles." This reviewer feels that, like Vasari,

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this CD-ROM has attempted to demonstrate the variety within quattrocento Florentine art. Also like Vasari is the bias towards Florentine art which, in the case of the CD-ROM, has resulted in the suggestion that all that was "good art" at this time was produced in Florence. Unlike Vasari, however, there is little here to elicit thoughts other than "How beautiful." A major shortcoming to "The Renaissance of Florence" is the fact that most images are nowhere identified, either by artist or by subject, not even under Credits, making this CD-ROM inadequate, at best, for the teaching of Renaissance art. Indeed, images are used solely for illustrative purposes, and are not always representative of Florentine art, as in the case of Raphael's Galatea. Although the user may find some images identified in the catalogues in The Arts, it is not easy to locate the work unless one knows the name of the artist. This raises the issue of for whom this CD-ROM was designed. The audience could, perhaps, be students in general humanities courses where a study of particular movements and works is secondary to getting a "feel" for a cultural milieu. Rather than an academic setting, this admittedly entertaining and certainly beautiful CD-ROM would be a excellent resource for an educated traveller making plans to visit an unfamiliar city and wanting to anticipate the treasures that await. There are important reasons to encourage art history departments to collect CD-ROMS as an integral part of supporting the visual resources in any art history program: the images are almost always superior to those available in texts or as slides, and these offer the possibility for students to experience something of the spatial qualities of sculpture and architecture. Finally, as students will be on their computers anyway, we should offer them the best resources available. Reviewed by Marjorie Och Mary Washington College

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19. Reconstituting the Vanished: Gender, Memory, and Place-Making in the Delta South
Text by Barbara Allen Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Digital Images by Lynda Frese University of Southwestern Louisiana Until recently, the photograph has been used by historians and curators as transparent proof of historical reality. As postmodernism has questioned the truth status of history, so has digitization challenged the evidentiary status of the photograph. This epistemological shift is amplified in writing women's/gender history where dual problems of what counts as evidence and what are the limits of interpretations arise. These histories may be revealed through the hybrid representation of text and image, not as an archival truth claim, but as a multi-layered construction of the past. The exhibition series Reconstituting the Vanished: Gender, Memory and Placemaking in the Delta South is a collaborative work. The photographer/artist, Lynda Frese, and I strive to mediate between the seemingly incommensurable realms of public understanding and theoretical rigor within a public history project about women's contributions to architecture and building. This series began with separate documentary exhibits examining the lives of two women using photographs and narrative to re-tell their story in a public display format. We used physical places as the common ground of these women's lives to avoid the agency/social construction debate; there is always interchange between the individual and their environment. Popular memory is easily recovered in both the material and idealized landscape for it is here that we can examine the way in which personal memories and public discourse are crystallized in a story or event.Ref. 1 We want to extend a new feminist reading of these women's pasts and the places they built to recover and reconstruct a new gender-inclusive public memory. Both women, Marie Thereze Coin-coin (1742-1816) and Micaela Antonia Almonester y Rojas Pontalba (17951874) left indelible marks upon the real and imaginary landscape of French-Spanish-American Louisiana. Born a slave, Marie Thereze Coin-coin became the mistress of a landed Frenchman in Spanish Louisiana. When she was forty-four years old, with fourteen children, he granted her freedom and gave her a small parcel of undeveloped land into which she built one of the largest plantations in northern Louisiana. Before her death she had purchased all of her children and grandchildren out of slavery and left a wealthy legacy to her descendants who remain in the region today. Micaela Pontalba (n?e Almonester), the only child of a wealthy Spanish government official in New Orleans, was married at the age of fifteen to her cousin living in France. Court documents and personal letters indicate that domestic abuse began almost immediately culminating [some twenty years later] in a physical attack that left her permanently maimed: her left lung and most of her left hand were destroyed. Shamed by Parisian society and denied access to her children, Micaela sailed to New Orleans to reclaim her father's property and to build within the old part of the city a development in the grand European style. Her legacy, the Pontalba Buildings and the transformation of Jackson Square, define the city's French Quarter style today. We began with personal accounts and local histories in order to examine the discourses and practices of everyday life and the intersections of the private sphere with public life. Both women have substantial built projects attributable to their visions and actions, yet have been conveniently dis-remembered by official narratives of the nation/state/region. The disintegration of public-private boundaries in our project is an attempt to reestablish women within the cultural landscapes of their time and commemorate them in current historical memory. The tension and conflict between pubic/private, myth/truth, memory/history became the productive moment in our project of reconstitution.Ref. 2 The political economy of memory and archival "fact" is important; cultural outsiders such as women and ethnic peoples have ample repositories of memories while at the same time possessing very little historic capital.Ref. 3 Memory is a continual layering, an accretion of places, stories, and events tying us to the past. Memory accommodates the facts that suit it. In outsider history, memory becomes a foil against the hegemonic tide of official interpretations. It may be softly focused or skewed. According to Pierre Nora while history is an analytical secular production process, memory references the sacred and the prosaic; the two, history and memory, form a complete pair.Ref. 4 History belongs to everyone and yet no one whereas memory is both plural and individual; history establishes temporal continuities whereas memory flourishes in spaces, places, images and objects of remembrance.Ref. 5 Our form of presentation is not linear; it did not have a traditional beginning, middle and end that tends to overdetermine meaning. Instead, the reader can begin at any point in the exhibit and thread a remarkable tale of both agency and social situatedness in the construction and memory of women's spaces in the Mississippi Delta as told through the textual, material, and oral traces found today. Documents, archives and photographs, current and historic, were used in our methodology as well as interviews with distant relatives and current community members. Louisiana has many traditions of conjure women, psychics, and seers, some of whom we interviewed as informants helping us to further interpret and utilize the textual traces that we found. Meaning and factual evidence were not granted equivalent weight in our project as the archive often represented what was important in dominant male culture. Instead, our

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methodology more closely resembled an anthropological 'reading' of the past giving authority to interviews, photographs, and spatial interpretations. What follows is a slightly edited version of the two completed women's history projects accompanied by the photo-texts. The captions after each photograph were not part of the original exhibit but illuminate the artifactual content of the digital photographs.

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20. Without Modernity: Japan's Challenging Modernization

Dana Buntrock, University of Illinois at Chicago Are Westernization and modernization interrelated? Is it possible for modernization to occur without modernity being present? The derivation of the latter pair of words suggests a close relationship, and for much of the twentieth century Westernization has been treated as an implicit factor in any modernization.Ref.1 I would argue, though, that this is not the case - that modernity is a construct which has certain attributes that are associated with Western culture but that are not necessary for modernization. Japan's industrialization, with its rapid shift from a politically isolated and feudal nation to the second largest economy in the world, demonstrates that neither Westernization nor modernity is necessary for modernization. It also suggests that modernization does not seem to foster the eventual development of modernity, even where the two are treated as complementary. Modernity refers to a set of related attributes that resulted from the Industrial Revolution and its social and economic ramifications. Because the Industrial Revolution was the result of technological advances, in modernity scientific and rational thought are valued and economic efficiencies are promoted. This emphasis on rational thought and abstraction means that conscious states are considered more important than subconscious states; aesthetic or intuitive ways of thinking are considered peripheral to development. Modernity is also tied to Christianity through the Weberian proposition that Calivinism promoted hard work and capital accumulation. This is not to claim that modern nations are Christian (although many of Japan's modernizers were also encouraged by American supporters to embrace Christianity) but only that Christianity was to have established a set of values which fostered modernity. In fact, under modernity, tradition is rejected in favor of progress; development away from all traditions, including religion, is treated positively. Additionally, although this point will not be addressed here, the political and economic shifts which accompanied the Industria. Revolution and led to democracy or the privileging of the individual were implicit in modernity. Modernization refers to technological advancement and so, on its surface, would seem to imply parallel developments to those seen during the Industrial Revolution in the West, especially as these technological developments generally lead to economic expansion and political change. A state of modernization can be said to exist when the country in question has arrived at a point comparable to the technological development of other leading nations - but it does not imply a cultural or political condition. Where industrialization is learned, rather than developed internally, many of the cultural attributes originally necessary in the Industrial Revolution do not emerge, or are freely adapted. Using this set of definitions, it can be argued that modernization and modernity, while they appear to be a tautology, can be isolated. Ironically, Japan proves this point through a complete disregard for many of the key concepts of modernity. The country did, however, deliberately set out to both modernize and Westernize. That it has successfully modernized, while having been unsuccessful in it attempts to Westernize, demonstrates where these issues diverge. While most of basic points of modernity simply do not apply to Japanese culture, the crucial differences in the field of architecture are probably the privileging of subconscious over rational thought and the acceptance of tradition in general, particularly religious traditions. As John Clammer states in an extensive discussion of the topic of modernity in Japan, "The concrete rather than the abstract, mundane detail rather than grand theory, the acceptance of the convergent and the fleeting rather than the permanent and the eternal... can be seen immediately in Japanese poetry, painting, architecture and even modern town planning."Ref.2 Moreover, the metanarrative of Christianity does not exist in a country where fewer than two percent of the population is Christian; in its place is a regard for nature although, as in the West, this may be honored more in the breach. But a close look at the architecture of Japan will make clear that many of the other traditions of Japanese architecture continue to be esteemed and are consciously referred to in the theoretic foundations of any of major architect.Ref.3 In contrast to Modernist architects from the West, architects in Japan may move comfortably between a contemporary palette and explicit references to earlier styles.Ref.4 In contrast with the issue of modernity, the integration of Westernization and modernization has a long history in Japan. So, as C.E. Black points out, while it would be preposterous to refer to the earliest modernization of England and France as "Westernization," the two terms are commonly linked in discussions of Japan.Ref.5 During the midnineteenth century modernization of Japan, referred to in the traditional calendar as the Meiji Era, leaders accepted that industrialization and Westernization were reciprocal and that both were necessary for development.Ref.6 In addition to actively promoting telegraph, lighthouse, and railroad construction, for example, the government also used Western buildings and institutions to advance its modernization program. Japan employed Western engineers to build the nation's infrastructure and Western architects to design offices, banks, universities, and schools; these specialists were collectively referred to as oyatoi.Ref.7 In more isolated areas, where Western architects were not present, indigenous carpenters attempted to reproduce the finishes and spatial characteristics of Western architecture, particularly in the construction of government offices and primary schools.Ref.8 The use of new forms of architecture in support of introduced institutions was widespread. In the period between 1869 and 1882, Japan established navy, telegraph, and postal systems based on the British forms of these institutions;

