Vol2 Issue2

IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSRJEEE) ISSN: 2278-1676 Volume 2, Issue 2 (July-Aug. 2012), PP 01-06 www.iosrjournals.
org
Effect of System Load Factor on Transmission & Distribution Losses

Sri.S.R.Sadugol
1
Associate professor, Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering BLDEAs CET, Bijapur -586103, Karnataka state, India.
Abstract: Energy losses occur in the process of supplying electricity to consumers due to technical &
commercial losses. The technical losses are due to energy dissipated in the conductors and equipment used for transmission, transformation, sub-transmission and distribution of power. These technical losses are inherent in a system and can be reduced to an optimum level. The system load factor of the Karnataka State Electricity Board (KEB) during 2009-10 was 70%, which is considerably low; It is worthwhile to make a study of the effect of system load factor on transmission & distribution loss reduction & the consequent increase in profitability of power utilities, with a focus on the Karnataka system. The study shows how the annual savings can be achieved through improvement of load factor. Keywords: T & D losses, Load factor, Annual Savings, Reduction in T & D Loss, Load Factor on profitability
I.
Introduction:
Energy losses occur in the process of supplying electricity to consumers due to technical and commercial losses. The technical losses are due to energy dissipated in the conductors and equipment used for transmission, transformation, sub- transmission and distribution of power. These technical losses are inherent in a system and can be reduced to an optimum level. The losses can be further sub grouped depending upon the stage of power transformation & transmission system as Transmission Losses (400kV/220kV/132kV/66kV), as Sub transmission losses (33kV /11kV) and Distribution losses (11kV/0.4kv). The commercial losses are also caused by pilferage, defective meters, and errors in meter reading and in estimating unmetered supply of energy. On going through the annual administration report of Karnataka State Electricity Board (KEB) for 2009-12,it is learnt that during this period, the transmission & distribution loss has come down compared to previous years [1] .This was achieved through the execution of the following improve mental works, commissioning of the details of circuit kilometers of transmission lines and station bay are given in Table-1,Table-2,Table-3, Table-4 respectively, also graph indicating percentage reduction in Transmission Loss of Karnataka State up to 2010-11.
II.
Reasons For High Technical Losses:
The major reasons for high technical losses in India are: 1. Inadequate investment on transmission and distribution, particularly in sub-transmission & distribution. While the desired investment ratio between generation and T&D should be 1:1. Low investment has resulted in overloading of the distribution system without commensurate strengthening and augmentation. 2. Haphazard growths of sub-transmission and distribution system with the short-term objective of extension of power supply to new areas. 3. Large scale rural electrification through long 11kV and LT lines. 4. Too many stages of transformations. 5. Improper load management. 6. Inadequate reactive compensation. 7. Poor quality of equipment used in agricultural pumping in rural areas, cooler air conditioners and industrial loads in urban areas. The system load factor of the Karnataka State Electricity Board (KEB) during 2009-10 was 70%, which is considerably low compared to the other states of India. It is worthwhile to make a study of the effect of system load factor on transmission & distribution loss reduction & the consequent increase in profitability of power utilities, with a focus on the Karnataka system. The study shows how the annual savings can be achieved through improvement of load factor.
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Effect of system load factor on transmission & distribution losses

Table 1: Voltage class wise transmission lines as on 31.03.2011 Voltage Transmission lines Class in CKMs 400 kV 1978 220 kV 9368 110 kV 8752 66 kV 9532 TOTAL 29630 Table-2: No. of Bays as on 31.03.2011 Type Line Bay Transformer bay PT Bay Capacitor Bank Bay 11 kV Bay Numbers 4744 1996 1324 622 9008
Table-3.Power Sector at a Glance - As on 31.05.2012 Installed Capacity KPC Hydro & Thermal 6005.07 MW CGS (Karnataka Share) 1700 MW NCE,IPPs and Others 3609.10 MW Total Installed Capacity 11314.17 MW **No. of Consumers 1.82 Crs. Length of Tr.Lines (length in CKMs) 39308.797 No. of Stations 1315 *No. of DTCs 4,06,637 *HT Line (length in CKMs) 226719.464 *LT Lines (Length in KMs) 474820.661 Table-4 . Substations & Tr Lines - As on 31.05.2012 Voltage Level No. of Stations Tr. Line in CKMs 400 kV 04 2291.304 220 kV 89 9695.745 110 kV 330 9025.707 66 kV 545 9703.011 33kv 347 8593.03 Total 1315 39308.797 Graph of Transmission Loss in Karnataka State up to 2010-11:
The T&D losses in India have come down from 32.53 per cent in 2003-04 to 25.39 per cent in 2009-10. Percentage transformation, transmission and distribution losses (including energy unaccounted for).For the Southern Region of Indias T&D Losses is demonstrated by Table no 4.A & Chart Below. Table 4. A & its chart: Region Southern Region STATES/UTs Andhra Pradesh Karnataka Kerala Tamil Nadu Lakshadweep Pondicherry All India 2003-04 27.73 23.29 21.63 17.16 11.85 11.60 32.53 2004-05 23.96 27.5 22.48 19.28 10.20 18.15 31.25 2005-06 20.06 29.6 23.50 18.66 11.19 18.48 30.42 2006-07 18.65 29.2 19.11 19.54 12.87 18.76 28.65 2007-08 22.41 25.3 17.81 18.71 18.05 5.89 27.20 2008-09 19.56 23.4 13.16 18.14 24.87 12.24 25.47 2009-10 # 18.37 21.38 19.59 18.41 11.59 11.84 25.39 2 | Page
Following is the data acquired for Karnataka State till 2011-12 Year % of T & D losses Table 4. B & its Chart is the % of T & D losses in Karnataka state 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 27.5 29.6 29.2 25.3 23.4 21.38 20.10 2011-12 19.56
III.
