CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The techniques of distance measurement using ultrasonic in air include continuous wave and pulse echo technique. In the pulse echo method, a burst of pulses is sent through the transmission medium and is reflected by an object kept at specified distance. The time taken for the pulse to propagate from transmitter to receiver is proportional to the distance of object. For contact less measurement of distance, the device has to rely on the target to reflect the pulse back to itself. The target needs to have a proper orientation that is it needs to be perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the pulses. The amplitude of the received signal gets significantly attenuated and is a function of nature of the medium and the distance between the transmitter and target. The pulse echo or time-of-flight method of range measurement is subject to high levels of signal attenuation when used in an air medium, thus limiting its distance range. A simple ultrasonic range finder using 8051 microcontroller is presented in this article. This ultrasonic rangefinder can measure distances up to 2.5 meters at an accuracy of 1 centi meter. AT89s51 microcontroller and the ultrasonic transducer module HC-SR04 forms the basis of this circuit. The ultrasonic module sends a signal to the object, then picks up its echo and outputs a wave form whose time period is proportional to the distance. The microcontroller accepts this signal, performs necessary processing and displays the corresponding distance on the 3 digit seven segment display. This circuit finds a lot of application in projects like automotive parking sensors, obstacle warning systems, terrain monitoring robots, industrial distance measurements etc. The means for the measurement of distance of the target and for different other applications Ultrasonic distance sensors are used to detect the presence of flaw by measuring the distance. They do so by evaluating the echo of a transmitted pulse with concern to its travel time. Time dependent control of sensitivity is used to compensate the distance dependency of the echo amplitude, while different reflection properties are compensated by an automatic gain control, which holds the average echo amplitude constant. Echo amplitude therefore has very little influence on the accuracy of the distance measurement provided the signal to noise ratio is not very low. By considering whether the echo has been received within a time window, i.e. a time interval, which can be preset by the user, the distance range is given in which the sensor responds to the presence of an object. Using this technique, interference can be suppressed and relevant objects are monitored more reliably.

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CHAPTER 2 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT The object of this work is to replace the old traditional range detector, used in several applications. In present work the object position is measured electronically by using seven segment displays by replacing the heavy and bulky circuits with the compact circuits using intelligent Microcontroller. The bulky pressing switch is replaced by the small and one touch tactile switch. It saves electric consumption, saves the no. of man power, through seven segment display and one microcontroller as well as ultrasonic receiver & transmitter sensors.

CHAPTER 3 ULTRASONIC DISTANCE METER

There are several ways to measure distance without contact. One way is to use ultrasonic waves at 40 kHz for distance measurement. Ultrasonic transducers measure the amount of time taken for a pulse of sound to travel to a particular surface and return as the reflected echo. This circuit calculates the distance based on the speed of sound at 25C ambient temperature and shows it on a 7-segment display. Using it, you can measure distance up to 2.5 meters. For this particular application, the required components are AT89C2051

microcontroller, two 40kHz ultrasonic transducers (one each for transmitter and receiver), current buffer ULN2003, operational amplifier iM324I inverter Ca4M4VI four T-segment displays I five transistors and some discreet components. The ultrasonic transmitter- receiver pair is shown in Ultrasonic generators use piezoelectric materials such as zinc or lead zirconium tartrates or quartz crystal.. The velocity of sound in the air is around 330 m/s at 0C and varies with temperature. In this project, you excite the ultrasonic transmitter unit with a 40kHz pulse burst and expect an echo from the object whose distance you want to measure. Fig. 2 shows the transmitted burst, which lasts for a period of approximately 0.5 ms. It travels to the object in the air and the echo signal is picked up by another ultrasonic transducer unit (receiver), also a 40 kHz pre-tuned unit. The received signal, which is very weak is amplified several times in the receiver circuit and appears somewhat as shown in Fig. 2 when seen on a CRO. Of course, the signal gets weaker if the target is farther than 2.5 and will need a higher pulse excitation voltage or a better transducer. Here the microcontroller is used to generate 40 kHz sound pulses. It reads when the echo arrives; it finds the time taken in microseconds for Page | 2

to-and-fro travel of sound waves. Using velocity of 333 m/s, it does the calculations and shows on the four 7-segment displays the distance in centimeters and millimeters (three digits for centimeters and one for millimeters).