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an army, private schools, and police and judicial systems based on French typologies; and banking and agricultural college systems based on those found in the United States.Ref.9 These new civic and cultural institutions naturally required that they be housed in compatible structures; as such building types had already evolved with the institutions, the Japanese were quick to encourage oyatoi and their Japanese counterparts to utilize established typologies. The foreign architects and engineers produced barns, vocational classrooms, post offices, and railroad stations - to name only a few of the introduced building types - based upon their experiences at home. This construction program, which affected every community in the country, fostered major cultural shifts in that the conventional ways of inhabiting a space by sitting on the floor were no longer appropriate in these buildings. The Japanese - members of the elite in particular, as they were being schooled in Western-style buildings, visiting or working from Western-style governmental offices, and attending formal events in Western clubs and reception rooms - found that the architecture demanded they use Western furniture and dress in Western clothes and shoes.Ref.10 In fact, the government went so far as to pass an edit which required that all public servants wear Western clothing and children in schools wear uniforms styled in a Western manner. Furthermore, as part of Japan's "modernization" drive, The emperor also promoted Western customs such as eating meat and ballroom dancing, and academics seriously advocated the abandonment of the Japanese writing system in favor of the alphabet. Japanese leaders embraced this behavior as demonstrating that the country was achieving civilization by the standards of the international community. Cultural features of Western countries were advocated as a necessary part of the modernization process because Japan's leaders accepted the idea that there was a single model for modernization, and that the successfullyindustrialized countries of Europe and North America represented this model. Western countries reinforced these assumptions by judging Japan's progress based on cultural changes as well as on political and economic terms; it was suggested that only by achieving Western standards in all spheres would Japan be able to operate internationally as an equal to the nations of the West. In this regard, both sides were influenced by a primary tenet of modernity, the universality of any successful approach. This belief was not confined to the nineteenth century. Although Japan began to reject as inappropriate the wholesale adoption of Western customs as early as the end of the Meiji period in 1912, foreign academics studying Japan, referred to as the Modernization School, still argued for a universal model as late as the 1970s.Ref.11 To say, though, that the West is present in Japan is not necessarily to claim that Japan has Westernized. As one example, the early introduction of foreign architecture during the Meiji period has clearly altered Japanese construction practices. Western materials were rapidly adopted; first brick, and later concrete, were understood to offer a solution to the frequent and catastrophic fires which had plagued Japan's cities. However, even buildings designed by oyatoi were not entirely Western in their design and execution: roofs were often fabricated of local materials for reasons of economy, and the internal structure of most "Western" buildings was still very much a result of Japanese construction practices. The wall, with its Western appearance and its Japanese internal structure, offers a useful analogy for many other areas of Japanese culture. As Jean-Pierre Lehmann noted in an insightful book on outside interpretations of Japan, "There is considerable doubt and diversity of opinion among scholars today regarding the depth of Western penetration in Japan; in other words, while admitting changes on the surface, one may ask to what extent these changes were profoundly implanted..."Ref.12 The blending of traditional fabrication practices and Western materials technologies is in fact still evident today. Japanese carpentry, for instance, tended to rely on moment-resistant joints with prefabricated connections, allowing for rapid assembly on site. Now Japanese steel construction, using an introduced material, follows the same strategy. The structures of most urban buildings are assembled in a matter of days, using two- to three-story components with prefabricated moment-resistant joints, unlike site-based steel construction seen in the United States. The construction of a contemporary steel building at first appears to be Western because traditional Japanese spatial forms and materials are not evident and materials developed in the West are used. However, it is more accurate to say that Japanese practice advanced by creating a hybrid based on the materials technologies from the West and conventional construction practices. As in other areas of industrial and technological development, Japan already had an established and successful set of practices, but materials - or in other cases, technologies - which were first developed in the West were found to be more suitable then nation's needs. Therefore, while the West was emulated widely and freely, only selected aspects of Western culture were adopted. Previously unknown machines or materials need not be rediscovered; as Kenneth Pyle wrote in The Making of Modern Japan, "The steam engine did not have to be invented a second time."Ref.13 The cultural context which initially supported the Industrial Revolution in the West was also not necessary to this modernization; instead development could be managed by selecting those elements which appeared most useful. The adaptation of new systems might result in changes through the acceptance of Western elements, but did not immediately prevent Japanese conventions from being maintained in an adapted form. To assume that these adoptions signal a shift towards the originating culture is a mistake as the utilization of new institutions and new technologies does not necessarily indicate acceptance of the original cultural framework in which these systems developed.Ref.14 While at first glance Japan has very clearly incorporated many of the trappings of Western society, the continuing differences in Japanese forms are worth noting. The evolution of the railroad station in Japan, first introduced as part of Japan's modernization drive, has resulted in something quite different from the

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transportation centers of the West. Because private rail companies have actively developed the areas around their own stations, building department stores at central locations and housing communities in suburban areas, these areas have emerged as the focal points in Japan's urban life. For a long time, these differences were ascribed simply to a modernization/Westernization which was still incomplete. However, it is no longer appropriate to assume that further Westernization will occur as a result of increased economic or technological advances. After all, in economic terms Japan has surpassed many of the countries that were its original models. Instead, as one of the few nations to successfully initiate industrialization in the nineteenth century, Japan offers provocative evidence that modernization can be had on terms which are not those established by the original modernizers. Copyright 1996 by Dana Buntrock

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21. Interview with Daniel Libeskind

Christopher Langer Ulrike Steglich This interview was conducted on September 6th, 1995 at Libeskind's office in Berlin by Christopher Langer, who asked the questions in English, and Ullrike Steglich, who asked the questions in German, with responses in English. It was previously published both in scheinschlag #19/1995, an alternative newspaper, and in the weekly journal, Freitag #40/1995. Warum haben sie diese Ausstellung in Berlin gemacht? Was war das Motiv? (Why did you decide to create the design for this exhibition in Berlin? What was your motive?) Very simple. I was asked to do it and it is a very important topic, Moscow-Berlin, a topic that I have been affected by, since part of my family's fatality had to do with the Holocaust and part with the Gulag Archipelego. It's not just the decoration for an exhibition. Es sind also persoenliche Motive? (And personal motives?) Yes, the motive is certainly that such a relationship needs to be expressed in a certain way through exhibition design and that is why I made my suggestions to the Berlinische Galerie to alter the original concept. The original idea was that the center of the exhibit would be the Hitler and Stalin paintings: that was a very controversial and important element of the exhibit. But I thought that that should not really be centered and what should really be central to the understanding of the public was to be the exiles, the exile of Berliners in Moscow and the Russians in Berlin. If you ask for a motive, it is to express what I think is important about that relationship in Berlin and Moscow, for those artists and cultural figures who never had a chance in the future. Es ist interessant, da? die Kunstwerke hier relativ gleichberechtigt geh?ngt sind, sowohl die der Emigranten als auch die der herrschenden Kunst. Wie beurteilen sie diese Hoengung? (It is interesting to see that the works of art, whether they originate from emigrants or represent official art, are hung in a manner that gives them equal value. What is your opinion of this type of presentation?) The rest of the huge exhibition is just shown as a history of the first half of the twentieth century. The only interjection is a disruption of this history through these orginizing wedges, the red and the black, which, on both levels, alter the conception of that continuity. It is an interuption and a discontinuity and it is also a sign of how one might enter the central space in which there is really nothing. As opposed to having the center be the focal point of weight of the show. First of all, visually, there is nothing there: when you come in you only see the exterior of the history, and on the interior you don't have the same magnitude, you have a kind of emptiness, both formal and philosophical. It was noted quite often at the press conference and in the context of the exhibition that before you had created the architectural struture of the exhibition, they were at a bit of a loss as to how to successfully display this variety of works. Are you happy to take on the role of structuring an exhibition that is unstructured? No, it was not my job and I was kind of shocked at one point when I realized it. It is not enough to just have incredible paintings and works of art and important objects. I'm only an exhibition designer; I'm not an historian and I'm not responsible for the content, nor have I worked for five years on this exhibition. But it was clear that it was very difficult for them to agree on the shape it would have at the end. There is an incredible density of material in the rooms. I can only do a limited intervention to give a sign of an attitude to what one sees in all these rooms and how that might be reinterpreted by what one doesn't see in those rooms: those literary, documentary ideas which come to a closure in the wedge. Are you satisfied with the way it has been received ? I think it works. I think people are sort of stunned because it is a disruption of a certain kind. It is also a connection too, both formally and in a philosophical way. Too many of the critics do it in an aesthetic way, or because they see red wedges in Russian art. But there is more to red and black. I said this in the press conference: the quality of light on black and red is the definition of civilization. That is a quote from Mandelstam. It is the quality of light on those two colors that gives you the moment: that is what it really is. The kind of light that falls there is varied, depending on from where you have come, what you have seen, and how you have moved about the rest of the exhibit. I can't say whether I am happy or not. I think it does what I set out to do. Hat die Kunst,die dort ausgestellt ist , einfluss auf Ihrer architektonische Arbeit? (Does the art that is shown here have an influence on your architectural work?) I know the materials very intimately. Not as a historian, but I know them: I know the letters, I know the musical scores, I know the paintings and I know the graphic works. In a way I share an affinity with the works, of both the Russian and the Berlin works of the time. Of course, that is also the reason why I suggested not to concentrate on the art of the later thirties and not to make that into a polemic about the big ideological systems, but rather to show that it is not about ideological systems. It is about human beings who are trying to come out of closed ideological systems. Koennen sie konkreter beschreiben wie das in ihre Werke einfliesst? (Can you give us a concrete description of how this flows into your works?)

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I am the wrong person to say how it influences my work: it is best for someone else to say that. But I am certainly affected by it, in every way. Are there any specific works in this exhibition which are especially important to you? Yes, of course. How could you live without Tatlin, Lissitzky... I was only disappointed that some of the works I had expected to find weren't all there. The Letatlin, for example. That would have been really fantastic with the wedges. A bicycle for the proletarians to fly out of the whole exhibit through the roof of the Martin-Gropius-Bau. It is a veritable bank of spiritual and formal vocabularies that have not yet lived their lives out. That is part of the beauty of this material: none of it was ever built, none of it was ever realized, none of it ever succeeded. But that exactly has been its success. It was a mysterious penetration into the psyche and continues to be. So all these pseudo constructivist works are not the right inheritors of these materials. There will be different works where this will really be located. I couldn't say that for deconstructivism. If we look at contemporary Berlin, there are a number of different levels at which the city functions: on the level of architectural planning, but also on the level of politics. Architects like you are in a political context. How would you see or perceive you role in this exhibition: how would place this role in the context of contemporary Berlin, but also in the context of a Berlin that is developing? First of all, it is good to be asked, because when you don't have buildings, you do installations. But that is exactly what happenned to Lissitzky and Tatlin: they hardly did anything more than exhibitions, although the gap between their urbanistic visions and their buildings is that much more poignant and ironic, because they were given nothing more than exhibitions. I do exhibitions because I like it, I had the time to do it, because I have nothing really more to do in Berlin outside of one project which is being finished, the Jewish Museum. It is not just a filler; it is a temporary form, it goes up and comes down. But the images remain. One of the reasons I am not building so much here is because I do believe that architecture has a political role, although it is not politics. It is part of a political understanding of how a city develops and to my regret Berlin has been developing rather in a dull and not the most inspired way given its history and the kind of character the city has in the minds of those who love it, as I do, and in the minds of those who love what they see here: this kind of variety and tension on a world scale. Sie verteidigen Architektur als Baukunst. Wie definieren sie die Freir?ume, auf die sie sich berufen? (You defend architecture as "Baukunst" (the art of construction; as an art). How would you define the freedom within space, implicit in the concept of architecture as art, that you refer to?) It is not only architecture as an art, but also as a culture. Unless architecture is not just understood to be square meters to be developed, not just in a pure capitalist way of investment and return. It is seen as one of the necessary things for the survival of human beings, as spiritual beings. Without that you cannot really develop a good city. Perhaps the euphoria of development, of just building, is obliterating a large aspect of what is important in the city, which you see in the exhibition in both positive and negative ways. That brings it close to the people as they walk through the exhibit and think about the development that is going on around them, which might never hang in such an exhibit again, which might become some other development of which we are a part but which we don't understand. With this example of the Friedrichstr: what you see there are completed building that don't have their uses yet in a street that is completely empty. I am very sceptical about whether the community or the people living in the community or the residents of Berlin will be able to gain the space or make the space their own. Would you wager a critique on the Friedrichstr. and its development? We have very famous architects who are placing some very "important" works there. I think it's not so much about architecture. It's the attitude or culture of building and what it means in the greater context. I've been a critic of the buildings there and I'm tired of being in that role. It's Realpolitik, that is what is happening. I've said what I want to say about it, and I'd rather go on and say Berlin needs a new chance to have a public space that is interesting, that is not developed in a cynical way through formulas, but that is really adequate to the intelligence and aspirations of people who know the history of the city. That is not a secret; you don't have to go to a university to know about a city, you don't have to go to the Moscow-Berlin exhibition to know what the pulse and texture of the city is. You can see it everywhere, in the energy that the city possesses. It is also true that one can eliminate that energy, one can kill it, because it is very vulnerable and fragile. We can learn the lessons of history from other cities, how quickly it can disappear through acts which are not very sensitized to that dimension of public space that you are referring to when you speak of a street. It's easy to kill a street, but it's hard to get it back. Buildings are not like works of art: works of art can be taken off the walls and stored in museums, but buildings can not be put in storage. They are there for a long, long time. So you definitely build for the long term, or "Ewigkeit", so to speak. I think you have to. This is not like Tokyo. No, even when I build in Tokyo I'm not one of those architects that believes that architecture is just a commodity, a disposal item and you should calculate how much it costs to demolish it now because it's going to be demolished tomorrow. I'm not obsessed with technology and all these myths about the future being solved through technological intervention or building. I think one has to worry about what is fable in all this change that is taking place. I find it interesting in the exhibition Moscow-Berlin how you see through all the catastrophic instabilty also a

