Structures and Mechanisms Booklet

Leaving Certificate
Technology
Structures and Mechanisms
Introduction ..................... Motion ..................................... Newtons Third Law of Motion .
2. 6. 8.
Force 9. Load . Structures .. Naturally occurring Structures Forces on a Structure Moments Calculating Moments . Manmade structures found in Nature Shell structures in design . Beams Frames ... Frame analysis Factor of safety ... Moments Levers Lever classification Mechanical advantage .. Velocity ratio Linkages Pulleys ... Pulley advantage Calculations . Cams and followers Rotary cams . Linear cams . Gears . Gear trains Power . 11. 12. 14. 16. 18. 19. 21. 29. 30. 35. 40. 42. 45. 48. 49. 51. 52. 53. 56. 58. 60. 63. 65. 66. 67. 70. 73
Introduction
Structures and Mechanisms
Looking at the image below, it can be clearly seen that the bicycle is constructed around a frame structure. However, the bicycle also depends on mechanisms to function. The chain and sprocket is one example of a mechanism.
Structures are a central part of life today and depend heavily on various mechanisms within machinery for their production. Structures come in countless shapes and sizes, each one with its own unique and specific function. Can you think of any structures which impact on your everyday life?
High Rise Building
Vehicle Frame
Bridge Supporting Roadway
Residential Dwelling
We can simplify learning about these structures and their inherent strength, by identifying and learning about their structural components.
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Machinery is also a central part of life today. As already mentioned, machinery plays a crucial role in the manufacture of those structures, which we have already identified as being a part of our everyday lives. It would be impossible to name every machine in existence. How many examples can you think of?
Drill
Tractor
Car
Exercise Bicycle
Luas
We can simplify learning about these various machines by realising that every machine is made up of a variety of working parts. These working parts are called mechanisms
Rack and Pinion
Pulley and Wheels
Cam and Follower
Can you identify and name the mechanism and/or structure in each of the following images?
Bicycle
Wrench
Wheelbarrow
Entrance
Collins Dictionary Definitions

A mechanism is defined as: A system of moving parts that performs some function
Motion is defined as: The process of continual change in the position of an object
Force is defined as: Exertion or the use of exertion against a person or thing that resists
Motion and Force

What input is required for this drill to work?
Input
The lever of the drill is pulled down
Output The chuck of the drill moves down
Motion
There are four main types of motion: 1. Linear Motion movement in a straight line 2. Reciprocating Motion backwards and forwards movement 3. Rotary Motion movement around in a circle 4. Oscillating Motion movement over and back in an arc Can you think of any everyday examples of these types of motion? 1. Linear Motion A train on its tracks moves in a linear motion. Can you give any other examples of linear motion?
2. Reciprocating Motion Engine pistons and valves move up and down (reciprocate) continuously. Can you think of any other examples?
3. Rotary Motion Rotary motion is also known as circular motion. The wheels of a bicycle move in a rotary fashion. What other examples of rotary motion can you think of?
4. Oscillating Motion
The pendulum of a clock and a child on a swing are both examples of oscillating motion. Can you think of any other examples?
Newtons First Law of Motion

Newtons First Law states: A body continues at rest or at a constant speed in a straight line, unless it is acted on by an external force. This means that without the application of force, a body at rest will not move and a body in motion will continue at a constant velocity forever, if no force is applied to it.
The above rules are true in theory. In practice, however, a car moving along a level surface will always slow down, if no force is applied. This is because of frictional forces acting as a brake.
Newtons Third Law of Motion

Newtons Third Law states: To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. In other words, if Object A exerts a force on Object B, then Object B will consequently exert an equal and opposite force on Object A. This is demonstrated when a car sits on a road. The car tyres push against the road. The road, in turn, pushes back on the tyres in the opposite direction. As a result of the forces being equal and opposite, the car sits on the roads surface.
It neither floats nor sinks, but rather remains sitting.
Force
There are five main types of force: 1. Tension 2. Compression 3. Shear 4. Torsion 5. Bending
A Rope in Tension
Columns in Compression
Pipe Bending
1. Tensile Force (Tension) As demonstrated in a spring, this is where a load pulls an object apart.
2. Compressive Force (Compression) This is where a load presses or squashes objects together, as with the cans being crushed by compression below.
3. Shearing Force (Shear) This occurs when loads push at right angles to the surface of the object, as demonstrated by the image of the scissors below.
4. Torsion Force (Torsion) This occurs when the load causes an object to twist.
5. Bending Force (Bending) This will occur when a load or force causes an object to bend to an angle.
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Load
As there are different types of forces acting on a structure, so too will there be different types of load.
Static Load is a load which is fixed at one point, e.g. a building.
Dynamic Load is a load which is not fixed to any one specific point, e.g. a car travelling along a road.
Structures
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A structure can be defined as an arrangement of parts joined together in a manner which provides strength in order to facilitate the carrying of loads. There are many different types of structure in existence. Examples of these include; buildings, bridges, cranes and chairs.
The Eiffel Tower
The Golden Gate Bridge
Most objects are arrangements of parts, e.g. atoms, crystals, cells.
Crystals
Atoms / Cells
Similarly, structures are objects made up of parts which, when combined, create solid structures.
What, do you think, contributes to strength in structures? Hint: Structures are designed to be able to withstand loads, which may distort or break them.
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This picture shows a variety of structures, including; buildings, a tower crane and scaffolding. Factors which contribute to strength in structure are as follows: The strength of the material The shape of the parts The method used to join the parts together The manner in which they are arranged
This Florentine Bridge and Thai Tribal Home incorporate all of the aforementioned factors in order to contribute to their strength .
Naturally Occurring Structures

