Abu Dhabi University

Research Methods in Business ((MGT 524 Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar

MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar

Definition of Business Research Business research can be described as: A systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem that needs a solution. A problem is a gap between desired and actual state. Simply, there are five major and important steps involved in the research process: 1) Defining the Problem 2) Research Design 3) Data Collection 4) Analysis 5) Report Writing and Presentation Survey research A research method involving the use of questionnaires to gather data about people and their thoughts and behaviors Qualitative Research Usually emphasizes words (like interview, open ended survey responses, emails, notes, feedback forms, photos, videos and focus group) rather than quantification in the collection and analysis of data. Quantitative Research Usually emphasizes quantification in the collection and analysis of data. Precise count of some behavior, knowledge, opinion, or attitude.

MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar

A brief discussion on these steps is: 1) Problem audit and problem definition What is the problem? What are the various aspects of the problem? What information is needed? 2) Conceptualization and operationalization - How exactly do we define the concepts involved? How do we translate these concepts into observable and measurable behaviors? A Concept is a generalized idea that represents something of meaning. Concepts such as age, gender and education are relatively concrete properties and present few problems in either definition or measurement. Concepts such as brand loyalty, corporate culture, and attitude and so on are more abstract and are more difficult to both define and measure 3) 4) 5) 6)
7)

Hypothesis specification - What claim(s) do we want to test? Research design specification - What type of methodology to use? - Examples: questionnaire, survey. Question specification. What questions to ask? In what order Scale specification - How will preferences be rated? Sampling design specification - What is the total population? What sample size is necessary for this population? What sampling method to use?- examples:

Probability Sampling Simple Random Sampling Systematic Sampling Stratified Sampling Cluster Sampling Area Sampling Double Sampling
MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar

Nonprobability Sampling Convenience Sampling Judgment Sampling Quota Sampling. 8) 9) Data collection - Use mail, telephone, internet, mall intercepts Codification and re-specification - Make adjustments to the raw data so it is compatible with statistical techniques and with the objectives of the research - examples: assigning numbers, consistency checks, substitutions, deletions, weighting, dummy variables, scale transformations, scale standardization Statistical analysis - Perform various descriptive and inferential techniques. Make inferences from the sample to the whole population. Test the results for statistical significance. Interpret and integrate findings - What do the results mean? What conclusions can be drawn? How do these findings relate to similar research?

10)

11)

12) Write the research report - Report usually has headings such as: Executive summary; Objectives; Methodology; Main findings; Detailed charts and diagrams. Present the report to the client in a 10 minute presentation. Be prepared for questions.

MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar

Objectives of the Course

Knowledge and Skills Gained Identify Problem Areas Conduct Interviews Do Library Research Develop Theoretical Framework Formulate Hypotheses Make Research Design Decision Collect Data Analyze and Interpret Data Discuss Findings and Implications Discriminate Between Good and Bad Research Know The ManagerResearcher Relationship

Personal and Professional Development Self Management Of Time, Talents, and Other Resources Develop Communication Skills Take Personal Responsibility For Learning and Information Seeking Learn To Handle Ambiguity Develop Logical Thinking and A Feel For What Is Involved in Managerial Decision Making Develop Confidence In Your Competence

MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar

Problems come to light in a variety of ways, including: Customer complaints Conversations with company employees Observation of inappropriate behavior or conditions in the firm Deviation from the business plan Success of the firms competitors Company records and reports Ground Rules for the Business Research Always know what you are researching Always test a research model Never use only one information-gathering technique When it comes to study a problem, keep it short and simple (KISS) If necessary, hire a professional Make the decision Fundamental Types of Research Basic Research Research conducted to generate knowledge and understanding of phenomena that would add to the existing body of knowledge for future use Applied Research Research conducted in a particular setting with the specific intention of solving an existing problem in the situation or conducted when a decision must be made about a specific real-life problem. Problems for Basic and Applied Research Management Employee behaviors such as performance, absenteeism, and turnover. Employee attitudes such as job satisfaction, loyalty, and organizational commitment. Employee selection, recruitment, training, and retention. Validation of performance appraisal system. Evaluation of assessment centers Marketing What price should we charge for our product? What distribution channels should be used?

MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar

How well does the product match up with the competitor's product? How effective is the company's advertising? How well this new product be received by the consumers? What percentage of market penetration does Product X have? What is Product X's image in the consumer's mind?

Finance What would be the market reaction to a new stock offering? How does that typical investor view the company? What is the market value of the fixed assets in the manufacturing division? What do the accounting supervisors think about the new computer installation? Manufacturing Who is the most reliable vendor for this raw material? What is the most efficient plant layout and location for product X? Does Product X meet the quality control standard? Would it be possible to substitute raw material Y for Z? What automated warehouse system should be purchased? What lighting system gives the highest increase in productivity? What is the exact nature of this production task? Personnel What skills are required for this job? What is the salary range for similar employees in this area? What type of training would be desirable for this job? How do employees feel about their job, the company and its management? How good is the communication among employees, supervisor and subordinates? Which employees are promotable?

MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar

Why Should a Manager Know Research? Facilitates good decision making Become discrimination about research findings Prevents vested interests Educates to share pertinent and relevant information with researcher Helps take calculated risks with probabilities attached Understand the complexity of the variables in organization An integral part of professionalization of management The Manager-Researcher Relationships Each should know his/her role Trust levels Acceptance of findings and implementation Internal Researcher Advantages Better acceptance from staff Knowledge about organization Would be an integral part of implementation and evaluation of the research recommendations Disadvantages Less fresh ideas Possibility not valued as "experts" by staff External Researchers Advantages Divergent and convergent thinking Experience from several situations in different types of organizations Better technical training, usually Disadvantages Takes time to know and understand the organization system Seldom welcomed by the employees Not available for evaluation after implementation Costs

MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar

The Hallmarks of Scientific Research Purposiveness The situation in which research is focused on solving a well-identified and defined problem. Rigor The theoretical and methodological precision adhered to in conducting research. Testability The ability to subject the data collected to appropriate statistical tests in order to accept or reject the hypotheses developed for the research study. Replicability The replicability of similar results when identical research is conducted at different times or in different organizational settings. Precision and Confidence Precision: refers to the closeness of the findings to reality based on a sample. In other words, precision reflects the degree of accuracy of the results on the basis of the sample, to what really exists in the universe. Confidence: refers to the probability that our estimations are correct. That is, it is not merely enough to be precise, but it is also important that we can confidently claim that 95% of the time our results would be true and there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong. Objectivity Interpretation of the results on the bases of the results of data analysis should be objective, that is, they should be based on the facts of the findings derived from actual data, and not on our own subjective or emotional values as opposed to subjective or emotional interpretations Generalizability Generalizability refers to the scope of applicability of research findings in one organizational setting to other settings. Obviously, the wider the range of applicability of the solutions generated by research, the more useful the research is to the user. Parsimony One of the main points in research is the achievement of a meaningful and simple model rather than a complex one for problem solution.
MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar

The Building Blocks of Scientific Research Deduction and Induction Answers to issues can be found either by the process of deduction or the process of induction, or by a combination of the two. Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a known fact or the process of arriving at conclusion based on the interpretation of the meaning of the results of data analysis. For example, We know that all managers are human beings. If we also know that John Smith is a manager, Then we can deduce that John Smith is a human being. Induction, on the other hand, is a process where we observe certain phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusion. In other words, in induction we logically establish a general proposition based on observed facts or the process by which general propositions based on observed facts are established. For example, All managers that have ever been seen are human beings; Therefore all managers are human beings.

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The Hypothetico-Deductive Method The seven-step process in the Hypothetico-Deductive method in organizations Observation Observation is the first stage, in which one sense that certain changes are occurring, or that some new behaviors, attitudes, and feelings are surfacing in one's environment (i.e., the workplace). When the observed phenomena are seen to have potentially important consequences, one would proceed to the next step. Preliminary information gathering Preliminary information gathering involves the seeking of information in depth, of what is observed. A mass of observation would have been collected through the interviews and library search. Theory formulation Is an attempt to integrate all the information in a logical manner, so that the factors responsible for the problem can be tested. In this step the critical variables are examined as to their contribution or influence in explaining why the problem occurs and how it can be solved. Hypothesizing From the theorized network of associations among the variables, certain testable hypotheses can be generated. Further scientific data collection After the development of the hypotheses, data with respect to each variable in the hypotheses need to be obtained. In other words, further scientific data collection is needed to test the hypotheses that are generated in the study. Data analysis The data gathered are statistically analyzed to see if the hypotheses that were generated have been supported. Deduction Is the process of arriving at conclusion by interpreting the meaning of the results of the data analysis.

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Common Used Technologies in Business Research The internet Electronic mail The intranet Browsers Web sites Some Software Used in Business Research Groupware Neural networks CAM/CAD Data Analytic Software Programs SAS SPSS MINITAB SYSTAT SIGMASTAT EXCEL

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Determining when to conduct business research Time Constraints Is sufficient time available before a managerial decision must be made?
Yes

Availability of Data Is the information already on hand inadequate for making the decision?
Yes

Nature of the Decision Is the decision of considerable strategic or tactical importance?

Yes

No

Do Not Conduct Business Research

Benefits vs. Costs Does the value of the research information exceed the cost of conducting research?
I
Yes

Conducting Business Researech

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Research Process
Never assume that what has always worked will continue to work. Business success is a constant process of evaluation and improvement. Testing is the research technique that can best help you keep a finger on the pulse of all aspects of organizational success. Research Process for Basic and Applied Research Chart

Step 1: Observation Identification of the Research Interest Step 2: Preliminary Data Collection. Interview Literature Survey Step 3: Problem Definition. Step 4: Theoretical Framework Variables Clearly Identified and Labeled. Step 5: Generation of Hypotheses. Step 6: Scientific Research Design. Step 7: Data Collection, Analysis and Interpretation.

Step 8: Deduction. Hypotheses Substantiated? Research Question Answered?

No

Yes Step 9: Report Writing

Step 10: Report Presentation

Step 11: Managerial Decision Making

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Stages in the Research Process Problem Discovery and Problem Definition The formulation of the problem is often more essential than its solution Informal gathering of background information to familiarize researchers or managers with the decision area State the research questions and research objectives. Research Proposal: A written statement of the research design that includes a statement explaining the purpose of the study Basic Questions that are related to the problem definition What is the purpose of the study? How much is already known? Is additional background information necessary? What is to be measured? How? Should research be conducted? Research Design What types of questions need to be answered? Are descriptive or causal findings required? What is the source of the data? Basic research methods: Surveys, Experiments, Secondary data, observation Sampling A sample is a subset of a large population Who is to be sampled? How large a sample? How will sample units be selected? Data Gathering Who will gather the data? How long will data gathering take? Data Processing and Analysis How will the data be categorized? What statistical software will be used? What questions need to be answered? Conclusions and Report Who will read the report?