3.1. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ULTRASONIC DISTANCE METER

Figure 1 : Block Diagram of Ultrasonic Distance meter

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CHAPTER 4 THEORY OF OPERATION

The Ping sensor detects objects by emitting a short ultrasonic burst and then "listening" for the echo. Under control of a host microcontroller (trigger pulse), the sensor emits a short 40 kHz (ultrasonic) burst. This burst travels through the air at about 1130 feet per second, hits an object and then bounces back to the sensor. The PING sensor provides an output pulse to the host that will terminate when the echo is detected, hence the width of this pulse corresponds to the distance to the target.

Figure 2: Transmitting and Receiving Waves

4.1. ULTRASONIC WAVES

Sound waves with frequency range from 20 Hz to 20 KHz are responsive to the human ear. Vibrations above this frequency are termed as ultrasonic. Ultrasonic signals are affected by the properties of the medium. Thus while passing through a particular medium these signals get attenuated. The attenuation of ultrasonic signal is taken as the means for the measurement of distance of the target and for different other applications Ultrasonic distance sensors are used to detect the presence of flaw by measuring the distance. They do so by evaluating the echo of a transmitted pulse with concern to its travel time. Time dependent control of sensitivity is used to compensate the distance dependency of the echo amplitude, while different reflection properties are compensated by an automatic gain control, which holds the Page | 4

average echo amplitude constant. Echo amplitude therefore has very little influence on the accuracy of the distance measurement provided the signal to noise ratio is not very low. By considering whether the echo has been received within a time window, i.e. a time interval, which can be preset by the user, the distance range is given in which the sensor responds to the presence of an object. Using this technique, interference can be suppressed and relevant objects are monitored more reliably.

A variety of ultrasonic presence sensors with different operation frequencies are designed for different distance range and different resolution. Such sensors are employed in the automation of industrial processes as well as in traffic control systems, for example to monitor, whether car parking places are occupied. Ultrasonic distance meters are used for the measurement of the filling level in containers or the height of material on conveyor belts. Ultrasonic waves are generally used two types which are given as :-

4.1.1 LONGITUDINAL WAVES

Longitudinal waves exist when the motion of the particle and the medium is parallel to the direction of propagation of the waves. These types of waves are referred as L waves. Since these can travel in solid, liquid and gases. These waves can be easily detected.

4.1.2 TRANSVERSE WAVES

In this case particles of the medium vibrate at right angle to the direction of propagation of the waves. These are also called shear waves.

4.2. ULTRASONIC DISTANCE SENSORS

Ultrasonic sonar sensors actively transmit acoustic waves and receive them later. This is done by ultrasonic transducers, which transform an electrical signal into an ultrasonic wave and vice versa. The ultrasound signal carries the information about the variables to be measured. The task for the ultrasonic sensors is not merely to detect ultrasound, as intelligent sensors they have to extract the information carried by the ultrasonic signals efficiently and with high accuracy. To achieve this performance, the signals are processed, demodulated and evaluated by dedicated hardware. Algorithms based on models for the ultrasonic signal propagation and

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the interaction between the physical or chemical variables of interest are employed (munich,1994). Furthermore, techniques of a sensor specific signal evaluation are being applied. Ultrasonic sensors can be embedded into a control system that accesses additional sensors, combines information of the different sensors, handles the bus protocols and initiates actions.

Figure 3: Ultrasonic Transducer (Transmitter and Receiver)

CHAPTER 5 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

Figure 4 shows the circuit of the microcontroller based distance meter. The 40kHz pulse bursts from the microcontroller are amplified by transistor T5. Inverting buffer CD4049 drives the ultrasonic sensor used as the transmitter. Three inverters (N1, N2 and N3) are connected in parallel to increase the transmitted power. This inverted output is fed to another set of three inverters (N4, N5 and N6). Outputs of both sets of parallel inverters are applied as a push pull drive to the ultrasonic transmitter. The positive going pulse is applied to one of the terminals of the ultrasonic sensor and the same pulse after 180-degree phase shift is applied to another terminal. Thus the transmitter power is increased for increasing the range. If you want to increase the range up to 5 meters, use a ferrite-core step-up pulse transformer, which steps-up the transmitter output to 60V (peak-to- peak). The echo signal received by the receiver sensor after reflection is very weak. It is amplified by quad operational amplifier LM324. The first stage (A1) is a buffer with unity gain. The received signal is directly fed to the non-inverting input (pin 3) of A1 and coupled to the second stage by a 3.3nF (small-value) capacitor. If you use the ubiquitous 0.01F capacitor for coupling, there will be 2-mega-ohm resistor for feedback. The third stage is a precision rectifier amplifier with a gain of 10. Page | 6