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Nature provides us with the template to many of our strongest structures.
How many can you name?
Spiders Webs
Honeycomb
Trees
These naturally occurring structures must, in order to serve their purpose as structures, be able to withstand loads. The forces of nature also provide an everyday challenge to these structures.
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Engineers have studied these naturally occurring structures, which have proven their strength and durability against the forces of nature time and again. They have learned from them and incorporated many of their features into useful designs with several applications in our various man-made structures.
Bees Honeycomb
Honeycomb Floor Mat
Mount Everest
Egyptian Pyramid
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Forces
Force changes the state of rest or uniform motion of a body. Force is measured in units of weight.
Point Load A load acting on a point
Stable pair When forces are equal
Unstable pair When forces are not
equal
Stable combination When opposite forces are balanced
Universally distributed load When the load is spread evenly across a supporting member
The effects of force on a structure

Stress is caused within a structure by any force trying to change the shape of the structure. Strain is the actual change in shape that is caused.
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Compression is when something is squeezed and can result in crushing.
Tension is when something is pulled and can result in stretching
Shear is when something is cut or slides and results in sliding or shearing
Torsion is when something is twisted
Bend is when something is bent and can be permanently deformed
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Moments
Moments are any movement or action about a point or fulcrum. A moment is obtained by multiplying the load by its distance from the point being considered.
Moment = F x d
Distance (d)
Force (F)
When something is in equilibrium, the moments of a force are balanced.
The Principle of Moments states that for there to be equilibrium, the clockwise moments must equal the anti-clockwise moments.
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Calculating Moments
Example 1
Clockwise Moments = 20N x 1m
Anti-Clockwise Moments = 10N x 2m 20Nm = 20Nm
Therefore, the scales is in equilibrium.
Example 2
9 kN
2m
1m
RL
RR
RL :
RR x 3m = 9 x 2m RR = 9 x 2 3 RR = 6kN
RR :
RL x 3m = 9 x 1m RL = 9 x 1 3 RL = 3kN
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9kn Example 3
3m
1m
RL
RR
RL :
RR x 3m = 9 x 4m RR = 9 x 4 3 RR = 12kN
RR :
(RL x 3m) + (9 x 1m) RL = -9 3 RL = -3kN
So, in summary, equilibrium can be described as a state of balance which occurs when both sides are equal. Observing the picture on the left, each of the stones is of a different size and non-uniform shape. However, these stones have been stacked in a manner which allows them to balance and remain upright. How is this possible? Explanation: Each of these stones has an individual point of balance which, when placed in line with the points of balance of each of the other stones, allows the stack of stones to remain upright and unwavering. This point of balance is known as the Centre of Gravity.
The Centre of Gravity is crucial to engineers, when designing large scale structures, such as high rise buildings. It is vital that the building be in equilibrium, in order to ensure that forces such as strong winds, earthquake tremors, or even traffic shudders, do not cause the building to shake on its foundations and collapse.
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Manmade Structures Influenced by Natural Structures

In order to better understand the influence of structures in nature on manmade structures, we will examine the following natural occurrences, and establish a link between natural and everyday manmade structures: A grass leaf A water lily A palm tree leaf A sea arch A snail shell
Water Lily
Palm Tree
Snail Shell
Grass Leaves
Sea Arch
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Grass Leaf
Plants often provide structural inspiration for engineers because they manage to achieve characteristics which are simultaneously lightweight and strong Grass leaves combine these two characteristics. The area between the two outer surfaces of a grass leaf is made of a honeycomb or mesh structure. This honeycomb structure creates a material which is very strong and stable, yet simultaneously thin and lightweight.
Grass Leaf under a Microscope This image shows how the internal honeycomb structure of a grass leaf provides it with its strength
Manufactured Honeycomb Structures
Honeycomb is predominately used as a core in sandwiched structures to meet design requirements for highly stressed structural components. When sandwiched between layers of carbon fibre, honeycomb exhibits extreme resistance to shear stresses.
Water Lily
Water lilies are naturally very fine, yet their structural properties enable them to maintain their shape, even in adverse weather conditions.
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On observation, the underside of a water lily consists of a web-like structure, which grows from the centre of the leaf outwards. This structure effectively scaffolds or supports the surface of the leaf.
Supporting Structures
Can you think of any man-made structures which support platforms in the way that the water lily does? Sports stadiums, multi-storey car parks and modern factory roofs all use the water lily structure as a model on which to construct and manufacture their structures.
The Eiffel towers giant Lily Pad design of the future. A structure made with parts that extend to meet each other.
Palm Tree Leaves

Palm tree leaves can grow to over 10m in length and 1m in width, yet in spite of this magnitude they are very light in weight. This combination of characteristics allows the palm tree leaves, which gain their strength from thin corrugated sheets, to be supported by their stalks.
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This cross section of a palm tree leaf shows a zigzag pattern. This folded characteristic gives the leaf its thin yet durable and hard-to-tear properties.
Corrugated Structures
Can you think of any man-made structures which take their inspiration from the palm tree leaf? Shed and garage roofs and cardboard packaging all use the palm tree leaf as a model on which to base their corrugated structure, providing strength and durability without the hindrance of excess weight.
Corrugation used in packaging
Corrugated roofing
In the sections above, we examined the honeycomb structure and the zigzag pattern of the palm tree leaf. Designers have always tried to recreate these structural forms.
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Task
If you hold a sheet of paper at one end, the other end will flop and bend over.
What happens if the sheet is folded to recreate the zigzag structural form of the palm tree leaf?
In designing and building these structures, engineers have many factors to consider. Engineers have found that by bending sheets into shapes, as in the above example, they are increasing the rigidity of the material. This can also be achieved through the square form. Recreate these paper forms, as demonstrated above. Experiment with creating a square form fold, in addition to the zigzag. Examine, through experimentation, the maximum load each structure can bear.
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Sea Arch
Coastal features, such as pillars, caves and arches, formed naturally by weathering and marine erosion, have inspired engineers for centuries. One of the most inspirational of all of these is the arch.
The arch can be described as a curved opening in a mass of rock resulting from the erosion of rock by wave activity and chemical weathering.
Structural Arches in Buildings