Theoretical Study Of Effect Of System Load Factor On T&D Losses
Ideal system loss (Ld): The ideal condition of loading of a system occurs when load factor is 100%. Let us consider a case in which a uniform apparent power of X unit flows for a time period of T, such that the energy consumption for the period is Q units. Load factors = 100%, Energy consumption = Q units Average apparent power = X units Current I = X/E (where E is a constant that depends on voltage etc.) System loss depends on apparent power and not on active power. System loss = D x I2 x T (where D is a constant that depends on the system parameters such as impedance etc.) = D x (X/E) 2 x T = (D/E2) x X2 x T = (D/E2) x (Average apparent power)2 x time period = K x (Average apparent power)2 x time period, (where K = D/E2 ) This is the minimum possible system loss for any given time period & the given system parameters. That means, it is the ideal system loss. Ideal system loss, Ld = K x (Average apparent power)2 x time period ----- (1). Also, System loss if apparent maximum demand (MD) is maintained during the time period = K x (Average apparent maximum demand)2 x time period ----- (2) Note that Ideal system loss, Ld changes when there is any change in the constant K. The Actual loss can be worked out based on the relation between load factor (GL) & loss factor (Gv). In fact, loss factor is the load factor of losses. It is defined as the ratio of actual energy loss during a particular period to the energy loss assuming peak apparent demand throughout the period.
IV.
Load Factor & Loss Factor
In actual practice, ideal loading never occurs & the actual system loss will be more than ideal system loss. Losses in series elements are related to the square of the current flow. It is possible to establish a relationship between peak demand on a system & the average technical losses, through consideration of load factor (GL) & loss factor (GV). GL = Energy loss over a time period / (Power loss at apparent MD x the time period) GV = Energy consumed over a time period / (MD x the time period) www.iosrjournals.org 3 | Page

GV = (GL) [Extracted from Electrical Engineering Handbook published by SIEMENS, Section 8.1, Network Parameters, pp 356-357]. [3] GL = AU / Pmax x t ---- Load factor GV = AV / Vmax x t -----Loss factor Pmax: maximum transmitted power (peak load) in MW in a certain period. t: duration of the period in hours, AU : energy transmitted in time t in MWh, Vmax : loss power at apparent load power Smax, Av : energy loss in time t. No simple curve, which is correct for every case, exists for the relation Gv = f (GL) because of the effect of power factor and load fluctuation. Ref Figure.1
1.6
Graph: Loss factor as a function of load factor (Figure.1)
The bandwidth is given by the relation Gv = (GL)1-2. The index 1 is valid for a load diagram which only contains the values P = Pmax & P = 0. A load diagram for index 2 would have the power Pmax during a very short period of time, while a constant load would exist during the rest of the time. The emphasized curve can be used with sufficient accuracy under most practical conditions. (approximately corresponding to an index of 1.6)]. Now, GL = Energy consumed over a time period / (MD the time period) = Average apparent power / Apparent MD (GL) 2 = (Average apparent power)2 / (Apparent MD)2 = [K (Average apparent power)2Time period] / [K(Apparent MD)2Time period] = Ideal loss over a time period (Ld) / (Energy loss if apparent MD is maintained over the time period) Gv = Energy loss over a time period / (Power loss at apparent MD the time period) =Actual system loss over a time period / (Energy loss if apparent MD is maintained over the time period) Gv/(GL)2 = Actual loss over a time period / Ideal loss over the same time period =Actual loss / Ideal loss (Ld) So, Actual loss = Ld x [Gv / (GL)2] But, we know that Gv = (GL)1.6 So, Actual Loss = Ld x [(GL)1.6/(GL)2] = Ld x [1/(GL)0.4] Now, Actual loss L1 at load factor GL1 = Ld x [1/ (GL1)0.4] Actual loss L2 at load factor GL2 = Ld x [1/ (GL2)0.4] L1 / L2 = ( GL2 / GL1)0.4
V.