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stability of a relationship in a certain sad and poignant way which goes on across the gulags and the concentration camps. That is the stable part and that comes to a sort of zero-point in this exhibit. That is also true about the city: a city has a stability and one should worry about the stability rather than just discuss the rules of stability. Although when you are dealing with the situation that we have now, which is a new, but a very different "Gr?nderzeit", you have enormous surfaces in the city - especially in East Berlin - that are now free. Is a certain amount of control possible? desirable? in what context? When you have empty space, and you fill it, it doesn't mean that you eliminate the emptiness. You can fill the space and create more emptiness than you would have had by not building at all. It is how you deal with space. I'm working on a big project on the Landsberger Allee which offers an alternative view of public space, to how important pubilc space is. That, for example, streets are not just a grid of communications for cars and people to go as fast as possible from point A to point B. Streets are a part of the public space. That is what we own as citizens of a city: we own the streets. They belong to us, to the citizens. They are not just technical infrastructure to be laid out for business to succeed. I'm taking great care to redesign, in a completely new way - which is also a traditional way, ironically that the street belongs to people: what happens on a street, the shape of streets, the rhythm of streets, the time of streets. It is an artistic endeavor, a cultural endeavor. It is not a technical endeavor. Most people think of traffic as a technical thing, they forget that the streets belong to them. So they cross at the red light, for example, they are controlled by idiotic things, they don't see that the streets belong to them, the way they still do in China, or in primitive villages where people have command of their public space. I'm trying in my work on the Landsberger Allee to repossess as much space as possible and articulate it for public use. Of course one has to organize in a rational way modern business and industry and how they function, but it is really to bring the heterogeneous dimensions of the city and make it all work together as an interesting place to be. I am using much more of the history of the area, relying on the use by people over the last fifty years. It is not a tabula rasa, and that has been my point: nothing really is a tabula rasa. Even the revolution, as you see in Berlin-Moscow, can't really create a tabula rasa; there is always the outside of the wedge, or there is always the inside of the wedge, let us put it this way. Some work on the inside, some work on the outside. It strikes me that you are wavering along a definition between tradition, on the one hand, but also forms that are very extreme on the other. For example the Jewish Museum: it received a certain amount of critique because of the form, that it was slashed into the property. Bernhard Schneider, a well-known historian, wrote an article about how this is, urbanistically, the most traditional Berlin space. It was perhaps not my view, but all I want to say is that tradition and revolution are interrelated. Tradition, or belonging, and something new act together. You cannot have something new without being in a tradition. Part of the pathology of contemporary culture is the disconnection of these fields of experience. People think there is such a thing as tradition without the new, or they think there is something like avant-garde which destroys the past. This is a misunderstanding. There is a mutual reciprocity and a mutual need between freedom and belonging: these are the two categories. Freedom to breathe a new breath and see something new and to be able to do something else, and the need to belong, to have a place. I do not believe that these are exclusive categories. On the contrary, I would like to show in my work that these things are integrated and blurred together. Sie sagten vorhin Stabilit?t. Sie kritisieren die Architektur die rund um das Regierungsviertel usw. entsteht. Sie beklage diese pseudo Sicherheit. Ich denke, da? es auch sehr viel mit Angst zu tun hat. F?r mich ist es eine Architektur der Angst. (You mentioned stability earlier. You criticize the architecture that is being realized around the governmental district. You object to the false security being presented there. I have the sense that it has a lot to do with (Angst) fear. For me it is an architecture of fear.) I totally agree with you. The contemporary understanding of stability is phony. Building buildings that look like they are made out of stone doesn't make them stable. Making huge masses, regularly divided, and standing on quasi or pseudo traditional patterns doesn't make them any more believable. We see in history books and in this exhibition how these illusions work for about ten years and then it's over. If you really think of what these arcchitects and planners thought Moscow and Berlin were going to be designed along these models, you see how hollow the whole thing was. Between 1933 and 1945: that was the length of this whole thousand-year idea. But I think that normal people, who have some connection to the city, understand what is wrong with that. I think a lot of it is just anxiety. I hope that Berlin will come out of this period of anxiety and fear and parochialism and will embrace its authentic mission, which is that it is one of the great cities. Everbody knows it, and everyone is making bets on it in different ways. Maybe it was inevitable that such a period would come of closure, of regression, of retreat of small, administrative bureaucracy taking over cultural issues. How long it will last depends on so many factors. But I'm optimistic. So you are an active optimist. I'm always optimistic because look at those artists and architects in that show: can you believe how hard they worked just to lift their paintbrush after the NEP of Lenin and after Plotonoff's speeches about the end of indulgence? And somehow they still lived. A sad life, I'd have to say when I see those last works of Lissitzky which are completely subdued. He is virtually dead, mentally. It is sad. But the willingness to still put, even if it is dark brown or violet, on the canvas; the poignancy of it still has to do with the human spirit. Majakowsky committed suicide, and

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Jessenin and some of the Berlin artists too, but you can see that a majority of the artists still lived through some sort of a hope. If it exists in such dark times, then we should not complain at all. We should be happy and optimistic that this city has a great future. In producing works as an architect you become public property to a certain degree. If you allow it. It depends. You see how some of those artists and architects in the exhibition failed because they became spokesmen for political ideologies. Others succeeded through a different kind of failure, through a failure of printing their works, and some suffered death or were physically eliminated because they never became the mechanisms of ideology. That is what this exhibition is to me and what my installation is about: the closure and openness of the horizon and the fact that they flip-flop. What appears open is closed--the Rundgang, so to speak--and what appears closed is open, the sharpest point in the red and the black which you can't get into. That reversibility has to do with the relationship between political power, art, and culture. Art is the one thing that undermines and is completely free of being a political tool or being used as a political weapon. The whole exhibition really poses that question about the artists and these works, and what future do these have and what future does modernity have, nevermind those red and black and white spaces in this exhibit which are very coherently accessible. When architects just work and happily implement their plans and come into no conflicts with anybody, they should think about it. They are in trouble. Aber ich denke, da? Kunst ebenso wie politische Macht an Menschen vorbeigehen kann, sie ignorieren kann. Mich w?rde interessieren, wen meinen Sie, wenn Sie bauen? F?r wen bauen Sie? (I believe that art as well as political power can completely ignore people. I would be interested to hear who you have in mind when you create a building. For whom do you build?) I have to say, I have thought about that. I think every building is addressed to someone, who is not here. It is not addressed like a poem or a work of art. They are never done for the people in the exhibition going around and looking at the works. Look at those works: they are addressed to someone unborn. Every building that is good is not addressed to the public, that they walk around and find themselves to be comfortable. It is addressed to those who are unborn, in both senses: of the past and in the future. I think that is who they address and that is what makes them important. To that extent, every human being is really unborn. And if a building or a work of art is good, it might actually bring to life a dimension that was not there before, something that was not yet clear or not yet articulated, that was only potentially there. Good buildings do that all the time, good cities. People suddenly discover possibilities that they had other than before they were in those cities. They offer a different kind of freedom. That is who it is addressed to. It's never addressed to some politicians or some developer or some lobby groups, even if they are on your side. Copyright 1996 by Christopher Langer and Ulrike Steglich

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22. A Survey of Sustainability Curriculum Development in Schools of Architecture

Terri Meyer Boake University of Waterloo BACKGROUND: If passive and active solar design are considered to be principal co-contributors to achieving sustainable development, how are these issues being addressed in the current curriculum? Not all students will be able to have the opportunity to experience Sustainable Centers such as the YMCA Camp or Center for Regenerative Studies. Are schools of architecture responding to the recognized need to address issues of sustainability in courses and design projects? I am in the process of completing a Survey of Sustainability and Passive Design teaching in Schools of Architecture in the United States and Canada.(Ref.1) The data will provide a snapshot of the current status of sustainable and passive design(Ref.2) teaching in architectural schools -- whether or not these topics are being taught, to what extent and via which means. Preliminary data is based on 68 responses representing 53 schools of architecture in the United States and Canada.(Ref.3) Respondents are typically teachers of Environmental Control Systems and Building Technology. Although the results of the Survey are not complete for the publication of this article, I will include some preliminary information at this point in time. The complete documentation is expected to be published in the Spring of 1996. INTRODUCTION: A breath of freshness is currently revitalizing architectural education in Canada and the United States. The focus of architectural curricula is beginning to look outward and beyond formal issues of "style". Recognition of the impact of Architecture and Urban Development on our dwindling supply of natural resources for both construction as well as embodied(Ref. 4) and operating energy(Ref. 5) has necessitated a restructuring of the curriculum to focus on issues of sustainability and passive design, not merely as appended "technical" topics, but as conceptually directive considerations in the formation of environmentally conscious design. Such courses are being offered on both a core and an elective basis, as well as the primary focus of design studios. Research and development in the field is beginning to recognize a new "Sustainable Vernacular". Although there seems to be much abuzz regarding the teaching of sustainability to students of architecture, the current state of this teaching is not clearly defined. In an effort to understand the present condition of sustainable education, I am conducting a United States - Canada (Ref. 6) Survey on the influence of "Sustainability and Passive Design"(Ref. 7) on curricular content and direction in schools of architecture. The purpose of this paper is to present a snapshot of the current status of passive and sustainable teaching; address issues in approach related to "regionality" -on both a geographic and climatic basis; and review preferred teaching resource packages, texts, videos and software. Respondents are typically teachers of Environmental Control Systems and Building Technology.(Figure 5) Delinquent surveys are being pursued in an effort to more thoroughly complete the database to allow for an accurate geographic analysis. This version of the paper reflects the September 95 status of the analysis. The original survey established questions based on four areas of concern: A. General: The overall status of sustainable and passive design teaching in the school and the perception of impending change with regard to this status. B. Sustainable Design: More definitive information regarding actual numbers of courses being taught and the format of that teaching. C. Passive Design: More definitive information regarding actual numbers of courses being taught and the format of that teaching. D. Support Material: A bibliography of recommended texts and references, videos, software and resource packages for teaching, as well as information regarding computer platform preferences. Based on feedback from the first survey, as well as some particular questions arising from issues raised at the American Solar Energy Society's Passive Design Conference in July 1995, an Addendum Survey addresses: E. a) Active versus Passive Design: Definitive information regarding the teaching of active systems, photovoltaics and wind power. b) Is Passive Design Considered an Aspect of Sustainable Design: Question arising from original feedback. ANALYSIS OF RESPONSES: A. General Questions Although passive solar design may be characterized as an aspect of sustainable design, the survey specifically requests separate responses to the topics of "Sustainable Design Teaching" and "Passive Design Teaching."(Ref.8) Whereas passive design teaching has been increasingly incorporated into the curriculum since the energy crisis of the mid 1970's, specific sustainability courses would seem to have been more recently implemented in accord with current