Can you think of any man-made structures which take their inspiration from the sea arch? The arch is a central and defining feature of many of our most famous and easily recognisable building, such as the Colosseum in Rome.
In more everyday applications, arches can be seen in fields and over rivers all over the countryside in the form of bridges. Builders use stone to form these arch shapes. These bridges have their origins in Ancient Rome and are, therefore, sometimes known as The Roman Arch Bridge. The main feature of this style of bridge structure is a keystone, as shown in the image below.
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Keystone
Why do you think stone-built bridges use the arch as their structure? What would happen if the keystone were removed?
Task
Using 40mm wooden cubed blocks, cut / shape / form them into a Roman Arch. Experiment with different means of supporting the stones in place. In more modern times, as technology has advanced, road bridges are occasionally of the suspension design, as shown below.
As illustrated, the bridged roadway is carried by wire cables, which are supported by towers.
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Other bridges are constructed using concrete. These are known as beam bridges, an example of which can be seen below.
As can be seen below, different types of frame structure can be joined together, using a variety of material shapes, to construct girder bridges.
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Shells
Shell is a word commonly used to describe the hard covering of eggs, crustaceans, tortoises, etc. A shell serves to protect and provide shelter from the elements, whilst also being lightweight. A shell is usually curved in form. The snails shell, as shown, embodies all of the aforementioned qualities.
Shell Structures in Design

Can you think of any man-made structures which take their inspiration from the shell? Man-made shell structures are used in various sectors of engineering. Masonry or stone domes or vaults in the Middle Ages facilitated the construction of more spacious buildings. Nowadays, the use of reinforced concrete has made the use of shell-like structures commonplace. Shell structures can usually be understood as a set of beams, arches and catenaries. They are capable of carrying large point loads. The shape of a shell, rather than the materials used, is the key to its strength. There are many examples of shell structure to be found in modern building design. The Sydney Opera House is one such example. Shell structures play a very important part in mechanical design as shown below.
Sydney Opera House
Car Shell
Shells serve to protect and provide excellent strength.
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Beams
A beam is a strip or section of material used to span a distance and support a load. They can be used to add strength to a structure.
beam
Beams come in many different shapes.
Task: How do beams support?

Using a standard 300mm ruler and two blocks, arrange the materials as shown in the diagram above. With the ruler positioned flat on the two blocks, add a weight to the centre of the ruler. Now, reposition the ruler on its edge and add the same weight to the centre of the repositioned ruler. Discuss the resultswhat happened and why? What do you think would happen if a number of rulers were to be positioned on the flat on the two blocks? Repeat the test under these conditions. Replace these with a single piece of wood of equal dimensions (approx.) to the rulers being removed. Again repeat the test under these new conditions. It can be concluded from these tests that a beam will bend under a downward load. On close inspection, it can be seen that the top of the beam is being compressed, whilst the bottom of the beam is being pulled apart and, is therefore said to be under tension.
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Compression along the top of the beam
Tension along the bottom of the beam
As we move from the bottom of the beam to the top, we change from tension to compression. But what happens at the very centre? The answer is somewhere in the middle, very little happens. This area is known as the neutral axis.
Neutral axis (red line)
As we know, a beam must work hard on both top and bottom to resist the forces of tension and compression. Engineers designing beams know that very little happens along the neutral axis. For this reason, beams are designed in order to be strongest along their top and bottom.
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Beam
Span
Post or column
Beams are usually used in conjunction with what are known as posts or columns. These compose the upright element of the structure, as illustrated above. Why might it be important to have different sections of beam? 1. to save material 2. to reduce cost 3. to reduce weight 4. to maintain strength
In saving material, some beams can be constructed in hollow sections, as illustrated below
Box section
Circular section
Can you identify some of the uses of these sections in everyday life? One such example of this is a bicycle. It is necessary for a bicycle to be lightweight, in order to make cycling it easier. For this reason, the amount of material used needs to be reduced. Therefore a bicycle is constructed using a circular section.
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Classroom tables are often constructed on a square or box section. Reducing the amount of material used by constructing a hollow beam or beam section, accordingly reduces the cost of the product, thereby making it more appealing to the consumer.
Classroom Table
Bicycle Frame
These circular or box sections are sometimes referred to as tube. Beams can be manufactured in many different shapes and sizes, and when fixed together, they can lend enormous strength to a structure.
Some examples of different beams shapes are illustrated below:
Angle Beam
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Channel Beam
Tee Beam
Universal Beam or I Beam
Universal Column or H Beam
As already stated, there are many different types of beam section, which have a diverse range of functions in addition to the construction of buildings and bridges. Strength of beam and weight of load are important factors to consider when choosing a beam. Beams and columns are not always constructed using steel. Some beams are manufactured in wood, as seen in timber framed houses. Beams can also be reinforced to provide additional strength, as illustrated below.
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Beam
Concrete Steel Head Column Steel
Tie Base
Can you identify some of the uses of beams in everyday life?
Frames
Frames are structures made from sections of materials.
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Frames are used as the basis for the construction of many different artefacts, such as gates, stools and picture frames. Their advantage is that they enclose spaces without filling them with solid material. However, the question must be askedAre frames always rigid? If the frame is examined in more detail: A member is said to be a part of a complex structure. The point which the members meet or join is called a joint. Joints can be either fixed or pivoted. Pivoted joints are not very stable and if a large force is applied to a corner the frame may lose its shape. A fixed joint is much stronger and can resist larger forces than a pivot joint.
Member
Joint
How do you know if joints are fixed or pivoted apply a force. As shown above.
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Task Take thin strips of card, plastic or wood and some pins, screws and nuts. Make up some polygon frames, e.g. square, rectangle, pentagon, hexagon, etc. What happens when force is applied to a corner of the constructed frame? Can any conclusions be drawn from these tests? A rectangular or square frame is not a rigid structure. It relies on the strength of the joints for its rigidity. Now, either remove or add a strut to create triangular shape within the structure. What happens?...The triangle does not distort. We can conclude from this that triangles are more stable and rigid structures.
Member
Adding one more member makes the frame stable.
Joint
Can you identify the main shape which is repeated in the image below?
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A triangle is one of the strongest frame shapes known to man. The implementation of this
concept in design is known as triangulation. The term triangulation is used to describe the arrangement of triangles together in the formation of a frame. Square, rectangular and other frames can be made more rigid by bracing. In other words, bracing involves placing a diagonal piece or strut to create a triangle. The construction of roof trusses is based on the principle of triangulation. The parts of a roof truss are identified as ties and struts. All structures have forces which act upon them.
A tie is the part of a structure which has tensile forces acting upon it. A strut is the part, which has compressive forces acting upon it. Identify the struts and ties in the following images.
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Task Take photographs or make sketches of triangulated structures. Identify the struts and ties within these structures, bearing in mind that a tie has tensile forces acting upon it and a strut has compressive forces acting upon it.
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Frame Analysis
The result of a measurement is always a number multiplied by a unit, e.g. 10mm (10 being the number and millimetres being the unit of measurement). Magnitude is what we call the size of the quantity being measured. Something with magnitude and no direction is called a scalar quantity, e.g. 5kg Something which has both magnitude and direction is called a vector quantity, e.g. 5kg acting vertically downwards Vectors can be shown by straight lines. The direction can be indicated by an arrow and the magnitude by figures.
Calculating the Magnitude of the Perpendicular Components
y=v Sin
x=v Cos If a vector of magnitude v has two perpendicular components, x and y, and v makes an angle with the component x as shown above, then the magnitudes of the components are as follows: x=v Cos Proof: In the shaded triangle above: Cos = adjacent hypotenuse Cos = x v x = v Cos Sin = opposite hypotenuse y = v Sin Sin = y v y=v Sin
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Calculations
Calculation One Problem: Find the vertical and horizontal components of a vector of magnitude 20N acting at 60o to the horizontal
20N
Solution:
Horizontal component = x = 20 Cos 60o = 10N Vertical component = y = 20 Sin 60o = 17.32N
Calculation Two o
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Problem: A person pulls a chain which is attached to a trailer