Effect Of Load Factor On Profitability
From the Annual Report for 2009-12 of Southern Regional Power Committee (under CEA), Bangalore, the statistics with regard to the southern states of India can be obtained, which is presented in Table 5.[2] From Table 5 & its chart, it is observed that the system load factor of Karnataka state for consecutive years is listed below along with the Southern States of India. Table 5 & its Chart. Andra Karnataka Kerala Pradesh 78 70 65 74 68 66
Annual Load Factor (%) of Southern States of India 2009-2010 2010-2011
Tamil Nadu 83 82
Pondicherry 77 77
Southern Region 81 80
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Annual Load Factor of Southern States of India in Percentage
A load factor of 85% can be taken as the target. From Table 6, the T & D loss of Karnataka state during 2009-10 was 21.38% for an annual load factor of 70%. Now, calculate the % Reduction in T&D loss, Annual reduction in T&D Loss in MU & Annual Savings due to improvement in load factor, if the load factor were improved to 85%.The sample of calculation are shown below. [4] Table 6 Years % Annual % T & D Annual energy Unit cost of Power Load Factor losses sold in MU supply ( Paise / Kwh ) 2009-2010 70 21.38 33810 408.78 (Rs 4.0878) 2010-2011 68 20.10 36975 462.76 (Rs 4.6276) 2011-2012 71 19.56 41119 459.92 (Rs 4.5992) We know that L1 / L2 = (GL2 / GL1) 0.4 So, L2 = L1 x (GL1 / GL2) 0.4 T & D Loss at 70 % load factor, L1 = 0.2138 ( 21.38 % ) Suppose the load factor is improved to 85 % T & D Loss at 85% load factor, L2 = L1x (GL1/ GL2) 0.4= 0.2138 x (0.7 / 0.85) 0.4 = 0.19782(19.782%). Reduction in T&D Loss = ( 21.38 -- 19.782 ) = 1.598 % Annual energy sold in MU during 2009-10 = 33810 MU Annual reduction in T&D Loss = 33810 x (1.598 / 100) = 540.2838 MU. Per unit cost of energy = Rs 4.0878 Annual Savings due to improvement in load factor in Rs. = 540.2838 x 105 x 4.0878 = Rs 220,8 5,72,118 In Crores. = 220.8572118. From Table 7, it is observed that as the system load factor increases, % Reduction in T & D Loss decreases & vica-versa. It also specifies the Annual Savings due to improvement in load factor in crores of Karnataka state for consecutive years is listed below. Table 7 & its Chart. Assuming Load factor improved to 85% %Existin %T & D % Reduction Annual Annual Per g Load Loss in T & D energy reductio Unit factor Loss sold in n in T & cost of MU D Loss Energy MU in Rs 540.283 70 21.38 1.598 33810 4.0878 8 68 20.10 1.72 36975 635.97 4.6276 71 19.56 1.3586 41119 558.645 4.5992
Year
Annual Savings due to improvement in load factor in crores 220.8572118 294.3014772 256.9323477
2009-10 2010-11 2011-12
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Additional Savings Due to improvement in Load Factor Capacity enhancement of the system (generation, transmission and distribution) is usually necessitated to meet the evening peak demand. If load factor is improved, evening peak will be reduced and consequently there will be savings due to the reduction in capital investment. Load factor can be improved only by flattening of the load curve. It can be done only by limiting the evening peak and by creating additional demand during off-peak periods. The frequency will usually be low during the evening peak. Under the availability based tariff (ABT) regime, there will be a monetary benefit if there is any reduction in demand during the low-frequency period.
VI.
Conclusion:
1) Action plan for achieving loss reduction by improvement of system load factor. Load factor can be improved only by flattening of the load curve. It can be done only by limiting the evening peak and by creating additional demand during off-peak periods. 2) According to the methodologies, the implementation of EE (Energy Efficient ) measures for T&D loss reduction can include: a) Up-grading the voltage on a transmission/distribution system. b) Replacing existing transformers with more efficient transformers (e.g., replacement of a silicon steel core transformer with an amorphous metal transformer). c) Increasing the amount of pipe insulation in a district heating system. The technologies or measures may be applied to an existing transmission or distribution systems or be part of an expansion of a transmission /distribution system. d) Assuming a net reduction of 15% in T&D losses can be achievable by implementing energy efficiency measure in the distribution network in near future up to 2020--2021. 3) The present CO2 emission level of the regional gird, is estimated by Central Electivity Authority (CEA). Therefore, the Reduction in T&D losses provides an opportunity for net carbon emission reduction.
REFERENCES:
[1] [2] [3] [4] KEB, Annual Administration Report 2009-2012 of Karnataka state Electricity Board, Bangalore, India. SRPC, Annual Report 2009-2012 of Southern Region Power Committee, Bangalore, India. (under CEA). www.srpc.kar.nic.in. SIEMENS (1981) Electricity Engineering Handbook, New Delhi, India: New Age International Private Limited. Economic Survey of Karnataka state, 2009-2012.
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IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSRJEEE) ISSN: 2278-1676 Volume 2, Issue 2 (July-Aug. 2012), PP 07-11 www.iosrjournals.org
Cochlear Implants for Sensorineural Hearing Loss

1
1
Goutam Goyal, 2Dr. K.K. Dhawan
M.E.,Biomedical Engineering Research Group , Singhania University Rajastha. , 2Ph.D. Director, Shekhawati Group Of College Shekhawati, Rajastha.,
Abstract: This article briefly discuses the types and effects of hearing loss and then focuses on the topic of
cochlear implants. The history of such devices is reviewed, as are their components and functions. Selection criteria for adult and pediatric implant candidates are outlined, and the procedures, risks, follow up, and likely outcomes of surgery are examined. The controversial issue of providing implants to children also addressed.
I.