Figure 4: Circuit Diagram of Ultrasonic Distance meter Page | 7

Pin13 is the other pin of the comparator used for level adjustment using preset VR1. The ultrasonic transducer outputs a beam of sound waves, which has more energy on the main lobe and less energy (60 dB below the main lobe) on the side lobes as shown in Fig. 4. Even this low side-lobe signal is directly picked up by the receiver unit. So you have to space the transmitter and receiver units about 5 cm apart. The two units are fixed by cello tape on to a cardboard, with the analogue circuit at one end. Microcontroller AT89C2051 is at the heart of the circuit. Port-1 pins P1.7 through P1.2, and port-3 pin P3.7 are connected to input pins through 1 to 7of IC2 (IC ULN2003), respectively. These pins are pulled up with a 10-kiloohm resistor network RNW1. They drive all the segments of the 7-segment display with the help of inverting buffer IC2. Port-3 pins P3.0 through P3.3 of the microcontroller are connected to the base of transistors T1 through T4 to provide the supply to displays DIS1 through DIS4, respectively. Pin P3.0 of microcontroller IC1 goes low to drive transistor T1 into saturation, which provides supply to the common- anode pin (either pin 3 or 8) of display DIS1. Similarly, transistors T2 through T4 provide anode currents to the other three 7-segment displays. Microcontroller IC1 provides the segment data and display-enable signal simultaneously in time-division multiplexed mode for displaying a particular number on the 7-segment display unit. Segment data and display-enable pulse for the display are refreshed every 5 ms. Thus the display appears to be continuous, even though the individual LEDs used in it light up one by one. Using switch S1 you can manually reset the microcontroller, while the power on reset signal for the microcontroller is derived from the combination of capacitor C4 and resistor R8. A 12MHz crystal is used to generate the basic clock frequency for the microcontroller. Resistor R16 connected to pin 5 of DIS2 enables the decimal point. The comparator is inbuilt in microcontroller AT89C2051. The echo signal will make port-3 pin 3.6 low when it goes above the level of voltage set on pin 13. This status is sensed by the microcontroller as programmed. When port-3 pin P3.6 goes high, we know that the echo signal has arrived; the timer is read and the 16-bit number is divided by twice the velocity of sound and then converted into decimal format as a 4-digit number.

5.1 POWER SUPPLY

Figure shows the circuit of the power supply. The 230V AC mains is stepped down by transformer X1 to deliver the secondary output of 15V-0-15V, 500 mA. The transformer output is rectified by a full-wave bridge rectifier comprising diodes D3 through D6, filtered by capacitors C8 and C9 and then regulated by ICs 7815 (IC5), 7915 (IC6)and 7805 (IC7). Regulators 7815, 7915 and 7805 provide +15V, -15V and+5V regulated supply, Page | 8

respectively. Capacitors C10 through C12 bypass the ripples present in the regulated power supply.

Figure 5: Power Supply Circuit Diagram

5.2 CONSTRUCTION AND TESTING

An actual-size, single-side PCB for the microcontroller-based distance meter is shown in Fig. 6 and its component layout in Fig. 7. Assemble the PCB and put the programmed microcontroller into the socket. After switching on the power supply and microcontroller automatically getting reset upon power-on, pin 8 will pulse at 40kHz bursts. This can be seen using an oscilloscope. Give this signal to channel 1 of the oscilloscope. Adjust the time base to 2 ms per division and set it to trigger mode instead of normal mode. Adjust the potentiometer on the oscilloscope labeled level such that the trace starts with the burst and appears steady as shown. Connect the transmitter and receiver ultrasonic units either by a twisted pair of wire or by a shielded cable to the board. Give the received signal to channel 2 of the oscilloscope. Then, place an A4-size plastic sheet in front of the ultrasonic transducers and observe the echo signal. It will appear as shown. The two transducers can be fixed to a thick cardboard with two wires leading to the circuittwo 40cm long shielded cables will do. The laser pointer is fixed such that it is axial to the transducers. Channel 2 is connected to pin 12, which is the positive non-inverting terminal of AT89C2051s comparator. The negative Page | 9