300N 20o
with a force of 300N. The rope makes an angle of 20o with the horizontal. Find both the effective vertical and horizontal forces on the trailer due to the chain.
Solution:
Effective vertical force
300 Sin 20o = = (300)(0.342) 102.6N 300 Cos 20o (300)(0.940) 282N
Effective horizontal force
= = =
Note: It can be concluded from this calculation that a downwards vertical force of at least 102.6N is required to keep the trailer on the ground and a horizontal force of 282N is required to prevent the trailer from moving along the ground.
Calculation Three Problem: A mass, which is simply supported by a frame, is shown in the sketch. The pin A on the frame is in equilibrium. Determine the magnitude of the forces acting on members B and C of the frame.
Solution: In order to firstly calculate the force of the mass in Newtons, the mass (40kg) must be multiplied by 10, giving a force of 400N. The force at B is calculated as follows: 400 Cos 60o = (400)(0.5) = 200N The force at C is calculated as follows: 400 Sin 60o =(400)(0.866) = 346.14N
Factor of Safety
Imagine the following scenario; an elevator with a maximum load capacity of 6 people is carrying a load of 8 people. What do you think might happen in these circumstances? The lift should not give way as something known as a Factor of Safety is implemented to ensure that the overloading of a lift will not result in disaster. Factor of Safety is used to provide a margin of leeway of flexibility over the theoretical Overcrowding capacity of the item in question.
This is to allow for any uncertainty in the product. This uncertainty could be attributable to any number of things, from the strength of the material to the manufacture quality to human disregard for regulations. When allocating a Factor of Safety, the trustworthiness of the product is examined. The more trustworthy a product is, the lower its Factor of Safety will be, due to the fact that the margin of lee-way is less uncertain. However, the less reliable a product is, the higher its Factor of Safety will be, due to the uncertain nature of its maximum functioning capacity. Disaster! So, referring back to the previous scenario of the elevator; If the cable supporting the elevator will break under a load limit of 1000kg, but is listed as having a maximum load limit of 100kg, it is listed as having a Factor of Safety of 10. Factor of Safety is crucial in structural design, as component failure could result in substantial financial loss, serious injury or even death. The use of Factor of Safety does not, however, imply that a structure or design is safe. Incidences exist in our past which highlight the importance of factor of safety. One of the many reasons for the failure of structures is its inability to withstand loading and unloading. For example a crane hook lifting and dropping heavy loads continually. What should happen if the hook is not up to the job? Which factors exist that lead to the hook being checked? As with all structures the responsibility of making sure they are safe falls to the engineer. Tests are carried out to ensure the structure is safe. This can be easy to do when the structure can be taken away and checked. However, what about the likes of a bridge? Natural disasters, such as earthquakes, occur all the time, but what about the
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disasters that occur due to the failure of the structure? One such example occurred in 2003 in Minneapolis, U.S., when the Interstate 35 Bridge collapsed, so tragically, during the height of a Minneapolis rush hour. Investigators found that two factors contributed to its failure: age and heavy use. The constant loading and unloading of the traffic across the bridge coupled with the increasing volumes of traffic led to the eventual collapse of the bridge.
Aerial views of the Interstate 35 Bridge collapse
The factor of safety or Safety Factor, is used to provide a design margin to allow for uncertainty in the design process. The uncertainty could be any one of a number of the components of the design process including calculations, material strengths, duty, manufacture quality. The value of the safety factor is related to the lack of confidence in the design process. The simplest interpretation of the Factor of Safety is Factor of safety = Strength of Component / Load on component If a component needs to withstand a load of 200 Newtons and a FoS of 4 is selected then it is designed with strength to support 800 Newtons... The selection of the appropriate factor of safety to be used in design of components is essentially a compromise between additional cost and weight and the benefit of increased safety and/or reliability. Generally an increased factor of safety results from a heavier component or a component made from a more exotic material or / and improved component design
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The factors of safety listed below are based on the yield strength.
Factor of Safety Application Material properties known in detail. Operating conditions known in detail Loads and resultant stresses and strains known with a high degree of certainty. 1.25 - 1.5 Material test certificates, proof loading, regular inspection and maintenance. Low weight is important to design. Known materials with certification under reasonably constant environmental conditions, subjected to loads and stresses that can be determined using 1.5 - 2 qualified design procedures. Proof tests, regular inspection and maintenance required Materials obtained for reputable suppliers to relevant standards operated in normal environments and subjected to loads and stresses that can be 2 - 2.5 determined using checked calculations. For less tried materials or for brittle materials under average conditions of 2.5 - 3 environment, load and stress. For untried materials used under average conditions of environment, load and 3-4 stress. Should also be used with better-known materials that are to be used in 3-4 uncertain environments or subject to uncertain stresses.
Task
Investigate the different types of bridge trusses that exist for example Box girder, or Warren girder. Construct the trusses from 6mm square wood strips or equivalent. (The maximum length of the truss to be 600mm and height 60mm.) Weight suspended from the truss.
1. Add increasing weights as a point load as shown above until the truss fails. Which type of truss could withstand the greatest load? 2. Add increasing weights as a universally distributed load until the truss fails. Which type of truss could withstand the greatest load? 3. This time load and unload the weights at different points and times, attempting the replicate traffic on the bridge. Record all positions and times. Repeat for all the trusses in the same order and measure the amount the trusses bend and draw some conclusions.
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Moments
The crane in the image below looks unstable, as though it should topple over. There appears to be too much of the boom on the left-hand side of the tower.
It doesnt fall because of the presence of a counter balance weight on the right-hand side. The boom is therefore balanced. In order to understand this better, we need to understand pivots, moments and equilibrium.
The pivot point or fulcrum is the point at which something rotates. The weights on the scales are at equal points from the pivot point. When something is balanced it is said to be in equilibrium.
In the example of the see-saw, if one of the people moves backwards or forwards, the balance is tipped one way or the other.
The see-saw is no longer in equilibrium.
When something is in equilibrium, the moments of a force are balanced.
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The Moment of a Force is calculated as the force multiplied by the distance from the pivot point.
Moment = F x d
Distance (d)
Force (F)
This can also be represented as illustrated below:
The Moment of Force can also be called Torque. Torque can be defined as a force that tends to rotate or turn things. Torque is generated any time a force is applied using a wrench. The Principal of Moments states that for there to be equilibrium, the clockwise moments must equal the anti-clockwise moments.
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Clockwise Moments = F2 x d2 Anti-Clockwise Moments = F1 x d1 If F2 x d2 = F1 x d1 there is equilibrium
Example
Clockwise Moments = 20N x 1m
Anti-Clockwise Moments = 10N x 2m 20Nm = 20Nm
Therefore, the scales are in equilibrium.