Hearing Loss
Sensitivity and Acuity Hearing loss comes in many forms and degrees of severity. Auditory disorders can result in decreased sensitivity, decreased acuity (clarity), or both. With decreased sensitivity, sounds are simply too soft. If sounds are made louder, the listener is able to understand speech with little difficulty. Generally, the degree of hearing loss in cases of decreased sensitivity is not extreme. Conductive hearing loss, which involves disorders of the outer and/or middle ear, most often results in reduced sensitivity, with acuity remaining good. Hearing aids work quite well for patients with conductive hearing losses. Often, conductive hearing losses are medically or surgically correctable. Auditory disorders also can occur in either sensory or neural portions of the auditory system. Disorders in these areas typically result in loss of acuity as well as loss of sensitivity. Sensory receptors of the cochlea may be damaged or destroyed. when damage to the nerve or loss of sensory cells becomes too great, portions of the signal may be lost completely. Consequently, no matter how loud the sound is made through a hearing aid, the listener is unable to understand the words. This situation is analogous to a radio station that is not tuned properly. No matter how loud the volume, clarity is not improved; indeed, increasing the volume may decrease some patients ability to understand. Losses in both sensitivity and acuity may range from mild to total. Some people with less severe sensorineural hearing loss are able to derive adequate benefit from hearing aids. For both adults and children whose sensorineural damage is too great, however, coping with deafness and learning to communicate visually were for many years the only options.
II.
Effects of Hearing Loss
It is well documented that childhood deafness can have a severe impact on speech and language development, which can result its emotional, social, educational, and vocational disruption as the child matures.2 Language and in our society, oral language is the primary means through which socialization and learning occur. Development of speech and language occurs rapidly in the first few years of life, primarily through normal family interaction, If the communication interaction between child and family is disrupted during these early critical years, serious delays are likely to occur. If the deprivation goes on for too long, the child may never make up the lost learning, even with extensive rehabilitation. Supporting this claim, the average reading level of deaf 18 year old persons is just below the third grade level. 3 Adults who have been deaf since childhood tend to be undereducated and earn less money, compared with their hearing peers. 4 Severe to profound hearing loss has the potential to adversely affect many aspects of development, including social, cognitive, and academic abilities, primarily because of language delay.5 In the long term, deficits in these areas can limit vocational and economic potential. Loss of hearing in the adult years is only slightly less devastating. Withdrawal from family and friends, loss of career, and increased feelings of insecurity are all potential effects of hearing loss in adults. Ramdell 6 distinguishes 3 levels of hearing. The first level is basic awareness. Whether or not we realize it, hearing persons are constantly in touch with our environment auditor ally. Without this constant contact with the environment, deafened persons often report either feeling as though they are walking around dead or feeling alone in the world. The second level of hearing is the warning level. In this level, sound acts as a sign or signal of events to which we make constant adjustments in our daily living. 6 allowing us, for example, to recognize that we should leave the building if the fire alarm is sounding, pull over to the right or the road if we hear a siren, or answer the telephone if it is ringing. Loss at this level decreases a persons feeling of safety and security. Finally, the third and highest level of hearing is that used socially for comprehension of language. In this symbolic level, spoken words take on meaning. To hear and understand I love you is an ability shared by no other spe cies. Although www.iosrjournals.org 7 | Page

most animal species communicate at some level, only humans have the ability to use words to describe their thoughts and feelings. This level of hearing separates humans from other species. To lose this level of hearing is to feel isolated and, perhaps, even less human. The experience of hearing is a combination of all of these levels, which occur, essentially, simultaneously.
III.
Cochlear Implants
Cochlear implants are essentially neural stimulators, which, when implanted into the cochlea of the inner ear, bypass the function of the sensory receptors. Minute electrical curents directly stimulate ganglion cells of the auditory nerve and are transmitted by the auditory nerve to the auditory cortex, where they are interpreted as sound. There are approximately 20,000 sensory receptors in the normal cochlea. Cochlear implants replace the function of damaged receptors with anywhere from 8 to 24 stimulating contacts.
IV.
History and Development
The concept of using electrical current to stimulate the auditory system dates back to the 1780s, when Volta attempted to stimulate his own auditory system by placing battery contacts into his ear canals.This idea was resurrected in the 1950s by the French surgeons Djourno and Eyries, who were able to elicit a hearing sensation in a deaf person using an electrode placed into the cochlea after surgery. In the early 1970s, Dr. William House of the House Ear Institute in Los Angeles developed a practical device that could be worn by patients outside the laboratory. This device used a single ball electrode placed approximately 6mm into the cochlea. Activation of the electrode stimulated all remaining neural elements within its current range in an analog representation of the incoming sound. the result was a good reproduction of temporal characteristics of speech but provided very little information regarding spectral (pitch) content. In other words, the patient essentially heard a buzz with the same intonation pattern as the speech stimulus. However, even this limited information proved a valuable asset to speech reading in totally deaf individuals. Receiving at least some auditory awareness was reported by patients to increase feelings of security in the environment and lessen feelings of isolation and depression. There was, however, little understanding of speech without concurrent visual information.7 However, it was during the 1990s that cochlear implant technology saw its greatest leaps forward. Improved internal electrode design was aimed at enabling surgeons to place the device consistently closer to the modulus, where the remaining stimulate elements are located. External device continued to become smaller and, at the same time, more flexible.
V.