inverting terminal (pin 13) is connected to a preset reference. Adjust the preset such that the voltage is 0.1V-0.2V at pin 13. This will enable detection of weak echoes also. When the echo signal goes above the level of reference voltage set on pin 13, it will make P3.6 low; the arrival of echo is sensed by the program using jnb p3.6 (jump not bit) instruction. Software The software is \ written in Assembly language and assembled using 8051 cross-assembler. It is well commented and easy to understand. The pulse train for 0.5 ms is started by making pin 8 high and low alternately for 12.5 microseconds so that the pulse frequency is 40 kHz. After 25 such pulses have passed, a waiting time is given to avoid direct echoes for about 20 s. Then the signal is awaited, while the timer runs counting time in microseconds. When the echo arrives, port-3 pin P3.6 goes high, the timer reads and the 16-bit number is divided by twice the velocity and converted into decimal format as a 4-digit number. If the echo does not arrive even after 48 milliseconds, the waiting loop is broken and the pulse train sequence is started once again. If the echo comes within this time, it is displayed for half a second before proceeding to another measurement. Thus, the display appears continuous and flicker-free. Other uses Simply by changing this program, the same unit can be made to detect moving objects (such as cars racing on the street) and find their range and speed. It can also be used with suitable additional software as a burglar alarm unit for homes or offices.

Figure 6: Transmitted and Received Pulses

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CHAPTER 6

SOFTWARE USED FOR PROGRAMMING

The software is written in Assembly language and assembled using 8051 cross-assembler. It is well commented and easy to understand. The pulse train for 0.5 ms is started by making pin 8 high and low alternately for 12.5 microseconds so that the pulse frequency is 40 kHz. After 25 such pulses have passed, a waiting time is given to avoid direct echoes for about 20 s. Then the signal is awaited, while the timer runs counting time in microseconds. When the echo arrives, port-3 pin P3.6 goes high, the timer reads and the 16-bit number is divided by twice the velocity and converted into decimal format as a 4-digit number. If the echo does not arrive even after 48 milliseconds, the waiting loop is broken and the pulse train sequence is started once again. If the echo comes within this time, it is displayed for half a second before proceeding to another measurement. Thus, the display appears continuous and flicker-free.

KEIL U-VISION 3.0 Keil Software is used provide you with software development tools for 8051 based microcontrollers. With the Keil tools, you can generate embedded applications for virtually every 8051 derivative. The supported microcontrollers are listed in the microvision. Keil development tools for the 8051 microcontroller family support every level of developer from the professional applications engineer to the student just learning about embedded software development. The industry-standard Keil C Compilers, Macro Assemblers, Debuggers, Realtime Kernels, and Single-board Computers support ALL 8051-compatible derivatives and help you get your projects completed on schedule. Vision is an IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that helps you write, compile, and debug embedded programs. It encapsulates the following components:

Multiple Monitor - flexible window management system. System Viewer - display device peripheral register information. Debug Views - create and save multiple debug window layouts. Multi-Project Workspace - simplify working with numerous projects. Source and Disassembly Linking - the Disassembly Window and Source Windows are fully synchronized making program debugging and cursor navigation easier.

Memory Window Freeze - store the current Memory Window view allowing easy comparison of memory contents at different points in time. Page | 11

CHAPTER 7 APPENDICES
7.1. APPENDIX A 7.1.1. SEMICONDUCTORS: S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. NOTATTION IC1 IC2 IC3 IC4 IC5 IC6 IC7 T1,T4 T5 D1, D2 D3-D6 DIS1-DIS4- LTS 542 COMPONENT AT89C2051 microcontroller ULN2003 current buffer CD4049 hex inverting buffer LM324 quad operational amplifier 7815, 15V regulator 7915, -15V regulator 7805, 5V regulator BC557 pnp transistor 2N2222 npn transistor 1N4148 switching diode 1N4007 rectifier diode common-anode, 7-segment display

Table 1: Semiconductor Components 7.1.2. RESISTORS (all -watt, 5% carbon):

S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Notation R1, R2 R3 R4, R7-R10 R5 R6 R11 R16 RNW1 VR1

Rating 2-mega-ohm 82-kilo-ohm 10-kilo-ohm 33-kilo-ohm 100-kilo-ohm 1-kilo-ohm 220-ohm 10-kilo-ohm resistor network 1-kilo-ohm preset

Table 2: Resistors Page | 12

7.1.3. CAPACITORS

S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Notation C1, C2 C7, C10-C12 C3 C4 C5, C6 C8, C9

Rating 3.3nF ceramic disk 0.1F ceramic disk 2.2nF ceramic disk 10F, 16V electrolytic 22pF ceramic disk 1000F, 50V electrolytic

Table 3: Capacitors

7.1.4. MISCELLANEOUS

S.No. 1.

