RF/DC Magnetron Sputtering

Justin Kirschbrown 11/20/2007

Abstract Over the years, many thin lm deposition techniques have emerged, each harboring its own set of pros and cons. Sputtering is one of the more popular methods of particle vapor deposition (PVD) and is based on the idea that ion collisions dislodge particles from the target material which fall to the surface. RF/DC Magnetron Sputtering is a highly developed technique which allows for the sputtering of a large variety of materials with a high control over lm thickness and uniformity. The theory behind RF/DC Magnetron Sputtering, as well as its applications will be addressed in this review.

1
1.1

Theory
Sputtering
Figure 1: Sputtering at the Molecular Level.

Sputtering is based on the theory that particle to particle collisions will involve an elastic transfer of momentum, which can be utilized to apply a thin lm to the substrate. In this technique, ions are accelerated toward a target by utilizing electric elds. These ions are usually derived from either an ion gun or from exciting a neutral gas into ion plasma. As the ions are accelerated and bombard the target surface, they dislodge target atoms and other ions. The ejected atoms attach themselves to the substrate, and a thin lm of the target material is produced. See Figure 1 (alcrites).

1.2

RF/DC Sputtering

Depending on the target material either RF or DC sputtering may be used. If the target material is a conductor, a constant voltage can be used to accelerate

the ions to the desired bombarding velocity. As the ions strike the surface, the resulting charges can move freely about the material to prevent any charge buildup. However, if the material is an insulator, the conduction bands will not allow free charge movement. As the ions strike the surface, their charge will remain localized and over time the charge will build up, making it impossible to further bombard the surface. In order to prevent this, alternating current is used at a frequency above 50 KHz. A high frequency is used so that the heavy ions cannot follow the switching fast enough and only electrons hit the surface to neutralize charge (internet).

2
2.1

Small-Angle X-Ray Theory

General X-ray Scattering

The principles of small-angle X-ray scattering are based upon the idea that elastic collisions occur between the incoming wave and a particle, causing the reected waves to scatter in all directions. As the reected waves interfere with one another, there will be constructive interference along certain angles, causing peaks to present themselves. Using geometry and the Pythagorean Theorem, one can obtain Braggs law for simple scattering. n = 2dsin() Where n is any integer, is wavelength, d is the vector representing the displacement between reection sites, and is the angle between the reected ray and the plane formed by the materials surface [6, 1, 2].

2.2

At Small Angles

When only the eects of small-angle scattering are taken into account, it becomes possible to study non-repeating structures. The smaller angle causes the scattering vectors modulus to become dependent on the reected angle in the form 2/. Since amplitude is dened as 2/q , the amplitude is equal to / [6]. Since X-rays interact with the electrons surrounding atoms, its clear that inhomogeneities in the electron density will aect the scattering pattern [6, 1, 2]. At a larger angular range, these eects are diminished due to the large number of contributing particles. When only small angles (<10 degrees) are considered, these eects can be observed and will provide information about the size and shape of macromolecules in the sample [5]. For example, silica glass is a semirandomly distributed 3-D lattice and shows a normal Gaussian distribution when inspected by SAXS. However, silica gel (silicon glass powder) shows a peak in the low angles and the same Gaussian distribution at larger angles. This implies that there is a large dierence in charge distribution between the individual particles and the sample as a whole [6].

3
3.1

Utility of SAXS
Advantages and Disadvantages

Small angle X-ray scattering presents a unique set of advantages and disadvantages when compared with competing techniques. One of the biggest advantages that small angle scattering has over many of the existing techniques is the fact that the sample does not need to be crystallized. Since SAS provides information without the constraint of requiring repeated structure, there is no need to obtain near-perfect crystal structure. This makes the method non-destructive and requires very little preparation time [5]. Another very important caveat of SAXS is its ability to analyze solutions, something which cannot be done in vacuum environments such as an SEM. Since SAXS responds to changes in electron density, it is often used in biological labs, where solutions present themselves often for analysis. While TEM can also be useful in this manner, SAXS is not as prone to damaging the sample through contact with an electron beam [4]. With the introduction of the synchrotron, SAXS has become even more useful for analyzing RNA strands in this type of medium [3]. Finally, SAXS allows for analysis of larger (mass or size) particles than many other methods such as crystallography or Transmission Electron Microscopy(TEM). SAXS can measure particles on the order of 5-25nm with weakly repeating structures of up to 150 nm [6]. Synchrotron implementation allows for even larger sizes through control of the wavelength of the outgoing X-rays via ltering devices [3]. Despite the advantages of SAXS, there are some disadvantages to its methods as well. Firstly, there is a loss of information over techniques like TEM. This is due to the fact that SAXS provides a more holistic view of the structure. TEM provides information about individual grains by actually looking at them optically while SAXS will give more information about the average of the particles [6]. Another disadvantage to SAXS when compared to Small-angle neutron scattering is the inability to control the scattering length density easily. However, this problem has been somewhat remedied with the introduction of synchrotrons with ltering capabilities [7].

3.2

Applications

The applications for SAXS are broad with high concentration in colloid analysis (nearly any kind), biological protein and RNA analysis, and quality control (food and materials) [6]. SAXS is particularly good at resolving RNA-protein complexes because the extra electrons on the RNA section scatter the electrons much more than the protein chain [3]. Using repeated scanning techniques, SAXS can resolve the structure of a chain of molecules in solution very easily due to the electron density dierence between the two [6]. Lastly, SAXS is very highly useful in the analysis of wet gels and xerogels in biochemistry labs

worldwide [4].

Conclusion

In conclusion, small-angle X-ray scattering provides information about larger, less-ordered structures due to its reaction to inhomogeneities in electric eld density. SAXS is a highly useful tool, particularly in the biological sciences, because of its ability to resolve wet gels, RNA-protein complexes, and larger molecule chains in solution. Especially when combined with other techniques for structural analysis, a great deal of information can be obtained through its application.

References
[1] O. Glatter and O. Kratky. Small Angle X-ray Scattering. Academic Press, 111 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10003, 1982. [2] A. Guinier, G. Fournet, C. Walker, and K. Yudowitch. Small-Angle Scattering of X-rays. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1955. [3] R. Hartmann. Handbook of RNA Biochemistry. Wiley-VCH, 2005. [4] A. Hubbard. Encyclopedia of Surface and Colloid Science. CRC Press, 2002. [5] L. Ko. Application of saxs on multi-domain systems. Presentation, January 2007. [6] E. Lifshin. X-ray Characterization of Materials. Wiley-VCH, 1999. [7] J. Ramsay. In-situ characterisation of porous materials applications of sans/saxs techniques. Thesis Paper, Universit Montpellier II, France.