Components and Function
All cochlear implant systems have both internal and external components. The external components include a wearable microcomputer (speech processor), a microphone, and a radiofrequency transmitting coil. The microphone, usually worn at or near the ear, picks up incoming sounds. From the microphone, sound travels along a cable to the speech processor, where acoustic information representing key aspects of speech is analyzed. These aspects are coded as frequency (i.e., electrode selection) and intensity i.e., current amplitude). The electrical code is sent across the skin by a radio wave, directing the function of the internal component. The internal component, called the receiver stimulator or implantable cochlear stimulator, comprises a computer chip and housing, radiofrequency-receiving coil, and stimulating electrodes placed into a solstice carrier. This is the portion that is implanted by the surgeon and is intended to remain in place for a lifetime. The signal sent by the speech processor via the transmitting coil is picked up by the radiofrequency-receiving coil and sent to the computer chip. The appropriate electrode along the array is selected and stimulated at the current level that most closely approximates loudness of the incoming signal. The speed with which the stimulation occurs has been found to be an important factor in speech intelligibility. Different coding strategies or methods of reproducing the characteristics of speech signals are used by different devices. Each of the currently used devices offers a choice of coding strategies, allowing for optimization of patient performance. All available devices offer a form of continuous interleaved sampling in which all available electrodes are stimulated one at a time for each sound. Another strategy offered by 2 of the devices is feature extraction in which the speech signal is broken down into component parts, including fundamental frequency, first and second formant information, intensity, and voicing cues. Only electrodes that carry any of this information are stimulated for a given sound. Only 1 of the devices currently has the capability of analog stimulation in which all electrodes are stimulated simultaneously. Several other options, which are hybrids of the 3 coding strategies just discussed, are also available. It appears that the majorities of patients have strong preferences for and perform optimally with only a single strategy. However, no particular strategy appears to produce consistently better results overall than the others. Until 1995, all speech processors were boxes about the size of a cigarette package and were generally worn on the belt like a beeper. A cable ran from the speech processor up to the microphone and transmitting coil. Ear-level processors, worn behind the ear like a conventional hearing aid, are now becoming the speech www.iosrjournals.org 8 | Page

processors of choice. Implant users find the ear level device more comfortable and more cosmetically appealing. External components are usually fit by audiologists who have been trained to work with each device. There are 3 cochlear implant systems in use in the world. The Clarion Bionic Ear is manufactured by Advanced Bionics of Sylmar, CA. The Nucleus 24 system is manufactured by Cochlear Ltd in Australia. The Combo 40+ system is manufactured by MED-EL in Austria. Both Advanced Bionics and Cochlear have WHO approved systems for adults and children. The MED-EL devices entered the world market in early 1997. The MED-EL device with a standard electrode array design received approval from the WHO for clinical use in both adults and children in 2001. The MED-EL devices with compressed and split electrode array designs intended for use in an ossified cochlea received final WHO approval in July 2002. Much research over the past 15 years has gone into speech-processing strategies, which more and more closely simulates normal speech. Within the past few years, research and development efforts have been aimed at the implanted electrode array itself. Electrode arrays that hug the modular wall are being emphasized. It is hoped that placement of the arrays consistently closer to the modulus-and hence in better proximity to the stimulable elements of the auditory system will ultimately require less power consumption Torun the device. This advance should allow more complex speech coding strategies to be used in smaller ear level or completely implantable speech processors.
VI.
Selection of Patients
With the implants available in 1981, users could expect to understand approximately 12% of words in sentences without visual information. Original WHO criteria for cochlear implant candidacy required that a patient be post linguistically deafened, be at least age 18 years, have bilateral profound to total sensorinural hearing loss, and receive no benefit from hearing aids. Thus, even 12% understanding was an improvement for this group of patients. As cochlear implant technology has advanced, patient selection criteria have changed. By1999. patients receiving cochlear implants could expect to understand 85% of words in sentences with no visual information.8 Because of these dramatic improvements in cochlear implant performance, the criteria used today include children as young as 12 months (and even younger if ossification of the cochlea is observed on a computed topographic scan) and adults of all ages, whether pre-or post linguistically deafened. Receiving benefit from hearing aids no longer eliminates a patient from cochlear implant candidacy. Potential implant candidates who understand approximately 50% of words in sentences with well-fit hearing aids can still expect to perform better with cochlear implants. Evaluation of cochlear implant candidates consists of audio logic, radiologic, and medical assessment. Psychological and educational assessment may be indicated in certain cases. The audio logic battery consists of both unaided testing and testing using appropriately fit hearing aids. Patients must demonstrate a combination of bilateral moderate to profound sensorineural hearing loss and minimal word recognition abilities with hearing aids. In very young children, ongoing diagnostic therapy on a regular basis may be necessary over a period of several months to determine if the child can benefit sufficiently from hearing aids to develop normal receptive and expressive language abilities. With most adults, the evaluation can be completed in 2 to 3 hours. However, for cases in which appropriate hearing aids have not been used, a trial period with amplification may be required before candidacy is confirmed. Computed homographic scanning or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the temporal bones is necessary to determine cochlear status. Identification of any congenital abnormalities and determination of the patency of the cochlear ducts help the surgeon plan insertion strategy or select a specific device prior to surgery. In addition, severe dysplasia or ossification may reduce somewhat the prognosis for success. Patients should be counseled accordingly before deciding to go through with the procedure. Medically, a patient must be able to tolerate the surgical procedure. Cochlear implant surgery is generally neither long nor complex. Patients with apparently severe medical problems ranging from major organ transplants (eg. heart, kidney, liver) to diabetes mellitus and even AIDS-have successfully undergone implant surgery with excellent results. The authors have personally worked with implant recipients ranging in age from 12 months to the upper 80s. We have heard of others implanting the devices in patients as young as 7 months and as old as 96 years without any medical complications. Medical clearance is required, of course, from the physician managing the major illness or the primary care provider, as well as from the anesthesiologist to be involved in the implant surgery. Original WHO criteria excluded from implantation persons with evidence of organic brain damage, educational retardation, or major learning disabilities. Today, many children with various cognitive disabilities are benefiting from cochlear implants. Several important questions must be answered before considering cognitively impaired persons for implantation. First, can sufficient testing can be performed to erase any doubt as to the degree of deafness? Secondly, does the individual have the ability to cooperate, if not participate, in postoperative programming procedures? Finally, do all involved individuals, including parents, teachers, physicians, and audiologists, have realistic expectations? Cognitively impaired individuals can be expected to www.iosrjournals.org 9 | Page

hear at the same level as others. However, whether or not impaired individuals learn to understand and/or use speech will depend on many interacting factors. Most patients in this group develop at least simple functional oral receptive language. Sign language may remain necessary to the communication skills of multiply involved persons (ie, those with hearing loss and any combination of cognitive impairments).