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Step 1 Observation - The Broad Problem Area Examples of broad problem areas that a manager could observe at the workplace are as follows: Training programs are perhaps not effective as anticipated The sales volume of a product is not picking up Minority group members in organizations are not advancing in their careers The newly installed information system is not being used by the managers for whom it was primarily designed The introduction of flexible work hours has created more problems than it has solved in many companies The anticipated results of a recent merger have not been forthcoming Inventory control is not effective The installation of an MIS keeps getting stalled

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Step 2 Preliminary Data Collection Background information of the organization Managerial philosophy, company policies, and other structural aspects Perceptions, attitudes, and behavioral responses of organizational members and client systems Literature Survey Next Page

Can be obtained from the organizations records and documents, like Roles and position in the organization and number of employees at each job level. Extent of specialization. Communication channels. Control systems. Coordination and span of control. Reward systems. Workflow systems and the like..

Nature of the work. Workflow interdependencies. Superiors in the organization Participation in decision making. Client systems. Co-workers. Rewards provided by the organization, such as pay raises and fringe benefits. Opportunities for advancement in the organization. Organizations attitudes toward employee's family responsibilities. Companys involvement with community, civic, and other social groups.

Can be obtained from available published records, the web site of the company, its archives, and other sources), like, The origin and history of the company. Size in terms of employees, assets, or both. Charter-purpose and ideology. Location-regional, national, or other. Resources-human and others. Interdependent relations with other institutions. Financial position during the previous 5 to 10 years.

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Literature Survey Literature survey is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the published and unpublished work from secondary source of data in the areas of specific interest to the researcher. (Secondary data can be collected from, library, books, journals, newspapers, magazines, conference proceedings, doctorial dissertations, masters theses, government publications, and financial, marketing, and other reports) Reasons for the Literature Survey Important variables that are likely to influence the problem situation are not left out of the study. A clearer idea emerges as to what variables would be most important to consider, why they would be considered important, and how they should be investigated to solve the problem. Thus, the literature survey helps the development of the theoretical framework and hypotheses testing. The problem statement can be made with precision and clarity. Testability and replicability of the findings of the current research are enhanced.

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Step 3 Problem Definition Is a clear and precise statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution? Thus, it is fruitful to define a problem as: any situation where gap exists between the actual and the desired ideal states. Problem definitions could pertain to Exiting business problems where a manager is looking for a solution. (Applied Research) Situations that may not pose any current problems but which the manager feels have scope for improvement. (Applied Research) Areas where some conceptual clarity is needed for better theory building. (Basic Research) Situations in which a researcher is trying to answer a research question empirically because of interest in the topic. (Basic Research) Examples of Well-Defined Problems To what extent do the structure of the organization and type of information systems installed account for the variance in the perceived effectiveness of managerial decision making? To what extent has the new advertising campaign been successful in creating the high-quality, customer-centered corporate image that it was intended to produce? How has the new packaging affected the sales of the product? Has the new advertising massage resulted in enhanced recall? How do price and quality rate on consumer's evaluation of products? Does better automation lead to greater asset investment per dollar of output? Does expansion of international operations result in an enhancement of the firms image and value? What are the effects of downsizing on the long-range growth patterns of companies? What are the components of quality of life? What are the specific factors to be considered in creating a data warehouse for a manufacturing company?

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Step 4 Theoretical Framework A theoretical framework is a conceptual model of how one theorizes or makes logical sense of the relationships among the several factors that have been identified as important to the problem. From the theoretical framework, then, testable hypotheses can be developed to examine whether the theory formulated is valid or not. Since the theoretical framework is none other than identifying the network of relationships among the variables considered important to the study of any given problem situation, it is essential to understand what a variable means and what the different types of variables are.

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Types of Variables Dependent Independent Moderating A variable that has a strong effect on the independent variabledependent variable relationship Intervening A variable that surfaces as a function of the independent variable, and helps in conceptualizing and explaining the influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researcher. The researcher's goal is to explain or predict the variability in the dependent variable. The researcher is interested in quantifying and measuring this variable, as well as the other variables that influence this variable. Example A manager is concerned that the sales of a new product introduced after market testing is not as high as he had expected. The dependent variable here is sales. Since the sales of the product can vary- can be low, medium, high- it is a variable; since sales are the main factor of interest to the manager, it is the dependent variable.

An independent variable is one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or a negative way. Example Research studies indicate that successful new product development has an influence on the stock market price of the company. That is, the more successful the new product is believed to be, the higher will be the stock market price of that firm. Therefore, the success of the new product is the independent variable, and stock market price is the dependent variable.