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environmental concerns -- the majority after the meeting of the World Commission of the Environment on Development in 1987. The results of the survey support the notion that passive design teaching has been more firmly established in schools. Data indicates that passive design teaching is solidly established in the majority of schools with 78% of respondents recording the topic addressed either to a "great or moderate extent". The same respondents noted the teaching of Sustainability to a "great or moderate extent" in only 54% of the cases. (Figure 1) When queried as to the school's intention to expand teaching in the area of sustainable design, 54% of respondents noted anticipated or planned curriculum expansion.(Figure 3) This direction of action is supported by the incidence of dedicated committees to either sustainable or passive design curriculum/research at schools. As can be seen in Figure 2, a higher proportion of schools report new committee activity in the area of sustainable design. When queried as to intentions to expand teaching in the area of passive design, only 29% of respondents answered affirmatively, (some adding notes to the effect that they felt that their current passive course offerings were significant and not in need of expansion). B. Curriculum Materials: Relevant, current, comprehensible curriculum materials are essential to teaching. The survey queried recommendations based on self compiled course notes, text, video and software references and teaching resources. An excellent source of "self compiled" curriculum materials is the Society of Building Science Educators reference library. Members contribute copies of their course materials, course outlines, project handouts and slides. These are available for free use to members who need only pay for copying and shipping charges. A superb list of references, authored and edited by knowledgeable educators, is available through the Secretary Treasurer of the SBSE.(Ref. 9) A large number of survey respondents are members of the SBSE whose specific teaching and research interest focuses on passive and sustainable design teaching. The top texts used to teach passive, and the passive aspects of sustainable design are, in order: 1 Sun, Wind and Light by G.Z. Brown and Virginia Cartwright 2 Climatic Building Design by Don Watson and Kenneth Labs 3 Design with Climate by Victor Olgyay 4 Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings by Guinness, Stein and Reynolds 5 InsideOut by G.Z. Brown and Bruce Haglund 6 Environmental Control Systems by Fuller Moore 7 Heating, Cooling and Lighting by Norbert Lechner There was no consensus or direction evident in the choice of readings to teach sustainable design. The majority of texts were mentioned once only. The most significant list of readings on sustainable design was submitted by Robert Pena and John Reynolds at the University of Oregon. Energy and passive design software has seen some exciting additions in the last several years. The most popular program by far is Energy Scheming 2.0 (Macintosh) by G.Z. Brown of the University of Oregon. The second two most popular programs come from UCLA for DOS platforms, Climate Consultant and SOLAR 5.3. These were developed by Professor Murray Milne. Several new programs were released this year and show great promise. "Spreadsheets for Architects", a book and disk combination from Van Nostrand Reinhold by Leonard Bachman and David Thaddeus allows for easy add on of Lotus 1,2,3 for sun angle calculations (amongst other functions). Energy-10 (Windows), authored by Douglas Balcomb was issued for Beta-testing at the Passive Solar Energy Conference in July 1995. The program allows for complete energy analysis and design modifications for major building types based on TMY data. Ener-Win (Windows), by Larry O. Degelman of Texas A&M University was issued for beta testing at the SBSE Training Session in August 1995. This program looks at whole building energy performance with simulation and prediction for retrofits. The use of videos in courses appears to be quite limited. Very few titles were submitted in the surveys. The University of Florida has published a series of six videos on "Sustainable Construction" as part of the conference proceedings of the Sustainability Conference held there is 1994. San Luis Video has released three videos on Sustainable Architecture, Landscape and Environments which are well done and provide students with a well rounded introductory look at sustainability. The AIA release, "Case Studies in Sustainable Design" appears to be well received. Perhaps the most interesting teaching resource initiative comes from the University of California at Berkeley, Cris Benton, Project Investigator, in association with the Pacific Gas and Electric, The Energy Foundation and the U.S. Department of Energy, and the Society of Building Science Educators. Under the title "Vital Signs", a series of twelve energy and passive design teaching resource packages are being developed for wide distribution to schools of architecture in the United States and Canada. Seven resource packages were launched in August 1995: HVAC Systems and Components by Walter Grondzik (Florida A&M University); Health in the Built Environment by Tang Lee (University of Calgary); Whole Building Energy Use by Larry Degelman (Texas A&M University); Glazing Performance by Michael Utzinger (University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee); Interior Illuminance, Daylight Control and Occupant Response by Marc Schiler (University of Southern California); Dynamics of Solar Heat Gain Through Windows by Scott Johnston (Miami University); and, Measurement and Display of Thermal Performance of Buildings by Murray Milne (UCLA). All of the packages address theory, field protocols for various levels of student experience, assignments and additional references. Most also include software programs. The resource packages offer

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instructors in passive and sustainable design an opportunity to add depth and hands on exercises to their current curriculum. For more information, Vital Signs has a home page on the Web.(Ref. 10) A series of questions was posed which queried instructors as to their preferences for types of computer programs (Figure 8), preferred computer platforms (Figure 9) and preferred mathematical units (Figure 10). These figures will be of value to faculty in the process of developing software and texts to teach sustainable and passive design. Through the fall months I will be analyzing results on a geographic and climatic basis. I am working from the supposition that passive design as part of the architectural design and technology curriculum receives more attention in hot-arid and hot-humid climates. Indeed a response from the University of Arizona stated, "living in the desert, as we do, there is no choice but to teach passive design!". Preliminary results support this hypothesis, indicating an increased activity level in Arizona, California and Oregon -- with the exception of the large number offerings at the University of Manitoba. It is my intention to illustrate the analysis in map form, examining response degrees geographically and climatically, by category. Based on the mapping of data from Questions 1 and 2, "Does your existing curriculum address issues of sustainable / Passive Design?", a geographic tendency can be visualized.(Figures 11 & 12) For sustainable design, the incidence of "great" and "moderate" responses is significantly higher in the west and south than elsewhere in the country. For passive design, the incidence of "great" is significantly higher in the west, filling in with "moderate" in the remainder of the west and south and extending northward, but with notably little attention to the topic in the northeast. CONCLUSION: THE ULTIMATE QUESTION... It is critically important that schools of architecture increase the amount and depth of teaching of passive and sustainable design. It is intended that the research content and analysis of this paper provide a better understanding of the current status of what is or is not being taught in schools of architecture as well as serving as a source for faculty who desire to expand passive and sustainable teaching, or who are searching for resources, means and contacts to revitalize existing courses. Much hesitation in curriculum development is due to a lack of knowledge of what "others are teaching". It is hoped that the dissemination of the findings of this survey will assist in filling that void. POST SCRIPT: I feel that the results of the Survey are encouraging, but would by no means indicate that passive and sustainable design teaching is adequately and evenly addressed in the majority of schools of architecture in Canada and the United States. It is worrisome that passive and sustainable design curriculum content appears to be either "elective" or marginally addressed in over half of the schools. I have appended a copy of the "Survey." I am interested in collecting significantly more complete data. Please feel free to fillout and return. Copyright 1995 by Terri Meyer Boake REFERENCES Ref. 1 "A Survey of Sustainability Curriculum Development in Schools of Architecture" has been distributed to professors of ECS and Building Construction. To date there have been responses from 60 professors representing 50 schools of architecture in Canada and the United States. Ref. 2 In this instance active design strategies are included under the umbrella of passive solar teaching. The survey does not at this point attempt to single out the teaching of active systems. I am in the process of issuing an addendum question to separate active versus passive teaching. Ref. 3These schools are: Arizona State University, Auburn University, Cal Poly, California College of Arts and Crafts, Carlton University, College of DuPage, Florida A&M University, Kansas State University, Kent State University, Laval University, Louisiana State University, Miami Dade Community College, MIT, Montana State University, New Jersey Institute of Technology, North Carolina State University, Oklahoma State University, Rensselaer Polytechnic University, Roger Williams University, Savannah College of Art and Design, Sonoma State University, Stevens State School of Technology, Technical University of Nova Scotia, Texas A&M University, University of Arizona, University of Calgary, University of California, University of California at Berkeley, University of Cincinatti, University of Florida, University of Hawaii at Manoa, University of Houston, University of Idaho, University of Manitoba, University of Minnesota, University of Nevada at Las Vegas, University of Northern Iowa, University of Oregon, University of Southern California, University of Tennessee, University of Texas at Arlington, University of Toronto, University of Waterloo, USC, Virginia Tech, Washington State University, Washington University, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Widya Kartika University (Indonesia), Yale University Ref. 4 Young and Wright Architects, Toronto. The Environmental Impact of Building Materials. "The embodied energy of buildings care present up to 30 years of operating energy..." Ref. 5Vital Signs Curriculum Materials Project. "...(buildings) account for more than one third of national energy use and over sixty percent of national energy consumption." Ref. 6 "A Survey of Sustainability Curriculum Development in Schools of Architecture" has been distributed to professors of Environmental Control Studies and Building Construction. To date there have been responses from 68 professors representing 53 schools of architecture in Canada and the United States. This project is completely self initiated and self funded.

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Ref. 7 In this instance active design strategies are included under the umbrella of passive solar teaching. The survey does not at this point attempt to single out the teaching of active systems. I am in the process of issuing an addendum question to separate active versus passive teaching. Ref. 8General Questions (June 1995): Does the existing curriculum at your school address issues of sustainable design? Responses: 7% to a great extent; 47% to a moderate extent; 41% very little; 5% not at all. Does the existing curriculum at your school address issues of passive design? Responses: 15% to a great extent; 60% to a moderate extent; 20% very little; 2% not at all. Ref. 9 Society of Building Science Educators. For more information, contact Professor Leonard Bachman, College of Architecture, University of Houston, Houston, Texas 77204-4431, <lbachman@uh.edu> Ref. 10 The Vital Signs Project. Contact Cris Benton at <cris@ced.berkeley.edu> Ref. 11The results of the survey were presented at the ACSA Construction and Materials Institute at Roger Williams Univerisity, July 1994. An article on the results was published in the Fall 1994 Issue of "Connector".

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23. Defining Sustainable Architecture

Jack A. Kremers Kent State University ABSTRACT The term "Sustainable architecture," used to describe the movement associated with environmentally conscious architectural design, has created ambivalence and confusion. An examination of the meaning of "sustainable" identifies why this occurs. The popular interpretation of the words "sustainable architecture" describes an approach to architectural design that minimizes sustenance or resource consumption so as to prolong the availability of natural resources. However, the definition of "sustainable" does not imply a minimization of sustenance. "Sustainable" simply expresses the fact that resources do maintain our environment. The second law of thermodynamics explains that depletion of resources is inevitable in maintaining any environment. Sustainable architecture describes the fact that we receive what we need from the universe. This realization compels us to respond with care or stewardship in the use of those resources. Sustainable architecture, then, is a response to an awareness and not a prescriptive formula for survival. INTRODUCTION One of the sessions in the July 1995 International Solar Energy Society's Twentieth National Passive Solar Conference in Minneapolis, Minnesota was a panel forum discussing "The Problem with Sustainability." Among the panelists were Professor Robert Koester, Ball State University School of Architecture, Professor Richard Levine, University of Kentucky and Kenneth Haggard, Architect, San Luis Obispo Sustainability Group. In the audience was Steven Strong, President of Solar Design Associates and author of the Solar Electric Home. Their comments and contributions have been central to the ideas and discussion included in this issue of Architronic . I have tried to capture their informal thoughts and discussion in various ways as a means of focusing on the concept of sustainable architecture. Ref. 1 Kenneth Haggard pointed out that "Sustainability" is a term that represents the social and cultural shift in the world order, patterns and styles of living. It is another step in the process wherein society has moved from a nomadic hunting order, to an agricultural order, to an industrial order and is currently moving to an information based order. "Sustainability" has become a buzzword or symbol describing this inevitable, ongoing transition. As such, the term "sustainability" has little to do with the dictionary, literal definition of the word, but is the name for a new attitude and way of looking at the world. In addition to this mismatch between the literal meaning and the concept, Ken pointed out two additional problems with the term "sustainability." One, the term tends to communicate that expectations for material qualities in our lives must be decreased it represents mere survival at the expense of improved quality of life. This is a marked contrast with the perceived reality of those within the sustainable architecture movement. Sustainability represents to them a transition from a period of deterioration of the natural environment (as represented by the industrial revolution and the associated urban environments generated by the industrial revolution) to a more humane and natural environment. We see improvement and increased quality in our local communities. A second problem according to Ken is that "sustainability" is a "soft" term when used in this context. It is lacking in definition and without parameters as to meaning. It has created confusion in the minds of those who must be won over to the idea. It may mean something to those who already have a vision of this approach to architecture, but it is very unclear to those who are trying to understand and consider the implications and expressions of this approach. Related to the nebulous quality of the term "sustainable" in this context is that some proponents of sustainability feel that we really can create environments that consume less than they produce. As the second law of thermodynamics illustrates, this is impossible. Steven Strong stated, "The term is intellectually dishonest. We, as a society, do not know how to build sustainable architecture." Dick Levine went further and stated that the term "sustainable architecture is an oxymoron". The term "sustainable," as popularly understood, is inadequate and, consequently, it is a negative influence toward the real goals of the sustainable architecture movement. First and foremost, it is a negative concept. The aim of architecture is to improve our quality of life and environment. The intention of architecture is not to save resources but to reorder them to better serve people. In the context of that priority, the issue is, how do we do that? THE MEANING OF SUSTAINABILITY Some relevant definitionsRef. 2 are: "Sustain": To support, to keep alive, to keep going continuously. "Sustenance": Process of sustaining life or the food itself, nourishment. "Sustainable": An adjective describing an object to which is given support, relief, nourishment, or supplied with sustenance and thus continuously kept alive or prolonged. "Environment": Surroundings, especially those affecting people's lives.