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Levers
A lever is a rigid rod, pivoted about a fixed point or axis, which is known as a fulcrum. Fulcrum or pivot the point about which the lever rotates Load the force applied by the lever system Effort the force applied by the user of the lever system
A lever can be used to move a large load with a small effort. The way in which a lever will operate is dependent upon the type of lever. There are three types or class of lever, referred to as: 1. Class One e.g. See-saw 2. Class Two e.g. Wheelbarrow 3. Class Three e.g. Shovel
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In each class the position of the Load, Effort and Fulcrum are changed.
Class One
Class Two
Class Three
Can you give three examples for each class?
Class One Levers This is the most common type of lever, with the fulcrum in the middle, the effort on one side and the load on the other A see-saw is an example of a Class One Lever. Other examples are a crowbar, scissors or weighing scales. The distance between the effort and the fulcrum, and the distance between the load and the fulcrum, determine the mechanical advantage and the velocity ratio of the Class One Lever.
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Class Two Levers With a Class Two Lever, the fulcrum is at one end, the effort is at the other end and the load is in the middle A wheelbarrow is an example of a Class Two Lever. Other examples include bottle openers, nut crackers and foot pumps A Class Two Lever allows a large load to be lifted by a smaller effort. Because the load is always closer to the fulcrum, the effort is always less than the load
Class Three Levers With a Class Three Lever, the pivot is at one end, the load is at the other and the effort is in the middle A shovel is an example of a Class Three Lever. Other examples are a pair of tweezers and a fishing rod A Class Three Lever allows a small load to be lifted by a larger effort
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Mechanical Advantage The image below shows a man using a stake to lift a rock. This is an example of a mechanism. As the man exerts a small amount of effort to the end of the lever, the rock is moved. This gain in effort is known as Mechanical Advantage.
Mechanical Advantage =
Load Effort
Mechanical Advantage Calculation The mechanism shown is being used to raise a weight of 400N. By adjusting the lever, it was found that the weight could be lifted with an effort of 100N. Effort
Load What is the Mechanical Advantage of this mechanism? Mechanical Advantage 400N = 4:1 or 100N
Load Effort
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Velocity Ratio
Distance moved by effort
Lever
Load
The image above shows the position of weight prior to force being applied. The image on the right demonstrates the distance moved by the weight on application of force.
Distance moved By load
When enough effort is applied to the lever, the weight will move. The distance moved by the lever is greater than that moved by the weight. The difference is known as the Velocity Ratio. The Velocity Ratio = Distance moved by effort Distance moved by load
Velocity Ratio Calculation The mechanism shown is being used to lift a weight. The 400N weight is moved with 100N of effort. The lever is moved 85cm in order to raise the weight 17cm.
Distance moved By lever 85cm
Distance moved By load 17cm
What is the Velocity Ratio of the mechanism? Velocity Ratio = distance moved by effort distance moved by load = 17cm = 85cm = 5:1 or 5
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Linkages
A linkage is a mechanism made by connecting two or more levers together. A linkage can be used to change the direction of a force or to make two or more things move at the same time.
Windscreen wipers on a car operate using linkages
Reverse Motion Linkages Linkages can be used to make things move in opposite directions. The movement is reversed by using a lever to form the linkage. If the pivot point (fulcrum) is at the centre of the connecting lever, then the output movement will be the same as the input movement, but it will act in the opposite direction
Fulcrum or pivot point
A Reverse Motion Linkage A Clothes Horse
Push-Pull Linkages Push-pull linkages are used to move the output in the same direction as the input. This consists of levers with two fixed pivot points.
Pivot point
A Push-Pull Linkage
Windscreen Wipers
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Bell Crank Levers Bell Crank Levers are used when it is necessary to change the direction of movement or force through 900. If the fulcrum is at an equal distance from the input and output, then the movement of the output will be equal to the movement of the input. Otherwise, the movement will be different and the system will have Mechanical Advantage.
Pivot point
Bicycle Brake A Bell Crank Lever
Parallel Motion Linkage This linkage can be used to make things move in the same direction at a set distance apart. Parallel motion is only achieved if the levers at opposite sides of the parallelogram are equal in length.
Parallel Motion Linkage
Toolbox
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Task How do linkages work? Reconstruct each of the above linkage types using strips of card and paper pins. Examine the effect moving the positions of the pins (or pivot points) will have on the movement of the pieces of card. (Note increase or decrease in distances moved) Note: If the pivot point of a reverse motion linkage is not in the centre of the connecting levers, then the movement of the output will not be equal to the movement of the input. It is also possible to design a reverse motion linkage which will provide mechanical advantage. Can you observe any similar traits in any of the other linkage types?
Crank and Slider A Crank and Slider mechanism changes rotary motion to reciprocal motion or vice versa. In a car engine, the reciprocating motion of the piston caused by exploding fuel is converted into rotary motion, as the connecting rod moves the crankshaft around. A pneumatic air compressor uses this principle in reverse an electric motor turns the crankshaft and the piston moves up and down to compress the air.
Crank and Slider
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Pulleys
A pulley wheel is a mechanism which helps move or lift objects. Like most wheels, pulley wheels spin or rotate on an axis. The centre of a pulley wheel features a groove. Nested in this groove is a rope, belt or cable.
pulley
The man in this image is pulling downwards on a bar, which is attached to a cable. Tracing the cables path through the machine, it can be seen that the cable passes through the pulley wheels, and its opposite end is connected to the weights at the bottom.
Exercise Machine
Parts of a Pulley System Effort the force the man is applying to the bar Load the weight being lifted Fulcrum the pivot point of the pulley
Direction of Force Notice that the pulleys change the direction of the applied force. Although the machine is pulling sidewards, the weights are moving upwards.
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Types of Pulley There are three basic types of pulley. These types of pulley are classified by the number of pulley wheels and their positioning.
1. A Fixed Pulley This does not rise or fall with the load being moved. It also changes the direction of the applied effort.
A ski-lift operates on a fixed pulley system
2. A Moveable Pulley This type of pulley rises and falls with the load being moved.
Pulley on Weight-Lifting Machine
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3. A Block and Tackle Pulley This consists of two or more pulleys (fixed and moveable). The block and tackle is capable both of changing the direction and creating a Mechanical Advantage.
Block and Tackle in use on a Boat Block and Tackle Pulley
The Pulley
The pulley is really a wheel and axle with a rope or chain attached. A pulley makes work seem easier because it changes the direction of motion to work with gravity. If a heavy load, like a bale of hay, needs to be lifted up to the second floor of a barn, you could tie a rope to the bale of hay, stand on the second floor, and pull it straight up. Or you could put a pulley at the second floor, stand at the first floor, and lift the bale of hay by pulling straight down. It would be the same amount of work in either case, but the action of pulling down feels easier because you're working with the force of gravity.
The Pulley Advantage