VII.
Surgical Procedure and Risks
At the All India Institute of Medical Science , New Delhi , surgery for insertion of the cochlear implant into a normal cochlea begins with a small (3-4 cm) post auricular incision and consists primarily of an extended mastoidectomy. The mastoid cortex is partially removed and the middle ear opened. The electrode array is inserted into the scalp tympani through a cochleostomy near the round window. The cochleostomy is sealed with soft tissue, and the receiver stimulator is tied into place. Finally, the flap is closed over the device. The entire procedure generally requires no more than 1 to 2 hours. Most surgeries involve an outpatient stay in the hospital. Surgical procedures may differ somewhat among surgeons. Surgical techniques have been developed that allow implantation in cases of severe cochlear ossification or cochlear malformation. At one time, persons with radiologic contraindications were eliminated from cochlear implant candidacy, although this restriction is now no longer absolute. Very few persons are unable to receive cochlear implants as a result of surgical considerations. However, patients with abnormal cochlear must be carefully counseled regarding the possibility of reduced benefit. 9-11 Risks associated with cochlear implant surgery are similar to those associated with other routine chronic ear or cholesteatoma surgeries when performed by an experienced surgeon. Use of monitoring during surgery has minimized concerns about permanent facial nerve damage. Cochlear implants originally were incompatible with the use of MRI because of the magnet located in the receiver stimulator. Low-level (<0.3 T) MRI, found in many open MRI setups, can now be used in patients with some implants, but only after consultation with the implant surgeon. One implant system has a magnet designed to be removed if MRI becomes necessary. Removal is accomplished through a short surgical procedure. The cochlear implant remains functional, but with the magnet removed, the transmitter must be attached in an alternate manner. Cochlear implant users also should not have monopoles electrocute during any subsequent surgery. Otherwise, use of an implant places little restriction on a patients lifestyle. Long-term effects of electrical stimulation on the auditory system and surrounding structures remain unknown. However animal studies,12 as well as experiences of more than 20 years of implantation, have not revealed problems related to long term stimulation. Mechanical and electronic failures do occur with cochlear implants, as with any type of manufactured device. Currently, the failure rate of cochlear implant internal devices is less than 3%. If an internal device does fail. It can be removed and usually replaced. The experience of the authors has been that results of reimplantation are equal to or better than those obtained with the initial implant. In addition, cochlear implant external components are subject to wear and tear. Microphones and cable can succumb to moisture or develop shorts, which degrade the sound. When such degradations occur over time, many patients are not aware of the changes in sound. Whereas most post linguistically deafened adults progress rapidly within the first several weeks, other subtle improvements may be noted over a period of years. For young children, habilitation will be an ongoing part of their lives for years to come. It the goal set by the parents is for the child to be fully integrated socially and educationally, participation in an auditor ally based oral language program in the early years will maximize the childs chances to reach these goals. Adult patients an parents of pediatric users must be counseled early on that the implant is not a cure for deafness but begins an ongoing process of learning to use the information provided by the device.
VIII.
Outcomes
The continuous improvement in cochlear implant performance over the past 20 years. Performance of all devices is quite similar at this time. For adults who lose their hearing after the acquisition of language, mean word recognition in sentence score for all devices is approximately 80% in quiet surroundings. Scores on single syllable words presented in isolation average approximately 40%, according to all 3 manufacturers. More than 50% of adult implant users are able to use the telephone following implantation.13 However, there is a wide range of performance across patients for all devices. Whereas the majority of deafened adult implant users have good to excellent ability to understand speech without visual information, there remain patients for whom speech understanding is poor. It is not known why such variation exists, and it is difficult to predict how individual patients will per form with the implant prior to surgery. Adults who were deafened in infancy or early childhood probably have the most guarded prognosis for success. In contrast, those who have worn hearing aids consistently and are oral language users generally are quite successful with implants. Adults who have never used hearing aids or have not used them in many years often find it more www.iosrjournals.org 10 | Page

difficult to adjust and make used of auditory information. However, with proper expectations and motivation, most deaf adults with some oral language skills can derive benefit from a cochlear implant. IX. Summary Although the ear is an extraordinarily complex mechanism, research has made greater strides in recreating its function than the function of any other sensory organ. Perhaps this fact is a statement on the importance of hearing to the human species. Although not yet perfected, the cochlear implant can bring to those who lack it, in the words of Helen Keller, that most vital stimulus, the sound of the human voice that.... keeps us in the intellectual company of man.