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"Entropy": A measure of the disorder of the molecules in substances, etc. that are mixed or in contact with each other, indicating the amount of energy that (although it still exists) is not available for use because it has become more evenly distributed instead of being concentrated The Second Law of Thermodynamics: "In any energy conversion , you will end up with less useable energy than you start because of the inevitable loss of heat that occurs."Ref. 3 The literal interpretation of the words "sustainable environment" is the creation of an environment for human occupation, performance and the support of life to which sustenance or nourishment is continuously given. That is the definition used in this article. The term "sustainable" does not express the minimization of the expenditure of those resources necessary for the prolongation of the life. The term does define the fact that no humanly created environment can survive without the contributions of the larger natural environment or ecological systems. Previous to the use of the term "sustainable architecture," the term "solar architecture" expressed the architectural concept of the reduction of the consumption of natural resources and fuels. The intent was that we could conserve our fuel resources through the immediate capture of the available solar energy through appropriate building design. The evolution of the development of this design approach has brought us to the current and broader concept of "sustainable architecture." This term describes those who take up the banner for an energy and ecologically conscious approach to the design of the built environment. In so doing, it has broadened the scope of issues involved. Unfortunately, because of the confusion of the literal meaning of the term, it has also hampered the communication about this approach to architecture. The second law of thermodynamics tells us that we cannot create environmental order as architecture without ultimately extracting energy and resources from other systems. The end-product is a closed system of increased order but only at the expense of other systems within the universe. The net result, by the principle of the second law, is a decrease in order or an increase in entropy. A sustainable environment is an entity that owes its existence to the consumption of the natural resources and order that surround it. If an environment physically exists, it is being sustained. It is impossible to have a non-sustainable environment. The Rocky Mountain Institute defines sustainability as "meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."Ref. 4 We will run out of resources at some point in time but we seek to delay that point for as long as possible. Implicit in this definition is the hope that if we delay long enough, we may be able to learn how to defeat the second law and new technologies will reverse what now appears to be a continual process to an inevitable end. A similar interpretation is that we treat the natural resources available to us as capital and seek to live off only the interest or produced resources of nature. It would mean that we would consume less through the products of our creative efforts than nature produces through the natural cycles. As appealing as these definitions sound, the second law of thermodynamics tells us that they are fundamentally flawed. The reality is that we are beholding to the universe that surrounds us for our survival, the existence of life and the opportunity to express ourselves creatively. We do create order and an increase in resources for human fulfillment through our architecture. It is what Ian McHarg describes as "negentropy."Ref. 5 Sustainable architecture describes the fact that we can only exist and create with the availability of natural resources. Those resources are the foundation of our world. Sustainable architecture proclaims this fact to the world. It is a celebration that we are, that we create and that resources are available to do this. It is easy at this point to dismiss the whole argument of the impact of entropy on the creative process. There are the scale differences of the size of the universe as compared to our small efforts on the face of planet earth. There is the amount of potential energy available compared to the annual operating energies of our built environments. The amount of time evidenced by the life of the universe vs. the life of mankind really make the whole concern regarding entropy irrelevant to our survival. These arguments are the arguments of those not convinced of the significance of sustainable architecture. The artist states that our priority as a human being is to express ourselves and continually say things in new and different ways. Resources are for consumption. Sustainability refers to the adjustments that we must make as we exhaust one form and use another in its place. On the other hand materialists make economic productivity and physical comfort and welfare the priority of life. It is the argument of Capitalism and Communism alike. Consumption is what motivates us. The earth's resources exist for our consumption. Adaptation occurs based upon the laws of supply and demand. Both of these approaches offer opportunities to contribute to the goals of the popular understanding of sustainable architecture. The artistic approach contributes based upon the concept of continually seeking new forms and means of expression. In a time of social and cultural change, the artist is in the forefront. In the end, new architecture is about sustainability. The reality of the finites of energy and resources and the resulting deterioration and destruction of our natural environment clearly has significant impact upon our cultures and lifestyles. The logical conclusion is that we must address the issues of sustainability in our architecture. We need a long term view, not the fulfillment of immediate physical satisfaction. Both artistic and economic points of view have significant roles to play in the development of sustainable architecture. APPROPRIATE USE OF THE TERM "SUSTAINABILITY"

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Sustainability refers to a process and an attitude or viewpoint. In Europe, as charactarized by Levine, sustainability is a process wherein responsible consumption, so as to minimize waste and interact in balanced ways with natural environments and cycles, is practiced. He discusses "The Charter of European Cities and Towns Towards Sustainability " in terms of process: The purpose of the (Charter) was to formulate a program and process whose comprehensive nature would balance the desires and activities of human kind within the integrity and carrying capacity of nature. [Instead of a wish list of idealized conditions, principles and processes were defined] which real cities could adopt to achieve a stable, long term relationship within the limits of their local and global environment. It represents a process document. It presents a complete and coherent theory for the realization of the sustainable city. It also describes a politically workable, economically feasible process through which the balance-seeking process of sustainability may be actualized.Ref. 6 What becomes evident in reviewing Levine's work in the Center for Sustainable Cities and the European Charter is that much good can be and is being accomplished. It is being done under the banner of sustainability by those who choose to take up its call. The accomplishments are not so much in achievement of perfect environments as it is in consciousness raising and defining appropriate, effective steps and actions. Sustainable architecture is also a response and an expression of celebration of our existence and respect for the world around us. The human environment is what is being sustained by the resources of the natural universe. We recognize that we cannot create, we cannot live or survive without the use of the resources of the universe and we are filled with awe and respect. A sense of sacredness attaches itself to those resources. The response is the concept best expressed in the term "stewardship." From a naturalist's point of view, Ian McHarg states: We may now be quite sure, that as men we depend upon the sun, the major elements and compounds, water, the chloroplast and the decomposers. With this new conviction we now turn to the sun and say, "Shine that we may live." When we do these things, and say these things with understanding, we have crossed into another realm - leaving behind the simple innocence of ignorance. We can see the world more clearly now, our allies and ourselves. We have formulated a rudimentary value system and we are further on the path to the formulation of a workman's code, the view of the good steward.Ref. 7 Whereas Ian McHarg looks inward, Richard HawksleyRef. 8 looks beyond the immediate environment to the source of the created order.This religious expression sees the universe as a gift from a super-natural creator. Sustainable architecture as a description of human response is an offering of thanksgiving and honor to the author of the supporting resources. And the universe is not only a supportive system, it is also a model for how we are to create. If nothing else, the concept of a sustainable environment should cause us to recognize our situation. Somehow, just as we create new environments with increased order, a Creator put in place an order which today sustains us. CONCLUSION Although the term "Sustainable Architecure" communicates slightly different meanings to various audiences, nevertheles it serves as a rallying point for creating greater concern about the built environment and its long term viability. Rather than signalling a return to subsistence living, sustainability means an increase in quality and standard of living. This will not be achieved by ignoring the reality of the second law of thermodynamics -- instead the key to sustainable architecture is recognizing our position as temporary tewards of our environment. The better we as architects understand and implement our stewardship of the built environment, the greater the quality life we, and future generations, will enjoy. Copyright 1995 by Jack Kremers REFERENCES Ref. 1: Teaching Syllabus, unpublished manuscript, Robert Koester, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana. Kenneth Haggard was kind enough to forward his written thoughts to me and I have taken the liberty of extracting them as a basis to begin this discussion. Professor Levine's and Steven Strong's thoughts are included below. Ref. 2: E. Ehrlich, S. Flexner, G. Carruth, and J. Hawkins, Oxford American Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 1980. Ref. 3: B.J. Nebel, Environmental Science: The Way the World Works, third edition, Prentice Hall, 1990. Ref. 4: D. Barnett and W. Browning, A Primer on Sustainable Building, Rocky Mountain Institute, 1995. Ref. 5: I. McHarg, Design with Nature, Wiley, 1992. Ref. 6: R. Levine, "The Charter of European Cities and Towns Towards Sustainability", Proceedings of the Twentieth National Passive Solar Conference, ASES, 1995. Ref. 7: Ibid., McHarg. Ref. 8: Richard Hawksley, "Settlements of Shalom, A Chirstian Confessional Concept of Community," Masters of Architecture Thesis, Kent State University, 1986.