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Example Motivation to work as an independent variable The performance of employees is influenced by their motivation to work.
nioMotivat Performance

IV

DV

Motivation to work as an intervening variable Employees performing better when they are given challenging jobs, because such jobs tend to motivate them to work.
Job Challenge Motivation Performance

IV

ITV

DV

Motivation to work as a moderating variable The performance of employees with low levels of motivation to work will not improve despite increases in job challenge. IV MO V DV
Job Challenge Performance

Motivation

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Features that should be incorporated in any theoretical framework The variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly identified and labeled in the discussions. The discussions should state how two or more variables are related to one another. This should be done for the important relationships that are theorized to exist among the variables. If the nature and direction of the relationships can be theorized on the basis of the findings of previous research, then there should be an indication in the discussions as to whether the relationships would be positive or negative. There should be a clear explanation of why we would expect these relationships to exist. A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be given so that the reader can see and easily comprehend the theoretical relationships. Step 5 Hypotheses Development A hypotheses can defined as a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement or to test whether the relationships that have been theorized do in fact hold true. The steps to be followed in hypotheses testing are State the null and alternative hypotheses Choose the appropriate statistical test depending on whether the data collected are parametric or nonparametric. Determine the level of significance desired (p = 0.05, or more, or less). See if the output results from the computer analysis indicate that the significance level is met. When the resultant value is larger that the critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected, and the alternative accepted.

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Step 6 Purpose of the Study Exploratory A research study where very little knowledge or information is available on the subject under investigation Descriptive tory Hypothesis testing Analytical A research study that tries to explain why or how certain variables influence the dependent variable of interest to the researcher Predictive A research study that enables the prediction of the relationships among the variables in a particular situation Case study

A research study that describes the variables in a situation of interest to the researcher. OR, The elementary transformation of raw data in a way that describes the basic characteristics such as central tendency, distribution, and variability.

A research study that involve in-depth, appropriate analysis of similar situation in other organizations, where the same nature and definition of the problem happen to be the same as experienced in the current situation
(i.e. A research approach that focuses on a detailed account of one or more individual cases (specific students or a specific class))

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Descriptive Analysis The transformation of raw data into a form that will make them easy to understand and interpret; rearranging, ordering, and manipulating data to generate descriptive information. Frequency Table The arrangement of statistical data in a row-and-column format that exhibits the count of responses or observations for each category assigned to a variable Cross Tabulation A technique for organizing data by groups, categories, or classes, thus facilitating comparisons; a joint frequency distribution of observations on two or more sets of variables Contingency table- The results of a cross-tabulation of two variables, such as survey questions Analyze data by groups or categories Compare differences Contingency table Percentage cross-tabulations

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Type of Investigation Causal A research study conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationships among variables. A study that is designed to determine whether one or more variables explain the causes or effects of one or more outcome (dependent variables A causal study question: Does smoking cause cancer? Correlation tory A research study conducted to identify the important factors associated with the variables of interest. A Correlational study question: Are smoking and cancer related?

Study Settings Contrived or Unnatural An artificial created or "lab" environment in which research is conducted Noncontrived or Natural tory A research conducted in a natural environment where activities take place in the normal manner

Time Horizon Cross-Sectional Longitudinal

A research study for which data are gathered just once to answer the research question

A research study for which data are gathered at several points in time to answer the research question

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Unit of Analysis Refers to the level of aggregation of the data collection during the subsequent data analysis stage. The research question determines the unit of analysis Individuals Dyads If the researcher is interested in studying two-person interactions, then several two-person groups will become the unit of analysis. Groups If the problem statement is related to groups, then the unit of analysis would be at the group level. Organizations or Cultures If the problem statement is related to organizations or cultures, then the unit of analysis would be at the organization or culture level.

If the problem is to raise the motivational levels of employees, then we are interested in individual employees. We will be looking at the data gathered from each individual and treating each employee's response as an individual data source

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Variables Anything that can take on differing or varying values. The values can differ at various times for the same object or person, or the values can differ at the same time for different objects or persons.

Objective Can be measured Qualitative -Brand of PC -Marital status -Hair color Quantitative

Discrete -Children in a family. -Number of Students in class.

Continuous -Amount of income -Weight of Students

Subjective Can't be measured because of its subjective nature There are ways of measuring the subjective feelings and perceptions of individuals. One technique is to reduce the abstract notions, or concepts such as motivation, involvement, satisfaction, buyer behavior to observable behavior and characteristics

Example Answer to the following questions from the respondents would be one way of measuring the level of achievement motivation. o To what extent would you say you push yourself to get the job done on time? o How often do you neglect personal matters because you are preoccupied with your job? o How frequently do you think of your work when you are at home? o To what extent would you prefer to take on extremely difficult assignments rather than moderately challenging ones?

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Levels of Data

Nominal Data may only be classified Gender Nationality -Data categories are mutually exclusive and exhaustive. -Data categories have no logical order or distance relationship and have no arithmetic origin. Frequency table, Proportion (Percentages) Mode. Chi-square test (Difference among two or more independent groups) Z-test (two proportions)

Ordinal Data are ranked

Interval Meaningful difference between values-Equal Intervals Temperature

Ratio Meaningful zero point and ratio between values Weight Height Length -Ratio scale has the power of the interval scale plus the provision for absolute zero or origin. Ratio data represent the actual amounts of the variable. -Data classifications are ordered according to the amount of the characteristic they possess. -The zero point is the absence of the characteristic.