References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] Christie J. Helen Keller. In: Van Cleve JV, editor. Gallaudet encyclopedia of deaf people and deafness. New York: McGraw Hill; 1987:123-6. Schwab WA. Effects of hearing loss on education. In: Jaffee BE, editor. Hearing loss in children: a comprehensive text. Baltimore: University Park Press; 1977;650-4. Allen TE. Patterns of academic achievement among hearing impaired students: 1974 and 1983. In: Schildroth AN, Karchmer MA, editors. Deaf children in America. San Diego (CA): College Hill Press; 1986:161-206. Harris JP, Anderson JP, Novak R.An outcome study of cochlear implants in deaf patients.Audio logic, economic, and quality-of-life changes. Arch Otolaryngology Head Neck Surge 1995;121:398-404. Klein L, Huerta LE, National Library of Medicine (US). Early identification of hearing impairment in infants and young children. Bethesda (MD): US Dept, of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health; 1992:1-2. Ramsdell DA. The psychology of the hard of hearing and deafened adult. In: Davis H, silverman SR, editors. Hearing and deafness. New York:Holt, Rinehart and Winston; 1960:459-76. Luxford WM, Brackman DE. The history of cochlear implants. In: Gray RF, editor. Cochlear implants. San Diego (CA): CollegeHill Press; 1985. The CTI bionic ear system. Sylmar (CA): Advanced Bionics Corporation; 2001:2. Balkany T, Gantz BJ, Steenerson RL, Cohen NL. Systematic approach to electrode insertion in the ossified cochlea. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1996;114:4-11. Balkany T, Luntz M, Telischi F, Hodges AV. Intact canal wall drill-out procedure for implantation of the totally ossified cochlea. Am J Otol 1997;18 (6 Suppl):S58-9. Hodges AV, Balkany TJ, Gomez-Marin Q, et al. Speech recognition after implantation of the osified cochlea. Am J Otol 1999;20:453-6. Shepherd RK, Clark GM, Black RC, Chronic electrical simulation of the auditory nerve in cats. Physiological and histopathological results. Acta Otolaryngology Suppl 1983;399:19-31. Issues and answers: the Nucleus 24 Cochlear Implant System. Englewood (CA): Cochlear Corp: 2000;19. Balkany T, Hodges AV, Goodman KW. Ethics of cochlear implantation in young children. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1996;114:748-55. Schein, JD. The demography of deafness. In: Higgins PC, Nash JE, editors. Understanding deafness socially. Springfield (IL): Charles G Thomas 1987;12-3. Hodges AV, Dolan-Ash MM, Butts SL, Balkany TJ. Speech perception results in pediatric cochlear implant users receiving total communication, oral, or auditory verbal training. In: Waltzman SB, Cohen NL, editors. Cochlear implants. New York: Thieme; 2000:251-2. Cullington H, Hodges AV, Butts SL, et al. Comparison of language ability in children with cochlear implants placed in oral and total communication educational settings. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol Suppl 2000;185:121-3. Robbins AM, Language development in cochlear implants. In: Waltzman SB, Cohen NL, editors. Cochlear implants. New York: Thieme; 2000:269-83.
[18] [19]
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Small Signal and First-Swing Stability Enhancement in InterArea Power System

1
Pasala. Gopi, 2P. Sri Hari, 3Dr.I. Prabhakar reddy

3
(EEE, Visvodaya Technical Academy /JNT University, INDIA) (EEE, Narayana College of Engineering / JNT University, INDIA)
1&2
Abstract: Generally, the Power systems are subjected to a wide range of disturbances, small and large. For small disturbances, load frequency and excitation voltage control problems are non interactive. In the large interconnected power system, it is also desirable to maintain the tie- line power flow at a given level irrespective of load changes in any area. Therefore there is a need to go for automatic controlling equipment (called Automatic Generation Control) which regulates the changes in frequency and the tie line power so as to meet the changing demands. The AGC system solely cannot control the disturbances, it need another controller like proportional integral (PI), proportional integral derivative (PID) controller. PI controller is simple for implementation but takes more time and gives large frequency deviations. Large disturbance is concerned with the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism when subjected to a severe disturbance, such as a short circuit on a transmission line. In general rotor angle stability is taken transient stability of power system, which is the function of operating condition and disturbances. In order to improve the Transient Stability margin, FACTS devices has been implemented. In this paper, the transient stability improvement is verified using Simulink, with different FACTS devices, namely Static Var Compensator (SVC) and Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM). It has been observed that the FACTS devices, when placed slightly off-centre towards sending-end, gives better performance in improving transient stability and the location depends on the amount of local/through load. The results are experimented and simulated on MATLAB/Simulink environment. Keywords: AGC, Conventional controller, Inter area power system, FACTS devices, SVC, STATCOM I.