Notation X1

Compnent 230V AC primary to 15V-0-15V, 500mA secondary transformer

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

XTAL S1 S2 TX1 RX1

12MHz crystal Push-to-on switch On/off switch 40kHz ultrasonic transmitter 40kHz ultrasonic receiver

Table 4: Miscellaneous

7.1.5. RESISTANCE

The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defined as the ratio of the voltage applied to the electric current which flows through it

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If the resistance is constant over a considerable range of voltage, then Ohm's law, I = V/R, can be used to predict the behavior of the material. Although the definition above involves DC current and voltage, the same definition holds for the AC application of resistors. Whether or not a material obeys Ohm's law, its resistance can be described in terms of its bulk resistivity. The resistivity, and thus the resistance, is temperature dependent. Over sizable ranges of temperature, this temperature dependence can be predicted from a temperature coefficient of resistance. 7.1.6. RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY The electrical resistance of a wire would be expected to be greater for a longer wire, less for a wire of larger cross sectional area, and would be expected to depend upon the material out of which the wire is made. Experimentally, the dependence upon these properties is a straightforward one for a wide range of conditions, and the resistance of a wire can be expressed as

The factor in the resistance which takes into account the nature of the material is the resistivity. Although it is temperature dependent, it can be used at a given temperature to calculate the resistance of a wire of given geometry. The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity. There are contexts where the use of conductivity is more convenient. Electrical conductivity = = 1/ 7.1.7. RESISTOR COMBINATIONS The combination rules for any number of resistors in series or parallel can be derived with the use of Ohm's Law, the voltage law, and the current law.

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7.1.8. RESISTIVITY CALCULATION The electrical resistance of a wire would be expected to be greater for a longer wire, less for a wire of larger cross sectional area, and would be expected to depend upon the material out of which the wire is made (resistivity). Experimentally, the dependence upon these properties is a straightforward one for a wide range of conditions, and the resistance of a wire can be expressed as

Resistance = resistivity x length/area

7.2. APPENDIX-B 7.2.1. CAPACITOR A capacitor consists of two electrodes or plates, each of which stores an opposite charge. These two plates are conductive and are separated by an insulator or dielectric. The charge is stored at the surface of the plates, at the boundary with the dielectric. Because each plate stores an equal but opposite charge, the total charge in the capacitor is always zero.

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Figure 7: Capacitor charge formation

When electric charge accumulates on the plates, an electric field is created in the region between the plates that is proportional to the amount of accumulated charge. This electric field creates a potential difference V = Ed between the plates of this simple parallel-plate capacitor.

Figure 8: Capacitor Charge formation 2

The electrons in the molecules move or rotate the molecule toward the positively charged left plate. This process creates an opposing electric field that partially annuls the field created by the plates. (The air gap is shown for clarity; in a real capacitor, the dielectric is in direct contact with the plates.) Capacitance The capacitor's capacitance (C) is a measure of the amount of charge (Q) stored on each plate for a given potential difference or voltage (V) which appears between the plates:

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In SI units, a capacitor has a capacitance of one farad when one coulomb of charge causes a potential difference of one volt across the plates. Since the farad is a very large unit, values of capacitors are usually expressed in microfarads (F), nanofarads (nF) or picofarads (pF). The capacitance is proportional to the surface area of the conducting plate and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. It is also proportional to the permittivity of the dielectric (that is, non-conducting) substance that separates the plates. Stored energy As opposite charges accumulate on the plates of a capacitor due to the separation of charge, a voltage develops across the capacitor owing to the electric field of these charges. Ever increasing work must be done against this ever increasing electric field as more charge is separated. The energy (measured in joules, in SI) stored in a capacitor is equal to the amount of work required to establish the voltage across the capacitor, and therefore the electric field. The energy stored is given by:

where V is the voltage across the capacitor. 7.2.2. IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS Circuits with DC sources Electrons cannot directly pass across the dielectric from one plate of the capacitor to the other. When there is a current through a capacitor, electrons accumulate on one plate and electrons are removed from the other plate. This process is commonly called 'charging' the capacitor even though the capacitor is at all times electrically neutral. In fact, the current through the capacitor results in the separation rather than the accumulation of electric charge. This separation of charge causes an electric field to develop between the plates of the capacitor giving rise to voltage across the plates. This voltage V is directly proportional to the amount of charge separated Q. But Q is just the time integral of the current I through the capacitor. This is expressed mathematically as:

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Where I is the current flowing in the conventional direction, measured in amperes dV/dt is the time derivative of voltage, measured in volts / second. C is the capacitance in farads .For circuits with a constant (DC) voltage source, the voltage across the capacitor cannot exceed the voltage of the source. Thus, an equilibrium is reached where the voltage across the capacitor is constant and the current through the capacitor is zero. For this reason, it is commonly said that capacitors block DC current. Series or parallel arrangements Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage). To find their total equivalent capacitance (Ceq):

The current through capacitors in series stays the same, but the voltage across each capacitor can be different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage. To find their total capacitance:

One possible reason to connect capacitors in series is to increase the overall voltage rating. In practice, a very large resistor might be connected across each capacitor to divide the total voltage appropriately for the individual ratings. Capacitor/inductor duality In mathematical terms, the ideal capacitor can be considered as an inverse of the ideal inductor, because the voltage-current equations of the two devices can be transformed into one another by exchanging the voltage and current terms. Just as two or more inductors can be magnetically coupled to make a transformer, two or more charged conductors can be electrostatically coupled to make a capacitor. The mutual capacitance of two conductors is defined as the current that flows in one when the voltage across the other changes by unit voltage in unit time. Page | 18

Capacitor symbols

7.3.APPENDIX-C

7.3.1. DATASHEET -IC 89C2051

7.3.1.1 FEATURES

Compatible with MCS-51 Products 2 Kbytes of Reprogrammable Flash Memory Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles 2.7 V to 6 V Operating Range Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz Two-Level Program Memory Lock 128 x 8-Bit Internal RAM 15 Programmable I/O Lines Two 16-Bit Timer/Counters Six Interrupt Sources Programmable Serial UART Channel Direct LED Drive Outputs On-Chip Analog Comparator Low Power Idle and Power Down Modes

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7.3.1.2. DESCRIPTION

The AT89C2051 is a low-voltage, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 2 Kbytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry standard MCS-51 instruction set and pinout. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C2051 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89C2051 provides the following standard features: 2 Kbytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 15 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, a five vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, a precision analog comparator, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89C2051 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power Down Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.

7.3.1.3. PIN CONFIGURATION

Figure 9: IC 89C2051 Pinout Diagram Page | 20

7.3.1.4. BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 10: IC 89C2051 Block Diagram Page | 21

7.3.1.5. PIN DESCRIPTION

VCC Supply voltage.

GND Ground.

PORT 1

Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port. Port pins P1.2 to P1.7 provide internal pullups. P1.0 and P1.1 require external pullups. P1.0 and P1.1 also serve as the positive input (AIN0) and the negative input (AIN1), respectively, of the on-chip precision analog comparator. The Port 1 output buffers can sink 20 mA and can drive LED displays directly. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they can be used as inputs. When pins P1.2 to P1.7 are used as inputs and are externally pulled low, they will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups. Port 1 also receives code data during Flash programming and program verification.

PORT 3

Port 3 pins P3.0 to P3.5, P3.7 are seven bidirectional I/O pins with internal pullups. P3.6 is hard-wired as an input to the output of the on-chip comparator and is not accessible as a general purpose I/O pin. The Port 3 output buffers can sink 20 mA. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pullups.

Table 5: Port 3 Functions Page | 22

RST

Reset input. All I/O pins are reset to 1s as soon as RST goes Hig h. Holding the RST pin high for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device. Each machine cycle takes 12 oscillator or clock cycles.

XTAL1

Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.

XTAL2

Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

7.3.1.6. OSCILLATOR CHARACTERISTICS

XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 1. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure 2. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide by- two flip-flops, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed. Notes: C1, C2 = 30 pF, 10 pF for Crystals= 40 pF, 10 pF for Ceramic Resonators

(a)

(b)

Figure11:

(a) Oscillator Connections, (b) External Clock Drive Configuration Page | 23

7.3.1.7. PROGRAM MEMORY LOCK BITS

On the chip are two lock bits which can be left unprogrammed (U) or can be programmed (P) to obtain the additional features listed in the table:

Table 6: Program Memory Lock Bits

7.3.1.8. IDLE MODE

In idle mode, the CPU puts itself to sleep while all the on-chip peripherals remain active. The mode is invoked by software. The content of the on-chip RAM and all the special functions registers remain unchanged during this mode. The idle mode can be terminated by any enabled interrupt or by a hardware reset. P1.0 and P1.1 should be set to 0 if no external pull ups are used, or set to 1 if external pullups are used. It should be noted that when idle is terminated by a hardware reset, the device normally resumes program execution, from where it left off, up to two machine cycles before the internal reset algorithm takes control. On-chip hardware inhibits access to internal RAM in this event, but access to the port pins is not inhibited. To eliminate the possibility of an unexpected write to a port pin when Idle is terminated by reset, the instruction following the one that invokes Idle should not be one that writes to a port pin or to external memory.