Your rank in class

-Ordinal scale includes the characteristics of the nominal scale plus an indicator of order. -If a > b and b > c, then a > c without stating how much greater or less. Median, Percentile, and Rank-order correlations.

-Interval scale have the power of nominal and ordinal scales plus an additional strength: they incorporate the concept of equality of interval. The time between 3 and 6am equals the time between 4 and 7am. One cannot say, 6am is twice as late as 3am because "zero time is an arbitrary origin. 80F is hotter than 40F but you cannot conclude that the 40F is twice as cold as 80F because this is a scaling system. 80F = (80-32)*5/9 = 26.7C 40F = (40-32)*5/9 = 4.4C

Mode, Median, Mean, Standard deviation, Variance, t and Z-test. One way ANOVA (for more than two groups). Correlation Coefficient. Regression Analysis.

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Measurements We know the four different types of data levels (scales) that can be used to measure the operationally defined dimensions and elements of a variable, it is necessary to examine the methods of scaling (that is, assigning numbers or symbols) to obtain the attitudinal responses of subjects toward objects, events, or persons. Scales Is a tool or mechanism by which individuals, events, or objects are distinguished on the variables of interest in some meaningful way. Scales that are commonly used in business research can be generally classified as rating scales and ranking scales.
Rating Scales Have several response categories and are used to obtain responses with regard to the object, event, or person studied Ranking Scales (Ordinal Scale) This type of question requires the participant to rank order a list of items. Example: What are the most important three considerations in selecting a supermarket? Location O Price O Meat quality O Cleanliness O Service O Paired Comparison Is used when, among a small number of objects, respondent are asked to choose between two objects at a time. Pair-wise comparison generally refers to any process of comparing entities in pairs to judge which of each pair is preferred An evaluation of two products that are given values based on set criteria as means of comparing the two items. A ranking technique that compares each job being evaluated individually to every other job in a pair-wise fashion to determine which job has a higher value. Ranks of jobs are created which can than be pegged to the market via benchmark jobs. Forced Choice Enables respondents to rank objects relative to one another, among the alternative provided. This is easier for the respondents, particularly if the number of choices to be ranked is limited in number. Example: Rank the following news papers that you would like to subscribe to in the order of preference, assuming 1 for the most preferred choice and 5 for the last preferred Gulf News --Al Itehad --Al Bayan -- Khaleej Times --Middle East --Comparative Scale Ask respondents to rate a concept in comparison with a benchmark explicitly used as a frame of reference. Example: Please indicate how the amount of authority in your present position compares with the amount of authority that would be ideal for this position Too Much About Right Too Little 1 2 3 Example: In an unusual financial environment, compared to stocks, how wise or useful is it to invest in Treasury bonds? Please circle the appropriate response More Useful About the Same Less Useful 1 2 3 4 5
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Rating Scales Dichotomous Scale: (Closed-Ended Questions) (Nominal Scale) This question uses an either/or or yes/no response. Example: I have good communication with my supervisor. Yes O No O The color in our new store is generally. Attractive O Not attractive O Do you own a car? Yes O No O Category Scale (Multiple choice) (Nominal Scale): Uses multiple items to obtain a single response (the most correct one). Example: What is your age? Less than 30 O 30 to 39 O 40 to 49 O More than 49 O Likert Scale (Interval Scale) Is designed to examine how strongly subjects agree or disagree with statements on a 5-point scale with the following anchors: 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree Example: Please indicate the degree to which you agree with each of the following statements: Strongly Disagree My work is very interesting 1 Life without my work will be dull 1 Carrefour is the best supermarket in Dubai 1 I am not engrossed in my work at all 1 Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 Agree Strongly Agree 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5

Semantic Differential: (Interval Scale) This method measures attitude by displaying pairs of opposite terms and asking respondents to check which term better describes their feelings toward the concept or topic. Each pair consists of a positive and negative adjective reflecting the extremes, such as: "honest, dishonest", "efficient, inefficient", "powerful, week". The adjectives are placed at opposite ends of the line, which is divided into an equal number of segments. Respondents can select the degree to which the adjective describes the topic. It is important to reverse some of the items so that people don't develop a "response set" marking the same column out of habit. In the following example you can see some positive terms on the left column and some on the right column: Example: Happy ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- Sad Not helpful ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- helpful Slow ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- Fast Numerical Scale (Interval Scale) Similar to the semantic differential scale, with the difference that numbers on a 5-point or 7point scale are provided. Extremely Pleased 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Extremely Displeased Itemized Rating Scale (Interval Scale) A 5-point or 7-point scale with anchors, as needed, is provided for each item and the respondent states the appropriate number on the side of each item or circle the relevant number against each item.