A pulley really saves effort when you have more than one pulley working together. By looping a rope around two, three, or even four pulleys, you can reduce the effort needed to lift something. However, as you increase the number of pulleys, you also increase the distance you have to pull the rope. In other words, if you use two pulleys, it takes half the effort to lift something, but you have to pull the rope twice as far. Three pulleys will result in one-third the effort but the distance you have to pull the rope is tripled!
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Fig. 1 shows a pulley arrangement consisting of one pulley and a load on one end of the rope. For the load and pulley to remain in equilibrium, the person holding the end of the rope must pull down with a force that is equal to the load. In this simple pulley system, the force is equal to the load, so 100N Fig. 1 the Mechanical Advantage is 1:1 or 1.
Fig. 2 shows a pulley arrangement consisting of two pulleys. The upper pulley is fixed in position and the lower pulley is moveable. The load is supported in two locations at the rope end which is attached to the upper bar and at the end of the rope held by the person (via the upper pulley). 100N Each side of the rope carries half the load. Therefore, the force required by the person to keep the load in equilibrium is also half the load. Fig. 2 This system has a Mechanical Advantage of 2:1 or 2.
Fig. 3 shows a pulley arrangement consisting of four pulleys. A quick way to work out the Mechanical Advantage of a system is to add the tension in the ropes. For example, if one unit of tension is applied to the rope held by the person (via the large pulley fixed to the bar), then one unit of tension is applied to each of the four ropes attached to the load pulley. Therefore, there are four units of tension on the load. This system has a Mechanical
100N Fig. 3 Advantage of 4:1 or 4.
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Calculation This pulley arrangement features a 4:1 Mechanical Advantage. How can pulleys assist work? Just like other simple machines, pulleys can change the relationship between force and distance. For example, pulling the rope 2m in order to lift a load 0.5m, the output distance is divided and the output force is multiplied by the same factor. Therefore, a load of 60kg can be lifted by only 15kg of effort! The Mechanical Advantage is calculated like so: Mechanical Advantage = Load / Effort = 60kg / 15kg Mechanical Advantage = 4:1 or 4
As already stated pulleys are used for transferring motion and force from one shaft to another. Many machines are often driven by round grooved pulleys and rubber belts. The vacuum cleaner uses a pulley to transmit power from the electric motor to the rotating brushes. If both pulleys are the same diameter, then they will both rotate at the same speed. If one pulley is larger than another, then mechanical advantage and velocity ratio are introduced. A large drive pulley will cause a smaller driven pulley to rotate faster. In situations where no slip between the driven and driver pulleys can be allowed a vee pulley and vee belt will provide less slippage than a flat belt pulley system. If more positive drive is required a toothed belt and pulley can be used.
Pulleys and belt Calculation 1
Toothed belt and pulleys
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If a 120mm diameter pulley drives a 60mm diameter pulley for each revolution of the driver pulley, the driven pulley does two, as 120mm 60mm = 2
Calculation 2 The diameter of a motor pulley is 40mm and it revolves at 280 rev/min. The diameter of the driven pulley is 70mm. What is its rotational speed?
Note: As the driven pulley is larger than the motor pulley, it will revolve more slowly
Speed of driven pulley =
280 x 40 70
rev/min = 160 rev/min
Chain and Sprockets Chains and sprockets provide direct drive with no slippage. They are usually used on bicycles, camshafts and motorcycles. When compared to the pulley and belt systems chain and sprocket will be far more reliable.
Calculation 1
The sprocket on a bicycle has 45 teeth and the sprocket on the back wheel has 15 teeth. So, for ever revolution of the front sprocket, the rear one will complete three full revolutions, as 45 15 = 3
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Calculation 2 The sprocket on an engine of a moped has 15 teeth and the sprocket on the back wheel has 120 teeth. If the engine revolves at 3200 rev/min, what is the rotary speed of the rear sprocket? Note: The rear sprocket is larger, therefore it revolves more slowly.
Speed of rear sprocket =
3200 = =
x 3200
15 120 x 1 8
400 rev/min
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Cam and Follower