7.3.1.9. POWER DOWN MODE

In the power down mode the oscillator is stopped, and the instruction that invokes power down is the last instruction executed. The on-chip RAM and Special Function Registers retain their values until the power down mode is terminated. The only exit from power down is a hardware reset. Reset redefines the SFRs but does not change the on-chip RAM. The Page | 24

reset should not be activated before VCC is restored to its normal operating level and must be held active long enough to allow the oscillator to restart and stabilize. P1.0 and P1.1 should be set to 0 if no external pullups are used, or set to 1 if external pullups are used.

7.3.1.10. PROGRAMMING THE FLASH

The AT89C2051 is shipped with the 2 Kbytes of on-chip PEROM code memory array in the erased state (i.e., contents = FFH) and ready to be programmed. The code memory array is programmed one byte at a time. Once the array isprogrammed, to re-program any non-blank byte, the entire memory array needs to be erased electrically.

7.3.1.11. INTERNAL ADDRESS COUNTER The AT89C2051 contains an internal PEROM address counter which is always reset to 000H on the rising edge of RST and is advanced by applying a positive going pulse to pin XTAL1. 7.3.1.12. PROGRAMMING ALGORITHM: To program the AT89C2051, the following sequence is recommended. 1. Power-up sequence: Apply power between VCC and GND pins Set RST and XTAL1 to GND With all other pins floating, wait for greater than 10 milliseconds 2. Set pin RST to H Set pin P3.2 to H 3. Apply the appropriate combination of H or L logic levels to pins P3.3, P3.4, P3.5, P3.7 to select one of the programming operations shown in the PEROM Programming Modes table. To Program and Verify the Array: 4. Apply data for Code byte at location 000H to P1.0 to P1.7. 6. Pulse P3.2 once to program a byte in the PEROM array or the lock bits. The byte-write cycle is self-timed and typically takes 1.2 ms. 7. To verify the programmed data, lower RST from 12V to logic H level and set pins P3.3 to P3.7 to the appropriate levels. Output data can be read at the port P1 pins. 8. To program a byte at the next address location, pulse XTAL1 pin once to advance the internal address counter. Apply new data to the port P1 pins. 9. Repeat steps 5 through 8, changing data and advancing the address counter for the entire 2 Kbytes array or until the end of the object file is reached. 10. Power-off sequence: set XTAL1 to L set RST to L Float all other I/O pins Turn Vcc power off. Page | 25

7.3.1.13. DATA POLLING

The AT89C2051 features Data Polling to indicate the end of a write cycle. During a write cycle, an attempted read of the last byte written will result in the complement of the written data on P1.7. Once the write cycle has been completed, true data is valid on all outputs, and the next cycle may begin. Data Polling may begin any time after a write cycle has been initiated.

7.3.1.14. READY/BUSY

The Progress of byte programming can also be monitored by the RDY/BSY output signal. Pin P3.1 is pulled low after P3.2 goes High during programming to indicate BUSY. P3.1 is pulled High again when programming is done to indicate READY.

7.3.1.15. PROGRAM VERIFY

If lock bits LB1 and LB2 have not been programmed code data can be read back via the data lines for verification: 1. Reset the internal address counter to 000H by bringing RST from L to H. 2. Apply the appropriate control signals for Read Code data and read the output data at the port P1 pins. 3. Pulse pin XTAL1 once to advance the internal address counter. 4. Read the next code data byte at the port P1 pins. 5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until the entire array is read. The lock bits cannot be verified directly. Verification of the lock bits is achieved by observing that their features are enabled.

7.3.1.16. CHIP ERASE

The entire PEROM array (2 Kbytes) and the two Lock Bits are erased electrically by using the proper combination of control signals and by holding P3.2 low for 10 ms. The code array is written with all "1"s in the Chip Erase operatio and must be executed before any non-blank memory byte can be re-programmed.

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7.3.1.17. READING THE SIGNATURE BYTES

The signature bytes are read by the same procedure as a normal verification of locations 000H, 001H, and 002H, except that P3.5 and P3.7 must be pulled to a logic low. The values returned are as follows.(000H) = 1EH indicates manufactured by Atmel (001H) = 21H indicates 89C2051

7.3.1.18. PROGRAMMING INTERFACE

Every code byte in the Flash array can be written and the entire array can be erased by using the appropriate combination of control signals. The write operation cycle is self-timed and once initiated, will automatically time itself to completion.All major programming vendors offer worldwide support for the Atmel microcontroller series.