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24. Unity Temple: Frank Lloyd Wright and Architecture for Liberal Religion
Joseph M. Siry New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996, 365 pp., 150 illustrations (Hardback) $75.00 ISBN 0-521-49542-3. A linked pair of concrete blocks are carefully composed of a rich layering of austere vertical planes, cantilevered slabs, with windows placed high, recessed behind geometrically decorated piers. To any passerby of Unity Temple when it was finished in 1908 on a prominent street in the Chicago suburb of Oak Park, Illinois, it was a building that did not fit easily into any tradition. Its material, forms and architectural language did not seem familiar to the common typologies of the suburban church. Even to visitors some ninety years after its construction, it is a building that gives one a very long pause: a religious structure of great audacity, but one of supreme logic and lyricism. It is truly one of the most extraordinary of Frank Lloyd Wright's buildings during one of his most precocious periods, 1900-1909, a decade one could argue that Wright was the most radical and advanced "modern" architect in the world. Unity Temple is one of the pivotal buildings in world architecture for which every last detail is worth knowing. Joseph M. Siry, Associate Professor of Art History at Wesleyan University, has a proclivity for in-depth studies of single buildings, most notably his book Carson Pirie Scott: Louis Sullivan and the Chicago Department Store (1988). He has now turned his attention to Wright's Unity Temple. His new book incorporates material that he has previously published in articles in The Art Bulletin (June 1991) and the Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians (September 1991). Siry is an architectural historian who clearly relishes primary research: finding every possible source related to his building and putting together the most accurate account of a building's conception, construction, and reception. He does not take the conventional interpretations of a building for granted, but places them under the scrutiny of a fresh examination of all the evidence. His research for Unity Temple is expansive, meticulous, and even at times obsessive; there are 84 pages of notes for the book's 250 pages of text. Even the notes make a good read for a dedicated Wrightophile as one sees the obscure sources that Siry plumbed, along with his often fascinating digressions on issues that did not make it into the text. There is only one source that this reviewer found overlooked in Siry's bibliography: David M. Sokol, "The Role of Women and the Influence of Universalist and Unitarian Feminist Thought on the Design of Frank Lloyd Wright's Unity Temple," Southeastern College Art Conference Review 12, no. 2 (1992): 87-93 (Sokol's article is even a partial critique of Siry's Art Bulletin article). Siry's book has been exquisitely produced and edited. This reviewer did not come across a single factual error and found only one typo, a rarity these days. One of Siry's most important scholarly contributions is exploring the liberal religious background that lies behind Unity Temple. Conventional modern architectural histories tend to emphasize Unity Temple's abstraction, functionalism, and experimental use of concrete. All of these remain major considerations in interpreting the building. However, Siry begins, where one should begin, with the basic fact that Unity Temple was built for a congregation of Universalists and Unitarians. This becomes more intriguing when Siry considers the religious background of Wright's family. Frank Lloyd Wright was the son of a preacher and the nephew of Rev. Jenkin Lloyd Jones. A powerful figure in Chicago's Unitarian community, Jones worked with the architect Joseph L. Silsbee to create unconventional homelike structures for All Souls Church in Chicago (1886) and Unity Chapel near Spring Green, Wisconsin (1886). Siry traces how Jones's building projects culminated with the austere block of the Abraham Lincoln Center in Chicago, a new home for his congregation that had withdrawn from the Unitarian denomination because Jones thought it was too constricting. The uncle turned to his nephew and between 1898 and 1903 Frank Lloyd Wright, in association with Dwight L. Perkins, presented several designs for the center. The uncle was as strong willed as young Frank. When the building was finally built 1903-05, Perkins was the sole "constructing architect" since Wright had had enough of his uncle. Nonetheless, as Siry shows, the conception of especially the auditorium of the Abraham Lincoln Center, seems to be almost a dress rehearsal of many of the essentials ideas for Unity Temple. Wright was not designing in a modernist vacuum, but attempting to respond to the constant criticisms and ideals of his uncle's conception of an appropriate auditorium for liberal religion. Siry includes such pithy quotes from Jones criticizing his nephew's preliminary designs as: "`Do not be fooled by your window gardening, for we are not in Italy. . . . In wintertime those ledges will simply catch snow drifts and form icicles to stain the walls below and crack them.'" (p. 41) In a wonderful exercise in local history that has international implications, Siry carefully examines the religious landscape of Oak Park. Unity Temple was constructed during a building boom of protestant churches in Oak Park. Siry plots the significance of Unity's move to a corner lot at Lake Street and Kenilworth Avenue in relation to the other churches and public buildings in Oak Park. The predecessor to Wright's Unity Temple was the traditional Gothic Revival Old Unity Church (1872) which burnt down in 1905 when its soaring spire was struck by lightning. Siry's research has even disclosed that the spires of Oak Park churches were often hit by lightning at this time (Wright, always one to respond to nature, then builds a flat topped church--one [lesser] explanation). Another major contribution of Siry's book is his thoughtful and multi-faceted examination of the genesis of Wright's design, particularly the choice of a cubic auditorium rather than a traditional longitudinal design with spire. Once more a strong religious figure eloquently stated his ideas about liberal religious space for which Wright found a progressive architectural expression Rev. Rodney Johonnot played a key role in the building of the new church and his pronouncements at this time seem echoed in Wright's later account of Unity Temple in his autobiography.

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Johonnot stated in 1906: "`Without tower or spire it expresses the spirit of the ideal. By its form it expresses the thought, inherent in the liberal faith, that God should not be sought in the sky, but on earth among the children of men.'" (p. 77) For such an overtly original building as Unity Temple, Siry establishes a convincing series of antecedents that are plausibly sublimated within Wright's design, from New England meeting houses to an Adler and Sullivan synagogue to seventeenth-century mausolea that Wright visited in Nikko, Japan in 1905. A central idea that Siry presents is that Unitarians and Universalists often did not build conventional churches during the nineteenth century; one only needs to look at such landmarks as Maximilian Godefroy's cubic First Unitarian Church in Baltimore (1817-18). Suffice it to say that a square auditorium with galleries was an established type for liberal religions in America. Wright was chosen as the architect in September 1905 and presented his first designs that December. A design was accepted in March 1906, construction began that May, but the building was not completed until October 1908 (dedicated September 1909). The minutiae of design changes and the evolution of the plans are expertly chronicled by Siry, including an instructive analysis of Wright's unit system of design. One of the most compelling sections of a monograph on a single building is usually the section on the actual construction of the building, where paper dreams collide with reality. One of the high points of this book is Siry' examination of the reinforced concrete structure. Wright was truly experimenting as he was trying to come to terms with this material both structurally and aesthetically. In fact, he had twenty different test panels made to choose the appropriate external finish for the building. He finally settled on concrete with "an aggregate of finely screened bird's-eye gravel of neutral color" that was treated with an acidic wash after it was poured to expose the aggregate (p. 145). Although concrete was chosen for its economy, the final building cost nearly twice the contracted price. Another fascinating episode during construction is that the famous decorative scheme of the auditorium with its painted planes, wood bands, and lighting fixtures, all creating a rich three-dimensional plasticity through rectilinear patterns, was being rethought and enriched right up to the last year of construction by Wright. Unlike some monographs on single buildings, Siry's book is not just a building history and description, but also an interpretation of the building. The final chapters examine Unity Temple within a broader discussion of religious architecture and modernity. The concept of "temple" is explored particularly in relation to Japanese, Mayan, and ancient Greek architecture. Siry's conclusions (as throughout the book) tend to be stated in spare and precise sentences: "Thus Unity Temple exhibited a resonance with primitive types, yet transcended such models to signify its cultural present." (p. 212) Sometimes, lengthy discussions of other buildings (such as Olbrich's Secession Building, 1898, in Vienna) do not move far from an exercise in comparison and contrast. Siry's discussion of "Unity Temple and the Prairie School" is curiously brief and unsatisfying--more of a story could have been told. His section on "Dutch Responses" dwells on Robert van't Hoff's Henny villa at Huis ter Heide (1916-18) and he concludes that this "villa was the first European building to reflect the influence of Unity Temple." (p. 232) Siry fails to mention Wright's unbuilt project for "A Fireproof House for $5000" published in the Ladies' Home Journal (April 1907) and the Wasmuth folio (1910); this concrete house project is more directly the source for the Dutch villa than Unity Temple. The most interesting section at the end of the book explores Wright's changing interpretations of Unity Temple after 1925, where the architectural conception of space becomes more prominent. At times Wright seems to be trying to repackage his earlier works so that they are more prophetic of the modernism of the 1920s and 30s. Particularly poignant is a black ink drawing of Unity Temple that Wright had one of his apprentices draw in 1929 (Fig. 148); when compared with a 1906 rendering (Fig. 81, probably by Marion Mahony) from a similar vantage point the differences are dramatic. In the 1906 rendering Unity Temple's finely drawn masses are surrounded by trees and sprouting vegetation from its planters, while the 1929 drawing makes the building more dynamic and reduces it to stark planes of black and white devoid of a natural context--Mendelsohn has replaced the Japanese print (p. 238) Siry's book concludes with an Appendix on the "Care and Restoration of Unity Temple from 1909" where one learns that the resurfacing of the building's exterior and repainting of the interior have altered one's perceptions of the original building over the years (Although what one sees today is much more accurate than what one saw a few decades ago). As with any book, more could have been examined. This particular reviewer would have liked to have seen more of a discussion of the issue of "monumentality." In photographs, Unity Temple appears to be one of the most monumental of twentieth-century buildings, but upon visiting, one is struck at how humanly it is scaled. Yet, concrete introduces the issue of a lack of scale, since one has dispensed with such tradition modules of visual measurement as the brick in a brick wall. Unity Temple shares with the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 one essential issue, a longing to create instant monuments in the seemingly instant city of Chicago and its suburbs. Another issue that could have received deeper analysis was the interior decoration of the auditorium in relation to the broader issue of geometric abstraction in the visual arts of the twentieth century. Even today when one is in the auditorium of Unity Temple it is hard to fathom that this is 1908. For such a carefully crafted book one is surprised to see that there is not an extensive historiographic study of the changing interpretations by critics and historians of Unity Temple over the past nine decades. was also left guessing as to how Unity Temple fits into the broader development of concrete buildings at the beginning of the twentieth century. Nonetheless, these criticisms are like throwing bird's-eye gravel against a reinforced concrete wall.

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Joseph Siry is an exceptional architectural historian and this is a superior book. The topics that he has chosen to examine in his study of Unity Temple are thoughtfully conceived and rigorously researched. The illustrations are a visual feast, including drawings and photographs from various archives, particularly the Frank Lloyd Wright Archives of the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, as well as including many period illustrations from such diverse publications as Cement World. and the annuals of the All Souls Church In recent years there has been quite a trend towards monographic studies of single Wright buildings. Siry's book is one of the best and will make a worthy bookend to Jack Quinan's Frank Lloyd Wright's Larkin Building: Myth and Fact (1987). Joseph Siry has written a book that is a model of scholarship as he unravels the story of one of Frank Lloyd Wright's most important creations: Unity Temple. Reviewed by Craig Zabel, The Pennsylvania State University

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25. Miscelaneous
Andrzej Piotrowski, Minneapolis

Architectural Structures of Memory

This essay outlines the theoretical premises and the methodology of my research aimed at integrating photography and computer graphics in architecture. I developed what I call photographic mapping to represent how a building creates the sequences of interrelated experiences that structure our perception of this buildings symbolic reality. In this essay, I will use two particular images as the backdrop for the discussion of their compositions and the ideas embodied in them. Though I am going to focus here on the part of my research that deals with the new digital modes of depicting existing architecture, this essay needs to be seen as an integral part of my current project concerning the history and theory of representation in architecture, based on the assumption that digital technologies should be explored in the broader context of architectural significatory practices. Nana Pernod, Zrich

Open System
Theory and methodology of an open system: how to look at phjs architectural work: a learning process for a general renewing/ constructing of a methodlogy and theory of contemporary architectural criticism The following text shows that Sokals and Bricmonts Fashionalble Nonsense (Picador 1998) is of value in reference to contemporary architectural criticism too, where nowadays someone finds a kind of discussion comparable to a tropic jungle. The example of architectural criticism dealing with the work of the american architect phj shows this fact very clearly. There would be a good medicin herfore: a theoretical and methodological framework to be established especially for architectural criticism as a starting point to have a valuable professional discussion in this area. The following text offers a suggestion for an establishing of such a framework taking the architectural work of Philip Johnson as a showing example. Angeli Janhsen-Vukicevic, Bochum

Gottfried Bhm's pilgrimage church in Neviges

Gottfried Bhm projected his pilgrimage church in Neviges (consecrated 1968) starting from the buildings he found in the small city. For example he repeated the inclination of the roofs of the surrounding houses with parallel lines in the roof of the church. The outer shape of the church then determinates ist inner space. The church building orders binds ans crystallizes the assemblation of houses that was grown accidentally with repetations of this kind. The text discusses problems, of liturgy, of kontextbezogenes Bauen", of picturesque, of perspective, of expressionism and abstract art. So it elucidates the experience that is possible with this building - with this special relationship between house of God und houses of men - as a model of the relationship between God and man. Anette Sommer, Cottbus

Mega Malls on their way! Democracy as burden or chance?