The Cam and Follower is a device which can convert rotary motion (circular motion) into linear motion (motion in a straight line). A cam is a specially shaped piece of material, usually metal or hard-wearing plastic, which is fixed to a rotating shaft. There are several different types of cam, but most of these can be placed into two groups, namely rotary or linear. Many machines use cams. A car engine uses cams to open and close valves.
Follower Cams
Cam
Followers (valves)
Cams A cam can have various shapes. These are known as cam profiles. Cam profiles can be pear, heart, circular or drop shaped.
Pear
Heart
Circular
Drop
One complete revolution of the cam is called a cycle. As the cam rotates, there will be one distinct event per revolution.
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Followers A follower is a component which is designed to move up and down as it follows the edge of the cam. Follower profiles can be knife edge, flat foot, off set or roller.
Knife Edge Follower
Flat Foot Follower
Off Set Follower
Roller Follower
As the cam rotates, the follower moves accordingly. The exact distance it moves depends on the shape and size of the cam.
Follower
Cam
The cam follower does not have to move up and down it can be an oscillating lever, as shown here.
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Rotary Cams Rotary Cams change rotary motion into reciprocating (backwards and forwards) motion. The bumps on a cam are called lobes. The square cam illustrated, has four lobes, and lifts the follower four times each revolution.
Follower
Examples of other rotary cam profiles
Square cam
Rotary Cams in Operation This image depicts a cam used in an engine to control the movement of the valves.
These cams are used in a pump to control the movement of the valves. Cam Follower
Cam and Follower Mechanism of a Sewing Machine
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Cam
Linear Cams in Operation
Follower Maximum distance moved by the follower
Linear cam
The linear cam moves backwards and forwards in a reciprocating motion. Linear cams change the direction (and magnitude) of reciprocating motion The shape of the surface of the cam determines how far the follower moves.
Cylindrical Cams in Operation Cams can also be cylindrical in shape. The cylindrical cam rotates on an axis. The profile of the cylindrical cam decides the movement of the follower, which is fixed.
Here, we can see the two different displacements represented by the red and green arrows. The red arrow shows the displacement of the follower, i.e. the distance travelled up or down by the follower. The green, curved arrow shows the angular displacement travelled by the cam.
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Gears
A gear is a wheel with teeth on its outer edge Gears rotate on a central axis and work with other gears to transmit turning force The teeth of one gear mesh (or engage) with the teeth of another, as depicted below
Gears are used to transmit turning force They can also change the amount of force, speed and direction of rotation
The rotating force produced by an engine, windmill or other device, needs to be transferred or changed in order to do something useful.
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Driver and Driven Two meshed gears always rotate in opposite directions.
Driven gear
Driver gear
In the above image, the smaller gear is the driver or input gear. The drivers teeth engage the teeth of the driven gear causing it to rotate. In other words, the driver drives the driven, thus providing the input force; the driven gear follows the driver, thus yielding the output force.
Direction of Rotation The driver and the driven rotate in opposite directions. This is always the case when two gears are meshed directly together. Sometimes its necessary to reverse the direction of rotation. The reverse gear in a car is a practical example of this. In other cases, however, its necessary for the driver and driven to rotate in the same direction. Inserting an idler gear between the driver and the driven is the simplest way to achieve this.
Driver
Idler gear
Driven Gear Ratio If a pair of meshed gears has a driver and driven of the same size, then there will be no change in speed or force of input or output. This is stated as 1:1 Gear Ratio one turn of the input yields one turn of the output. Generally, the Gear Ratio is calculated by counting the teeth of the two gears and applying the following formula:
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Gear ratio =
Number of teeth on driven gear Number of teeth on driver gear
Gear Ratio Calculation A 100 tooth gear drives a 25 tooth gear. Calculate the Gear Ratio for the meshing teeth.
Gear ratio = Number of teeth on driven gear (Velocity Ratio) Number of teeth on driver gear
Gear ratio = Driver
Driven
= 100
25
= 4
This is written as 1:4
Speed of Driven Gear Calculation A motor gear has 28 teeth and revolves at 100 rev/min. The driven gear has 10 teeth. What is its rotational speed?
Speed of driven gear =
Number of teeth on driver gear x Number of teeth on driven gear Driver = Driven 28 x 100 10
100
Speed of driven gear =
= 280 rev/min
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Gear Trains Multiple gears can be connected together to form a Gear Train If there is an odd number of gears in the Gear Train, the output rotation will be the same direction as the input If there is an even number, the output will rotate in the opposite direction to the input.
Compound Gear Trains A compound gear train is one which has two or more gears attached to the same shaft. In actual fact, it is a combination of two or more gear trains.
Calculation A gear of 22 T drives another of 46 T. Attached solidly to the second gear is a 32 T, which drives a gear of 80 T. If the first gear makes 100 rev/min, calculate the speed of the last. The middle shaft turns at 100 x 22 rev/min 46 and the last gear makes 100 x 22 x 32 46 80
= 19.13 rev/min
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Worm and Wheel In a simple Gear Train, very high or very low Gear Ratios can be achieved by combining very large and very small cogs, or by using a worm and wheel. The Velocity Ratio of a Worm and Wheel is easily calculated, because the worm has only one tooth. The worm gear is always the drive gear.
For example, if the wheel gear has 60 teeth and the worm gear has one tooth, then Velocity Ratio is 1/60 = 1:60 A worm and wheel can be seen in everyday use in gear box systems, where large loads are to be lifted, e.g. bridge lifting mechanism. Its major advantage lies in the fact that the worm is always the drive gear, as mentioned above. This enables the worm and wheel to lift or lower significant weight without causing strain on the gearbox.
Rack and Pinion Gears The Rack and Pinion Gear is used to convert between rotary and linear motion. Often the pinion rotates in a fixed position and the rack is free to move this arrangement is used in the steering mechanisms of most cars. Alternatively, the rack may be fixed and the pinion rotates, moving up and down the rack.
Note:
The distance moved by the rack corresponds directly with the number of teeth on the pinion.
For example, if the pinion has 12 teeth, as in the illustration above, each anti-clockwise rotation of the pinion will result in a movement to the right of the rack, by a measure of 12 teeth.
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Bevel Gears Bevel gears are used to transfer drive through an angle of 900. If both gears have the same number of teeth, they are called mitre gears. Bevel gears will provide some Mechanical Advantage or increase in Velocity Ratio.
Bevel Gears
Work exists everywhere, and although it cannot be seen, its effects can be felt all the time. It is only possible to do work if you have energy, which can be applied. Energy exists and cannot be destroyed, but energy cannot be created from nothing. Work comes in a number of different forms. Three of these are: 1. Mechanical Work e.g. allowing a car to run 2. Electrical Work e.g. allowing lights to be turned on 3. Heat Work e.g. providing warmth from a fire Work = force x distance moved in direction of the force
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Power is the rate at which energy is converted from one from into another. All moving objects and machines only have limited power. They may be able to handle lots of energy, but it is only possible to do this at a certain rate. Average power used: total time taken total work done
A windmill converts wind energy into mechanical energy The amount of power a machine can produce lots of energy is not the only factor to be considered when designing a moving object. It is also necessary to consider the efficiency of the machine.
Efficiency refers to the amount of energy lost through work. Some machines are very efficient because they lose very little energy. Some machines are less efficient, because they lose heat through friction, which can never be gotten rid of, but can be reduced. Efficiency (%) = Power output x 100 Power input
Friction resists the movement of one surface over another. Friction is increased as: 1. the surfaces become rougher 2. the pressure between the surfaces increases 3. less friction-resistant materials are used Friction has a number of effects: 1. it produces heat 2. it causes parts to wear 3. it reduces a machines power
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The rough surface of the bicycle brake pads, creates friction when applied to the rubber of the tyre, thus causing the bicycle wheel to stop turning
Sometimes friction is advantageous, e.g. bicycle or car brakes would not work without friction. However, when smooth movement is necessary, friction must be reduced. This can be done by: 1. using low friction materials, such as bronze, brass, nylon or white metal 2. using a lubricant, such as oil or grease, to separate surfaces 3. ensuring that surfaces are as smooth as possible 4. using moving bearings, like a roller bearing
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Structures and Mechanisms