7.3.1.19. FLASH PROGRAMMING MODES

Table 7: Flash Programming Modes

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(a)

(b)

Figure 12: (a) Programming the Flash Memory

(b)Verifying the Flash Memory

Table 8:Flash Programing and Verification

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7.3.1.20. FLASH PROGRAMMING AND VERIFICATION WAVEFORMS

Figure 13: Flash Programming and Verification Waveforms

7.3.1.21. ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM POWER RATING

Table 9: Absolute Maximum Power Rating

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7.3.1.22. DC CHARACTERSTICS

Table 9: DC Characterstics

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7.3.1.23. EXTERNAL CLOCK DRIVE WAVEFORM

Figure 14: External Clock Drive Waveform

7.3.1.24. EXTERNAL CLOCK DRIVE

Table 10: External Clock Drive

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CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION
The objective of this project is to design and implement an Ultrasonic Obstruction Detection and Distance Measurement device. As described in this report a system is developed that can detect objects and calculate the distance of the tracked object. With respect to the requirements for an ultrasonic range finder the following can be concluded.

(a) The system is able to detect objects within the sensing range. (b) The system can calculate the distance of the obstruction with

a. sufficient accuracy. b. This device has the capability to interact with other peripheral if c. used as a secondary device. d. This can also communicate with PC through its serial port. e. This offers a low cost and efficient solution for non contact type f. distance measurements.

The Range Finder has numerous applications. It can be used for automatic guided vehicles, positioning of robots as well as measuring generic distances, liquid levels in tanks, and the depth of snow banks. The device can serve as a motion detector in production lines. The ultrasonic detection range relates with size, figure, material and position of the object. The bigger the reflector is, the better the reflectance is, and the stronger the reflection signal is. The ultrasonic distance measurement is an untouchable detection mode. Compared with else detection modes, it does not get much influenced by ray, temperature and colour etc, and it has the great capability to adapt to various circumstances and ambient conditions. A restricted target angle (it requires a near perpendicular surface) and large beam, which can create poor resolution, seem to be the Range Finders only limitations. Also there is a blind area and distance limitation in ultrasonic distance measurement. Despite these drawbacks, we find the devices main features to be extremely useful.

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CHAPTER 9 APPLICATIONS
Applications of ultrasonic can be divided into two categories.

1. Ultrasonics in industry 2. Ultrasonics in medicine Both are big fields in themselves. The concentration would be more on the former one. In industry ultrasonic is employed for :-

(a) Low power applications where in the ultrasonic energy explores a body of material and is thereby modified. (b) High power application where in the ultrasonics energy modifies the body of material to which it is applied.

Some of the important low power applications are :-

1) Flow detection, 2) Thickness gauging, 3) Measurement of various physical properties of materials. 4) Extent of corrosion 5) Estimation of grain sizes in polycrystalline materials. 6) Measurement of pressure, concentration temperature, viscosity and flow rates. 7) leak detection 8) Variable delay lines for computer applications and imaging, 9) Liquid level control

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CHAPTER 10 BIBLOGRAPHY

1. Electronics for you - September 1998. 2. www.electronicsforu.com. 3. www.atmel.com/atmel/acrobat/doc0368.pdf. 4. Kenneth J. Ayala, The 8051 Microcontroller Architecture, Programming & Applications, West Publishing Company, College & School Division, 1996. 5. Muhammad Ali Mazidi, Janice Gillispie Mazidi, The 8051 Microcontroller & Embedded Systems, Pearson Education. 6. David A. Bell, Electronic Devices and Circuits, Oxford University Press, 2008. 7. Sensors & Transducers Journal, Vol. 95, Issue 8, August 2008, pp.49-57 8. Alan Andrews, ABCs of Ultrasonic, Arthur Barker Limited, London, 1961.

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BIODATA

SUDEEP PARMAR
Final year student (8th semester) Department of Electronics & communication Lovely Professional University Phagwara, (Punjab). Contact: +918126258452 , sudeepparmar22@gmail.com

NANDAM MANOHAR Final year student (8th semester) Department of Electronics & communication Lovely Professional University Phagwara, (Punjab). Contact: +919041332599 , manoherr@aol.com

BIKASH KUMAR SINGH Final year student (8th semester) Department of Electronics & communication Lovely Professional University Phagwara, (Punjab). Contact: +919653228622 , rbks.lucky@gmail.com

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