Shopping Malls, increasingly in combination with Amusement Parks, are not only a North American phenomenon anymore, but recently became part of the everyday life in Germany as well. In intellectual and professional discussions, of course, these phenomenons at the peripheries of our cities are heavily critized. Yet they increasingly influence the public and urban life and become the new city centres in private ownership. The inner city, traditionally connected with political, social and cultural public space, is trying to fight back and survive. Analyzing the so far biggest Mega Mall, the West Edmonton Mall in Canada, it will be discussed, whether the longing for vital inner cities today eventually must be considered obsolete and outdated, or rather truely progressive. Tom Hanchett, Cornell

Talking Shopping Center

Most Americans assume that their nation's glut of suburban shopping centers results from "what consumers want". In fact, a considerable amount of construction came as the result of tax breaks offered by the United States government beginning in 1954 and peaking in the early 1980s. That construction has had profound effects on the quality of life for all Americans. Elizabeth Birmingham, Ames (Iowa)

Reframing the Ruins: Pruitt-Igoe, Structural Racism, and African American Rhetoric as a Space for Cultural Critique

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Charles Jencks dates the death of high-modernism to the moment in July 1972 when the first three buildings of St. Louiss infamous Pruitt-Igoe housing complex were dynamited. Pruitt-Igoes failure is since then noted and remembered as an architectural failure a design flaw, wrought upon the unsophisticated poor by well-meaning intellectuals. What issues are not discussed in this myth are issues of race the over 10 000 residents of Pruitt- Igoe were 98% African American and issues of poverty these residents wetre the poorest of the poor. Though Pruitt-Igoe was a physical structure, in this paper it acts as a metaphor for structural racism a structure that deepened pre-existing chasms standing between African-Americans and cultural identity, political power and education/economic opportunity because its premises and encoded messages were inscribed with the unquestioned assumptions of structural racism. I will examine Pruitt-Igoe not as a symbol of the failure of modernism, but as a possibility for re-reading and writing urban texts in ways that can provide a critique of structural racism and the ways in which architectural systems (like other social systems) can reinforce it. Anders Linde-Laursen, Lund

Solvang: A Historical Anthropological Illumination of an Ethnicized Space

In this paper, I discuss relations between place and access to identity formation. I do so from research carried out in Solvang, California (called "The Danish Capital of America"). In 1911, the founders of Solvang deliberately tried to insert Danish social institutions into an American context. While Danish language and institutions after the Second World War faded, public space was completely re-organized. Today, Solvang is a tourist town, which center consists of presumed architectural signifiers of Denmark. I discuss how social relations form space in Solvang and how space form social relations for three groups: white towndwellers, visitors from the region, and local "Mexicans". In particular, I discuss the last group. While a growing local population of "Mexicans" working on the backstage is crucial to the local tourist economy, it is, at the same time, excluded twofold from local place. "Mexicans" are not allowed any representation in the dominating narrative about the town's history, nor do they possess any visibility in public space. Jurij Nikitin, Sankt Petersburg

From Leningrad to St. Petersburg. 30 years of city development.

This article mainly deals with the reconstruction of the historically valuable city ensemble of St. Petersburg and its important buildings as well as with the construction of modern architecture. A short historical introduction concerning this famous citys problems of city development will be given followed by an outline of its recent struggles. The main focus will be on St. Petersburgs natural geographic and social political challenges with their inherent problems. Michael Haerdter, Berlin

The Myth of the Centre

A retrospective on 200 years of Modernism, documented by the example of one of its capital cities: Berlin. Modern times start off with the Enlightenment toward the end of the eighteenth century, meaning a radical rupture with the past. In a conservative view it stands for "a gigantic inner catastrophe" (Hans Sedlmayr). This provokes numerous countermovements. The trend toward permanent change is opposed by holding on to conventinal values. The dissolving of genuine traditions is answered by artificial reconstructions. The real loss of the centre, of a binding measure, is countered by its invention: the legend, the myth of the centre. This essay analyzes and documents Modernism torn by inner and outer conflicts by a number of examples, not least by the ups and downs of the unusual german capital city. Will Berlin find its way out of the dead-end of the modern "either-or" into a new humane, urban dimension of the "and", of openness and synthesis? Ilse Helbrecht, Mnchen

The Creative Metropolis - Services, Symbols and Spaces

Creative services (i.e. graphic design, advertising, interior design) are a specific subsegment of producer services. They operate at the center of the symbolic economy and take on the role of cultural mediators and tastemakers for trends, lifestyles, and identities of the new middle class. Thus, creative services play a crucial role in the construction and transmission of messages about the meaning of consumption. The geography of creative services is clearly linked to metropolitan areas and herein concentrated in inner city locations. This paper looks at the relationship between the cultural/economic production of images and signs, and the urban imaginary of the imageproducers. The meaning of an inner city location for creative service firms is often constructed around the myth of the inner city as a cradle of creativity. Based on in-depth interviews in Vancouver I would like to discuss how the focus on images, signs, and creativity at the workplace intermingles with the production of a distinct urban imaginary: the creative metropolis".

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Petra Stojanik, Stuttgart

Eileen Gray or unconstrained living

Eileen Gray is one of the few women representatives of classical Modernism. Above all she caused a sensation with her extravagant furniture and interior designs. Despite apparant affinities to "new spirit" furniture and fittings, originality characterizes her designs. What makes Gray's concepts for living different from those of her avant-garde colleagues? What was the role of the user of her spaces? Gray's interior designs neither follow the traditional pattern of merging furniture and space into a homogeneous, integral whole, nor can they be categorized amongst the standardized, out-of-context furnishings. Rather, through a combination of original prototypes and built-in furniture specially coordinated with the space and the architecture, she succeeded in creating unique designs which were both appropriated to their task and situation and aimed at ensuring the user's independence and privacy. Hans Friesen, Cottbus

From Modernity to Postmodernity - A Genealogic Approach to 20th Century Architecture

This article is based on a talk, given in October 1997 at the State University for Architecture and Civil Engineering in St. Petersburg. The focus is on the development of architecture during the 20th century with the primarily aim to explain the terms of Modernity and Postmodernity. Postmodernity is described as a relational term, being related to Modernity, although defining itself by demarcation. Thus there exist many references between Modernity and Postmodernity, which lead to a critical discussion based on a genealogic view. Pavel I. Loshakov, Sankt Petersburg

Pulsating Architectural Environment - Philosophy and Form

We can discover the presence of pulsating components - objects and associations of objects, that are changeing their functional and spatial parameters (e.g. according to the season, etc.) - in the architectural environment of different historical ages. Such kind of changes are reversible: pulsating objects are returning cyclically to the initial state after a range of phases of transformation. It compels us to elaborate adequate means (medias) of their formal expression - a scenario of mutable composition, that signifies an expansion of our conception of the language of architecture. As the successors of the Renaissance tradition we consider (according to the expression of L.-B. Alberti) that "beauty is a strict and balanced harmony of all the parts - that kind when neither addition nor reduction or changes can be made without deterioration of the whole thing". However dynamic architectural objects are expressive, too. Historical architectural environment appears incomplete and false without them: modern, poor and one-dimensioned. What is harmonical in the changeable universe of dynamic architecture? What is the mode of connection and coexistence of "stable" and "pulsating" architectural forms and objects? Some of these answers stay in the field of traditional language of architectural composition, some demand new forms and words for expression and understanding. Alexander Bouryak, Kharkov

Thinking against Tradition

From 20th Century thought emerged the central ideology in all modernist architectural schools. Thought was taken in its scientized (e.g. naturalistic, experimental and engineering orientated) forms. Thus, just the Soviet innovators Dokuchayev with Ladovsky, as well as Ginzburg, were inclined to go up to the Pillars of Hercules, subordinating all creative processes to science-like methods and driving back the odd corners of creative intuition and professional tradition, with all their art experience and cultural symbols. The methodological consequences of this were basic anti-traditionalism on the one hand, bordering upon a complete exemption of history of art and architecture from educational programs, and an open quest on the other hand, for the first time appreciated as the main regulation for learning and pedagogical work. This quest was not limited by anything except the procedure of the "correct," i.e. scientific-engineering method. Klaus Kornwachs, Cottbus

Building Programming
This contribution can be seen as an offer to put forward discussions with my fellow colleagues in the field of architecture. Having suffered myself from certain buildings and from carrying out reconstructions on my own house, I consider myself one of the ideal naive users of architectural space. Hans Friesen, Cottbus

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Autonomy and Public in Fine Arts

The artist of modernity has freed himself from tradition, which expresses itself in the picture of the world. Visual representation serves no longer as representative goals, but reaches autonomous significance. Thus the artist of modernity has become increasingly isolated. The artist of the 1980s though turns once more to the traditions. Achim Hahn, Bernburg

On Pragmatics of Dwelling
This essay follows the thesis, that the reality of dwelling is captured in concepts of language, that refer to actual social situations. Since the wall no longer exists, people experience changes in their lives from the familiar to the unfamiliar. This can be revealed in the use of familiar words in an unfamiliar manner. This unfamiliar use also indicates changes in the organization of life, in the sense that social routine relationships are being replaced by nonroutine relationships. The essays are open to discussion for 6 months. Remarks, comments or criticism by readers can be added to each essay. The authors then may rewrite their essays during these 6 months of interaction with readers. After this period the articles will be frozen but still available in the net. The editorial staff reserves all rights, including translation and photomechanical reproduction. Selections may be reprinted with reference: (Wolkenkuckucksheim, Cloud-CuckooLand, Vozdushnyj Zamok >http://www.theo.tu-cottbus.de/wolke/ <) if the editorial staff are informed.

The Architect is dead! Long Live the Architect!

Alexander Barabanov (Yekaterinburg, Russia) New Approaches to General and Vocational Art and Architecture Education 1.General cultural architecture and art education as a prerequisite for harmonious development of material and intellectual culture of society. The recognition of architecture as an environment and as a spatial order is based on the assumption that society must be culturally and architecturally educated, i.e. it should have both highly qualified professionals - architects, designers and artists, and clients who understand architecture, design and fine arts. 2.Education as an ideal model of future practice Educational systems, including secondary schools and higher educational establishments, must be oriented to the future. In addition, the contents of general cultural art and architecture education must include not only features of the existing social practice and art and architecture competence but also social characteristics of the man and environment of the future. 3.From the outlook of implementer to the outlook of creator. Various models of outlook are given depending on the emphasis of education and disciplines studied. Allowing for regularities and specific features as may be revealed in school and university curricula, professional standards and programmes would enable the shift from training implementers to training creators - citizens of the future, citizens of the 21st century and the third millennium. 4.Art and Architecture Semiotics as one of the major ways of perfecting vocational art and architecture skills Art and Architecture Semiotics is a synthetic science penetrating into the field of Arts and Linguistics, Information Theory, Psychology, Rhetoric, Visual Communication, Symbolism of the Artistic Language of Form and Visual Poetry. For understanding and working out his or her own artistic expressive architectural language the architect of the future would have to acquire knowledge of at least the fundamentals of this science; only then architecture would really become art. Alexander Buryak, Kharkov, Ukraine

Architect is dead? - It is dull to listen

The beginning of the outgoing century was imbued with eschatological mood. The XX-th century has buried poetry and novel, painting and theatre, love and family, private property and state. In the 20-ies in Bauhaus art history was abolished, and towards the end of the century the world history was also hardly not buried. Architecture has not become an exception. All that is called Modernism and has jolly well pestered. Modernists are burying architecture and, accordingly, an architect, for already more than a century, beginning with Sullivan's refusal from architecture in favour of engineering. But architecture, this obstinate essence, still does not allow nor to abolish, nor to dissolve itself in other kinds of activity, even in those extremely "modem" and technically equipped. Art of architecture has met a technological challenge of the century. An example of Pier Luigi Nervi remained in history as a brilliant exclusion, confirming general regulations: each technology development coil was successfully assimilated by architectural aesthetics. In the XX-th century this happened not only to technologies of building production - metal, reinforced concrete, prefabricated constructions, - but also to transportation and information technologies. Architecture in the XX-th century, like Protheus, has taken different looks, throwing itself in turn from aesthetic Utopia of Art Nouveau and mysticism of Glaseme Kette to constructivists pathos of social reorganization, from revolutionism of Bauhaus to "Communities Architecture" conservatism and to post-modernism cankerous irony. This created an illusion for many people that architecture has lost its own matter. Nothing could go farther from the truth.