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Example: Respond to each item using the scale below, and indicate your response number on the line by each item. 1 2 3 4 5 Very Unlikely Unlikely Neither Unlikely Nor Likely Likely Very Likely I will be changing my job within the next 12 months ------Fixed or Constant Sum Scale (Ordinal Scale) The respondent are here asked to distribute a given number of points across various items Example: In choosing toilet soap, indicate the importance you attach to each of the following five aspects by assigning points for each to total 100 in all Fragrance --Color --Shape --Size --Texture of lather --Total points 100 Stapel Scale (Interval Scale) Uses a single adjective as a substitute for the semantic differential when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives. This scale simultaneously measures both the direction and intensity of the attitude toward the items under study. The characteristic of interest to the study is placed at the center with a numerical scale ranging, say, from +3 to -3, on either side of the item. This gives an idea of how close or distant the individual response to the stimulus is. Example: State how you would rate your supervisor's abilities with respect to each of the characteristics mentioned below, by circling the appropriate number. 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 Adopting Modern Product Innovation Interpersonal Skills Technology -1 -1 -1 -2 -2 -2 -3 -3 -3 Graphic Rating Scale (Interval Scale) A graphical representation helps the respondents to indicate on this scale their answers to a particular question by placing a mark at the appropriate point on the line Example: On a scale of 1 to 10 how would you rate your instructor?
10 Excellent

5 All right

1 Very bad

Open-Ended Questions: This type of question allows the respondent to give an unlimited answer. Example: Why do you shop at Carrefour?
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Concept A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes. Or a generalized idea that represents something of meaning. Concepts such as age, gender, and education are relatively concrete properties and present few problems in either definition or measurement. Concepts such as brand loyalty, corporate culture, media skepticism, and so on are more abstract and are more difficult to both define and measure. Operational Definition Specifies what the researcher must do to measure the concept under investigation Media Skepticism Conceptual Definition Media skepticism - the degree to which individuals are skeptical toward the reality presented in the mass media. Media skepticism varies across individuals, from those who are mildly skeptical and accept most of what they see and hear in the media to those who completely discount and disbelieve the facts, values, and portrayal of reality in the media. Media Skepticism Operational Definition Please tell me how true each statement is about the media. Is it very true, not very true, or not at all true? 1. The program was not very accurate in its portrayal of the problem. 2. Most of the story was staged for entertainment purposes. 3. The presentation was slanted and unfair

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Source of Data Primary Information obtained firsthand by the researcher on the variables of interest for the specific purpose of the study, like individuals, focus groups, panels and unobtrusive methods Individuals Who provide information when interviewed, administered questionnaire, or observed. Focus Groups A group consisting of 8 to 10 members randomly selected, who discus a product or any given topic for about 2 hours with a moderator present, so that their opinions can serve as the basis for further research. Focus group are used for Exploratory studies Making generalizations based on the information generated by them. Conducting sample surveys. Secondary Information gathered from sources already existing, as for example, company records or archives, government publications, industry analysis offered by the media, web sites, the Internet, and so on.

Panels Whereas focus groups meet for a one-time group session, panels (of members) meet more than once. In cases where the effects of certain changes are to be studied over a period of time.

Unobtrusive Sources Data Collection Trace measures as they are also called, originate from a primary source that does not involve people. For example, the number of different brands of soft drink cans found in trash bags also provides a measure of their consumption levels.

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Data Collection Methods

Interviews Could be unstructured or structured, and conducted either face to face or by telephone

Questionnaires

Observing People

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Unstructured The interviewer does not enter the interview setting with a planned sequence of questions to be asked of the respondent. The objective of the unstructured interview is to bring some preliminary issues to the surface so that the researcher can determine what variables need further in-depth investigation.

Structured interviews Conducted by the researcher with a predetermined list of questions to be answered of the interviewee.

Collection of data by observing people or events in the work environment and recording the information.

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Questionnaires A questionnaire is a preformulated written set of questions to which respondents record their answers, usually within rather closely defined alternatives. Questionnaires are an efficient data collection mechanism when the researcher known exactly what is required and how to measure the variables of interest. Gathering information via surveys is quick, inexpensive, efficient, accurate and flexible. Preliminary Factors Necessary for Effective Surveys The researcher must determine what information is needed to meet the purpose of the research project. The researcher must determine that the survey approach will be the best method for collecting the needed information. Before a survey project is implemented, the researcher must have a good understanding of the population from which the sample for the survey will be drawn. How questions are worded and the level of sophistication of the language used. The type and form of questions asked Test the Questions Pretest any questionnaire by administering the survey to a small group of people people similar to those who will be asked to respond to the final version. Responses to the pretest will tell you how well people understand the questions. The feedback will help you refine the questions to eliminate misunderstandings and confusion. Stages of an interview The interview precedes through stages, beginning with introduction an entry. Interviewers are trained to make appropriate opening remarks that will convince the person that his or her cooperation is important. Asslamm-o-Alaykum .. My name is .(I am working for (or calling from, for a telephone interview We are conducting a survey concerning I would like to get a few of your ideas

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Draft and Develop the Questions

Validity Validity is the degree to which the item measures what the researcher want to measure. Or the ability of a scale to measure what was intended to measure One method of improving validity is to be assured that the question will not produce a biased response. Emotionally packed words and questions that lead the respondent toward an obviously preferred answer should be avoid.

Reliability Reliability is the degree to which the item is likely to get the same results consistently. Questions that obtain reasonably consistent results when administered to similar samples (or the same sample at different times) are said to be reliable.