Introduction ..................... Motion ..................................... Newtons Third Law of Motion .

High Rise Building

Bridge Supporting Roadway

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Rack and Pinion

Pulley and Wheels

Cam and Follower

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Collins Dictionary Definitions

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Motion and Force

The lever of the drill is pulled down

Output The chuck of the drill moves down

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Newtons First Law of Motion

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Newtons Third Law of Motion

It neither floats nor sinks, but rather remains sitting.

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Static Load is a load which is fixed at one point, e.g. a building.

The Eiffel Tower

The Golden Gate Bridge

Most objects are arrangements of parts, e.g. atoms, crystals, cells.

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Naturally Occurring Structures

Nature provides us with the template to many of our strongest structures.

How many can you name?

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Honeycomb Floor Mat

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Point Load A load acting on a point

Stable pair When forces are equal

Unstable pair When forces are not

Stable combination When opposite forces are balanced

The effects of force on a structure

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Compression is when something is squeezed and can result in crushing.

Tension is when something is pulled and can result in stretching

Shear is when something is cut or slides and results in sliding or shearing

Torsion is when something is twisted

Bend is when something is bent and can be permanently deformed

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When something is in equilibrium, the moments of a force are balanced.

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Clockwise Moments = 20N x 1m

Anti-Clockwise Moments = 10N x 2m 20Nm = 20Nm

Therefore, the scales is in equilibrium.

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(RL x 3m) + (9 x 1m) RL = -9 3 RL = -3kN

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Manmade Structures Influenced by Natural Structures

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Manufactured Honeycomb Structures

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Palm Tree Leaves

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Corrugation used in packaging

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