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The author agrees with Karl Solger's look, who bound up the nature of architecture with diffusion of divine authority in a profane world: "This art aspires to give a dwelling of peculiar look to That One, Who has no need for it ... The highest and most general destiny of architecture ... is to rise a temple in God's glory". I think, this idealistic point of view is also very practical. Architecture thus understood evidently can't be either annihilated, nor even exposed to doubt. Having once arisen, it remains one of the fundamental institutions, constituting society as such. Ulrich Conrads, Berlin

No Education without Educational Background

It is the authors idea and conviction that today a sustainable education for architects should include at least one year preparation, named BASIC TENETS. This with the aim that later, during design processes, classification will make sense and be sound. For one year the beginner has to face it all. A main focus is on behavior in social situations. Basic tenets includes instruction into the outlines of cultural history and continuous training in sensibility for materials, surfaces and colours. It is not primarily about knowledge but about recognition which has to do with the art of hermeneutics. The final exam could be a transition-exam to architecture, yet with no grades. It could be thought of as a dispute between students, thrown together to small groups by their teachers. The topic would spontaneously be given for discussion. The basic tenets would thus end with the permission for the actual course in architecture. The author argues against life long professors within basic tenets. Basic tenets need urban indians on the average side with hearts curious about life. Christian Gnshirt, Cottbus

Design and Science - Architecture and the Idea of the University

An architect tries to classify his scientific work in order to relate it to designing, teaching and building. Architecture has been represented as a full faculty at (European) universities for only a few years. In relation to the history of the institution, this is a new situation whose significance has not yet been fully explored. The wish to be recognized as scholars and scientists, which architects and artists have fought for since the beginning of modern times, has finally been granted. Yet architects don't know very well how to deal with their new status. They are skeptical of the idea of scientific research, since an understanding of science adequate to architectural design is still far from being established. What is it, that architects working scientifically can contribute to universitas? How can design and research work as well as building and teaching be integrated into one another? Which priority should be given to these different activities? Alena Gella, Kharkov, Ukraine

Creative Educational Workshop in Kharkov TU

Ukrainian architectural school is still translating the principles of the Soviet education of the 80-ies. By inertia and by tradition in the sphere of post-Soviet education today the mental stereotypes, produced during the long Soviet history, still prevail. One of the first attempts of transformation of professional architectural education was undertaken in the middle of the 80-ies in Kharkov Civil Engineering TU. Pedagogic principles and results of this experiment were set as principle of the teaching methods at elementary stages of architectural education. In 1996 for alteration of training on elder courses Architecture Bases chair has founded a Creative Educational Workshop of applied architectural researches and experimental design. Its activity is based on the methods, worked out by the Soviet intellectual underground as far as in the 80-ies. The article describes the educational sessions on framing the conceptions of small city centers development in a number of the cities of Kharkov region (i.e. Lyubotin, Dergachi) and also Mezhdurechensk (RF). Among the participants of design seminars were students and teachers of architectural faculty, workers of urban administrations and public, and also the experts of the International Institute of Urban and Regional Development. Valentin Gorozhankin, Kharkov, Ukraine

The Concept of Designing and Architectural School

The decentralization of economy in the countries of East Europe transforms institute of designing before serving to the socialist rules. The new functions of the designer see to the teacher by new architectural specialities. With their occurrence a problem of organizational modeling of sphere of architectural professionalism again is staticized. The formation (training) perceives design efficiency in paradigmatik the attitudes (relations). Based on the design approach represents a methodological phenomenon of architectural school. Such in particular is the phenomenon " of urban environment". The basic concept of environment the approach - situation. Yekaterina Koneva, Yekaterinburg, Russia

Sense-Image Comprehension of Architecture

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The existing content of social consciousness absorbing sense-image messages of every stage of its development creates a special paradigmatic integrity of separate semantic elements, possessing a relatively ordered freedom of sense formation. The poetry of beauty of architectural form, coming into contact with the rough prose of life turns into a specific armour of the cultural meaning - an artificial cover through which a sense-image structure is moved from the level of natural existence to the level of sociocultural reality. Time itself is realized in architecture and spatial organization, giving rise to a reality myth that, in its turn, shows the world an image of this reality, representing tame architecture and culture on the whole as a fixed image of social spirit. A harmonious combination of all alternative particular elements, mechanisms and disciplines constituting an architectural process that translates ideal natural forms into ideal anthropomorphous forms that represent a combination of natural beauty and creativeideas with various ways of existence-conceiving perception of the society and with the whole cultural experience of the mankind allows us to build new sense-image platforms for the future development of architectural reality. Oxana Makhneva, Yekaterinburg, Russia

The Problem of Creative Intuition in the Aspect of Semiotics and Possible Improvement of Educational Process
In the given work we do not try to translate creative intuition completely into the area of consciousness. The right of an architect to free creativity is inviolable, but we can foresee the result of a creative process with the help of the information about the object of creativity. We offer to create a database of architectural science, which is activated with the help of Semiotics. The database is a set of historical facts. The historical facts give various information on space. Semiotics investigates the essence of space as a complex Sign and creates a universal formula of space as an inquiry of the Database. The content of the answer defines the Structure of the Concept. Semiotics generates the architectural concept. The answer of the database forms the denotative skeleton of the concept and the nuances of the connotative meanings with the help of appropriate information. The architect receives information about the quality of the object and the number of possible concepts and design decisions reduces. The prediction of perception is in inverse proportion to the quantity of design variants. The database and a semiotic key are the information device of the architectural concept. We suggest that the use of the information service of architectural science should be introduced into educational process in order to improve training of would-be architects. James McQuillan, Cambridge

Between the Citadel and the Labyrinth: the Future of the Architectural Profession
The citadel has been the age-old symbol of intellectual power involving images of introspection and even mystery with respect to the heart or the soul (being), while the labyrinth denoted processual aspects of life such as initiation, growth and salvation (becoming). Under modern conditions these symbols have become deformed and devalued, but they still are relevant as strong aspects of continuity in our architectural world of tension between professionalism and art. The castle perdures in the static dogmas of professional and practical standards while the labyrinth or maze is ambiguous in terms of rationalist reduction leading beyond the iron cage (Weber) to aimless 'neutral' design of equivocal elements and systems. How do contemporary forces of deprofessionalisation affect the role of the architect? Can the profession widen its terms of reference to become the profession of 'lived space' that many have sought, but still seems so elusive in architectural production today? Peter R. Proudfoot, Sydney

Structuralism, Phenonemology and Hermeneutics in Architectural Education

This paper discusses the background to full-time architectural education, current subject teaching, the changing functions of the architectural studio, theories of architectural education and ideas emanating from various architectural schools in an attempt to arrive at a cogent course structure for the future. The conjectures range over the thought and relevant philosophical critiques of Glassie (Structuralism); Winckelmann, Hegel, Norburg-Schultz (Phenomenology); Gadamer, Heidegger, Schon, Perez Gomez (Hermeneutics); and Simon (The Sciences of the Artificial). The paper establishes a dialectic that enables the formation of a pedagogical structure and a curriculum relating theoretical knowledge, design teaching and architectural practice. Maxim Puchkov, Yekaterinburg, Russia

Architect of Spatial Hypertext: Search of Strategies

This report is devoted to the problem of comfortable autonomy for the life in post-industrial citys architectural space. Historically the character of our relations with the space has been changed: from transformations of natural space to the stages of "virtual" worlds creation. The new opportunities of communication already destroy the structure of physical space and make it "virtual", transforming a real architectural landscape of a city into a network

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structure of central points and connections between them. This image corresponds to a structure of cyber-space or "world wide web". The modern city can be interpreted not as the calendar text of space but as "hypertext"-multilevel system of nonlinear space organization, having ability to self-development. What are the roles and functions of the architect in this situation: how could he carry out the task of providing the comfortable human existence in "condensed", non-stable space, neither coming back to the sphere of technological utopia of neomodernism nor to the nostalgia of neoclassics? Andrei Rayevski, Yekaterinburg, Russia

Architecture: Area of Competence or Area of Profession

At present the principles of world creation are undergoing profound changes: religion is taken into a synthetic mould; a person tempted by freedom of choice moves to one of the facets of his being - the cognitive facet that is synthetic from the very beginning. The only possible form of existence when there is no background, no religion and no past, is a rational structure. That is why existence becomes rationally structured. In this system there is no place for an architect as such, the area of his competence becomes reduced to professions interrelated with architecture. An artcritic or a design engineer is enough to keep up the informational and semantic potential of the space of existence. The rest is the matter of the system, global and rational. Today, if an architect, an artist or a poet wants to make some influence, he should turn to the power of common people, this is the demand of the system. Hence, any creative activity is, as a matter of fact, a creative activity of people. For the architecture to win back its lost status it is essential to find new areas of creative work under the circumstances of the new system of new existence space. Such is semantic modeling on the basis of statistical analysis of the text of the rational social structure and fundamental semiotic research in the field of form-building. Yelena Remizova, Kharkov, Ukraine

Training to Art Creativity as Evolutionary Process

The various forms of display of art creativity become the subject of analyse. Central in their line are techniques and methods of composite activity and actually the process of creation of art product. The accent in preparation of the future specialist is offered to be transferred on formation of system of art thinking aimed at self-development. The strategy of construction of new educational course of composition is based on the theoretical-methodological base and historical-genetic method of development of the last experience of an architectural trade. The training of the architect to composite skill is carried out by development of the basic historical types of composite thinking and formation of modern system of art concepts and images. The conformity of various concepts and images about composition to various receptions, methods and means of composite work is opened. Sebastian Sage, Stuttgart

Is Architectural Training a Thing of the Past?

Why is it that a limited entry has been imposed on a subject, for which only half of those graduating actually seek and find employment in their respective profession? While architects manage successfully to perform various professions, others move from outside into the field of architectural activities, taking on such tasks as project controller, etc. Transformation in the image of a profession. So what is the role for which architectural studies should be training? Should the aim of studies be to train? Would it not be better to place education in the foreground? Is not the attractiveness of studying architecture precisely the fact that a classic, design-oriented architectural course of studies can be regarded as one of the best currently available training opportunities towards becoming an autodidact with particular skills in the fields of visual and verbal presentation. There are two strategies from which to make a choice. The introduction of shorter courses of study leading to the Bachelor title is a reaction to the short-term demands currently being placed on the availability of human resources conforming to minimum technical, economic and design standards. Conversely, countries such as the USA, Great Britain, France etc. are sticking with their system of a rather long, education-oriented form of architectural training without any practical reference points and without any forms of specialisation. These countries place architectural training explicitly in the service of an export offensive within the field of architectural service provision. Comparison with reference to: Minimum standards of architectural training as per UIA 1999, EU architecture guideline Architectural study reform commission 1985, basis of the current Dipl.-Ing. Group interests Demands on the amendment to the Higher Education Framework Law That the Dipl.-Ing be preserved That a postgraduate Masters course be offered which is also open to architecture graduates

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Jrg Schnier, Dresden

The Ace in the Architects Sleeve

Today no architect can be an expert in all fields related to architecture.The special abilities that seperate him from all other professions in the building trade belong to the field of aesthetics. Therefore designig is the most characteristic occupation of the architect. Nevertheless is design competence based almost exclusivly on personal experience, neglecting the existing body of design theory. This paper promotes the importance of design theorie as a key-qualification for the survival of the archictectural profession. Valeri Yovlev, Yekaterinburg, Russia

The Flexibility of the Modern Educational Process in Architecture

Architectural education improvement in many aspects is determined by the change of the professional consciousness. It manifests itself in a new correlation of conscious plans and levels, widening of the conscious focus, renovation of self-consciousness. As a result of this the renovation of the professional thinking takes place. The dynamic interaction of two development lines: socio-professional, connected with external factors (the society order, practical needs, widening of the informational field) and educational-professional, reflecting internal logic of development (academic basis of education, traditions of schools) influence the flexibility of the architecturaleducational process. Peculiarity of the process in the modern Russia is connected with more high speed within socioprofesssional line, while stable improvement suppose the active counter influence. The latter is shown in a principal methodology (for example principles of environmental intuitivism, ecologicalpsychological approach and method of compositional modeling in the Ural architectural school).

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