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Important Remarks
Once the questions have been tested, they should be integrated into a clean, straightforward questionnaire that provides clear instructions on how it should be completed. Numbering each question and all possible responses will help facilitate the coding process. The final version of the questionnaire should be psychologically attractive, leaving ample white space. Don't crowd the information; it'll look imposing to the reader and may reduce the number of responses. The questionnaire should have as many questions as necessary, but as few as possible. Responses for multiple-choice questions should be mutually exclusive from the other choices. Each choice is different from the others. Eliminate any ambiguous options. The questionnaire should be titled and professionally reproduced. An attractively printed survey will be positively received and will yield a higher response rate. A good questionnaire should include both positively and negatively worded questions. Double-barreled questions should be eliminated, like "Do you think there is a good market for the product and that it will sell well?" Ambiguous questions should be avoided Recall-Dependent questions should be avoided. Leading Questions Questions should not be phrased in such a way that they lead the respondents to give the responses that the researcher would like or want them to give, like "Don't you think that in these days of escalating costs of living, employees should be given good pay raises?" Another way of asking the question "To what extent do you agree that employees should be given higher pay raises?" Simple and short questions are preferable to long ones. As a rule of thumb, a question or a statement in the questionnaire should not exceed 20 words, or exceed one full line in print. Organize the questions logically in appropriate sections and providing instructions on how to complete the items in each section will help the respondents to answer them without difficulty. Information of a very private and personal nature such as income, state of health, and so on should be asked at the end of the questionnaire. Such questions should be justified by explaining how this information might contribute to knowledge and problem solving. The questionnaire could include an open-ended question at the end allowing respondents to comment on any aspect they choose, like "Please make any additional comments needed in the space provided" The questionnaire would end with an expression of sincere thanks to respondents, like: "I sincerely appreciate your time and cooperation. Please check to make sure that you have not skipped any question, and then drop the questionnaire in the locked box".

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Ethics in Data Collection Ethical Behaviors of Sponsors -The sponsors should ask for the study to be done to better the purpose of the organization, and not for any other selfserving reason. -The sponsors should respect the confidentiality of the data obtained by the researcher and not ask for the individual or group responses to be disclosed to them, or ask to see the questionnaire. -The sponsors should have an open mind in accepting the results and recommendations in the report presented by the researcher. Ethical Behaviors of Researchers -Treating the information given by the respondent as strictly confidential and guarding his or her privacy is one of the primary responsibilities of the researcher. -The researcher should not misrepresent the nature of the study to subjects, especially in lab experiment. The purpose of the study must be explained to them. -No one should be forced to respond to the survey. Ethical Behaviors of Respondents - The subject, once having exercised the choice to participate in a study, should cooperate fully in the tasks ahead, such as responding to a survey or taking part in an experiment. -The respondent also has an obligation to be truthful and honest in the responses.

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Sampling Surveys are useful and powerful in finding answers to research questions through data collection and subsequent analysis, but they can do more harm than good if the population is not correctly targeted. That is not collected from the people, events, or objects that can provide the correct answers to solve the problem. The process of selecting the right individuals, objects, or events for study is known as sampling. Population Is the entire group of people, events, or things of interest that the researcher wishes to investigate. Element A single member of the population Population Frame A listing of all the elements in the population from which the sample is drawn Sample A subset or subgroup of the population Subject A single member of the sample Reasons to Sample To contact the whole population would often be time consuming The cost of studying all the items in a population is often prohibitive The physical impossibility of checking all items in the population The destructive nature of certain tests. Remarks Sample sizes larger than 30 and less than 500 are appropriate for most research. Where samples are to be broken into subsamples, (Male/Female), a minimum sample size of 30 for each category is necessary

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Types of Sampling Probability Sampling Unrestricted or Simple Random Sampling Non-probability Sampling Restricted or Complex Probability Sampling

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Every element in the population has a known and equal chance of being selected as a subject

Systematic Sampling A probability sampling design that involves choosing every nth element in the population for the sample. Suppose you want to sample 8 houses from a street of 120 houses. 120/8=15, so every 15th house is chosen after a random starting point between 1 and 15. If the random starting point is 11, then the houses selected are 11, 26, 41, 56, 71, 86, 101, and 116. Note: In stratified sampling, a random sample is drawn from each of the strata, whereas in cluster sampling only the .selected clusters are studied

Stratified Sampling

Cluster Sampling

Area Sampling

Double Sampling
A type of cluster sampling where geographical areas are the clusters.

A probability sampling design that first divides the population into meaningful non-overlapping subsets (called strata), e.g. geographical areas, age group, genders. A sample is taken from each stratum.

The entire population of interest is divided into groups, or clusters, and a random sample of theses clusters is selected. Then the required information is collected from the elements within each selected group or cluster

A probability sampling design where initially a sample is used in a study to collect some preliminary information of interest, and later a sub-sample of this primary sample is used to examine the matter in more details.

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Non-probability Sampling Convenience Information or data for the researcher are gathered from members of the population conveniently accessible to the researcher. Judgment The sample subject is chosen on the basis of the individual's ability to provide the type of special information needed by the researcher Purposive The required information is gathered from special or specific targets or groups of people on some rational basis

Quota Predetermined proportion of people from different subgroups is sampled A non-probability stratified sampling procedure ( the
population is first segmented into mutually exclusive subgroups) in which units are selected for the sample from

each group to adhere to certain proportions of characteristics

Determine the Sample Size You Need The following table gives us a simple way to calculate the sample size, if the size of the population is approximately known. A Sample Size Table Degree of Accuracy = 0.05 Population Sample Population Sample Population Sample 10 9 260 155 3000 340 20 19 300 168 5000 356 40 36 400 196 10000 369 60 52 500 217 20000 376 80 66 700 248 50000 381 100 79 900 269 70000 382 140 102 1000 277 120000 282 180 122 1500 305 160000 383 220 140 2000 322 1,000,000 383

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Data Analysis Process Getting Data Ready for Analysis

Editing The process of going over the data and ensuring that they are complete and acceptable for data analysis If 25% of the items in the questionnaire have been left unanswered, it may be a good idea to throw out the questionnaire Assign the midpoint in the scale as the response to that particular item Assign the mean value of the responses of all those who have responded to that particular item Assign the mean value of the responses of this particular respondent to all other questions measuring this variable Assign a random number within the range for that scale to that particular item. Several items measuring a concept should be grouped together. Responses to negatively worded questions should be reversed so that all answers are in the same direction

Data Analysis
Feel for Data Goodness of Data Hypotheses Testing -Chi-Square Test: A nonparametric test establishes the independence between two nominal variables. -t-Test: A statistical test that establishes a significant mean difference in a variable between two groups. -ANOVA Test:: tests for significant mean differences in variables among multiple groups To test the reliability and validity of the measures Frequency distribution for the demographic variables Measures of central tendency Measures of dispersion Correlations Interpretation of results and report writing

Handling blank responses

Coding

Categorizing

Creating data file

Pearson Correlation Coefficient is used to indicate the direction, strength, and significance of the bivariate relationships of all the variables in the study measured on an interval or ratio scale. Spearman's rank correlation and Kendall's rank correlation are used to examine relationships between two ordinal variables. If correlations were higher than 0.75, we might have had to suspect whether or not the correlated variables are two different and distinct variables and would have doubted the validity of the measures. Fisher exact probability test and the Cochran Q test are used to determine the relationship between two nominally scaled variables.

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Goodness of Data To test the reliability and validity of the measures

Reliability The reliability of a measure is established by testing for both consistency and stability.

Validity Evidence that the instrument, technique, or process used to measure a concept does indeed measure the intended concept. Criterion-relate validity can be established by testing for the power of the measure to differentiate individuals who are known to be different Convergent validity can be established when there is high degree of correlation between two different sources responding to the same measure Discriminant validity can be established when two distinctly different concepts are not related to each other Cronbach's Alpha =
N * MIIC 1 + MIIC ( N 1)

Consistency of measure Indicates how will the items measuring a concept hang together as a set. Stability of a measure The ability of the measure to repeat the same results over time with low vulnerability to changes in the situation. Cronbach's Alpha () Cronbach's Alpha is a reliability coefficient that indicates how well the items in a set are positively correlated to one another. Cronbach's alpha is computed in terms of the average intercorrelations among the items measuring the concept. The closer Cronbach's Alpha is to 1, the higher the internal consistency reliability. Reliability less than 0.6 are considered to be poor, those in the 0.7 range are acceptable, and those over 0.8 are good.

Where: N:= Number of items MIIC:= Mean Inter-Item-Correlation Note: negatively worded items in the questionnaire should be reversed before the items are submitted for reliability tests.

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Some Nonparametric Tests One Sample -Sign Test -KolmogorovSmirnov Test -Median Test -Chi-Square Test 2 with nominal data Two Samples Related Sign Test: For two related samples measured on ordinal scale Independent More than two Samples Related Independent

-Cochran Test: For more than two related samples measured on nominal scale -Friedman two-way ANOVA Test: For more than two related samples measured on ordinal scale -Kruskal-Wallis Test: For more than two independent samples measured on an ordinal scale.(An alternative to oneway ANOVA where normality of distributions cannot be assumed) -Friedman two-way ANOVA: For more than two related samples measured on ordinal scale. (A good alternative to two-way ANOVA where normality cannot be assumed) -Chi-Square 2 with nominal data

-Fisher exact probability Test: For two independent samples measured on nominal scale -Mann-Whitney or KolmogorovSmirnov (KS) Tests: For two independent samples on ordinal Scale. (Analogue of the two independent sample t-test). -Chi-Square 2 with nominal data. -KS test is a more powerful test than 2 or Mann-Whitney U

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Example The following questionnaire consists of 6 demographic variables and 16 items measuring involvement and satisfaction Demographic variables
1. Age [1] <25 [2] 25-35 [3] 36-45 [4] 46-55 [5] >55 2.Education [1] HS [2] Diploma [3] BSc [4] MSc [5] PhD [6] Other 3. Job Level 4.Gender [1] Manager [1] M [2] Supervisor [2] F [3] Clerk [4] Secretary [5] Technician [6] Other 5. Work Shift [1] First [2] Second [3] Third 6. Employment Status [1] Part Time [2] Full Time

Here are some questions that ask you to tell us how you experience your work life in general. Please circle the appropriate number on the scales below. To what extent would you agree with the following statements, on a scale of 1 to 7, 1 denoting very low agreement, and 7 denoting very high agreement?
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 The major happiness of my life comes from my job Time at work flies by quickly I live, eat, and breath my job My work is fascinating My work gives me a sense of accomplishment My supervisor praises good work The opportunities for advancement are very good here My coworkers are very stimulating People can live comfortably with their pay in the organization I get a lot of cooperation at the workplace My supervisor is not very capable Most things in life are more important than work Working here is a drug The promotion policies here are very unfair My pay is barely adequate to take care of my expenses My work is not the most important part in my life 23. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

Please make any additional comments needed in the space provided

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