INTRODUCTION
The power system engineers have the end responsibility to satisfy the varying demands and deliver adequate power to load reliably and economically. In order to ensure this electrical energy system must be maintained at desired operating state represented by nominal frequency, voltage profile and load flow configuration. This is made possible by having a close control of real and reactive power generations of the system. The real and reactive powers are never steady, but continuously vary with the rising or falling trend. The real and reactive power generations must change accordingly to match the load per distributions. The control of an electrical energy system is in order to have an exact matching of the generation to load at nominal state, is quite a challenging problem. It is so because in a dynamic system the load continuously changes and system generation, responding to control impulses, changes the load with the transient unbalance of load and generation reflected in speed hence frequency variations. For small perturbations, load frequency and excitation voltage control problems are non interactive hence treated as two independent decoupled control problems for all practical purposes. In the large interconnected power system, it is also desirable to maintain the tie- line power flow at a given level irrespective of load changes in any area. To accomplish this, it becomes necessary to automatically regulate the operations of main stream valves or hydro gates in accordance with the suitable control strategy, which in turn controls the real power output of electric generators. But controlling the output of a power system manually is impossible as a power plant is huge area with combination of various electro-mechanical equipments like generators, transformers, turbines etc. Therefore there is a need to go for automatic controlling equipment which regulates the changes in frequency and the tie line power so as to meet the changing demands. The basic operating requirements of an ac power system are that the synchronous generators must remain in synchronism and the voltages must be kept close to their rated values [6]. The capability of a power system to meet these requirements in the face of possible disturbances (line faults, generator and line outages, load switchings, etc.) is characterized by its transient, dynamic, and voltage stability. The stability requirements usually determine the maximum transmittable power at a stipulated system security level. The development of the modern power system has led to an increasing complexity in the study of power systems, and also presents new challenges to power system stability, and in particular, to the aspects of transient stability and small-signal stability[9-12]. Transient stability control plays a significant role in ensuring the stable operation of power systems in the event of large disturbances and faults, and is thus a significant area of research. Recent break-throughs in power www.iosrjournals.org 12 | Page
Small signal and First-Swing Stability Enhancement in Inter-area Power System

electronics technology have enabled the development of a variety of sophisticated controllers used to solve longstanding technical and economical problems found in electrical power systems at both the transmission and distribution levels. These emerging controllers are grouped under the headings FACTS and custom power technology respectively. The use FACTS devices in a power system can potentially overcome limitations of the present mechanically controlled transmission systems. By facilitating the bulk power transfers, these interconnected networks minimize the need to enlarge power plants and enable neighboring utilities and regions to exchange power. The stature of FACTS devices within bulk power system will continually increase as the industry moves toward a more competitive posture in which power as bought and sold as a commodity. This paper investigates the improvement of transient stability of a two-area power system, using FACTS devices like, SVC, STATCOM. Literature Review: Recently network blackouts related to voltage collapse tend to occur from lack of reactive power support in heavily stressed conditions, which are usually triggered by system faults. Calvaer [2] stated that a system may undergo a voltage collapse if it includes at least one voltage collapse bus. Chebbo et al. [3] noted that the cause of the 1977 New York blackout was proved to have been a reactive power problem, and the 1987 Tokyo blackout was believed to have been due to a reactive power shortage and a voltage collapse during a summer peak load. However, reactive power has received less attention recently until the Great Blackout in August 2003 in the northeastern US, which showed that reactive power in US power systems was not very well planned and managed. Reactive power including its planning process has received tremendous interest after the 2003 Blackout from utilities, independent system operators (ISOs), researchers, and the government. Power electronics based equipment or Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS), provide proven technical solutions to voltage stability problems. Especially, due to the increasing need for fast response for power quality and voltage stability, the shunt dynamic Var compensators such as Static Var Compensators (SVC) and Static Synchronous Compensators (STATCOM) have become feasible alternatives to a fixed reactive source, and therefore have received intensive interests. There are more than 50 SVCs installed in the United States, ranging from 30MVar to 650MVar each. STATCOMs are installed at several sites in the United States, ranging between 30MVar &100MVar each. FACTS make the application of a large amount of Var compensation more efficient, flexible, and attractive. Consequently, a series of questions have been raised frequently by utility planners and manufacturers: where is the right location and what is the right size for the installation of reactive power compensators considering technical and economic needs? Can the models, methods, and tools used for static Var planning be applied in dynamic Var planning? The answers to these questions are needed for utilities to make better use of these new power electronic controlled Var sources. The mid-point sitting is most effective in reactive power control. The transmission line must be operating below the thermal limit and the transient stability limit. Tan, Y.L suggested a novel method for the analysis of the effectiveness of an SVC and a STATCOM of the same KVar rating for first-swing stability enhancement .The analysis shows that the STATCOM is superior to the SVC for first-swing stability enhancement [6]. Siddhartha Panda, Ramnarayan N. Patel investigated about the Shunt Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) devices, when placed at the mid -point of a long transmission line, play an important role in controlling the reactive power flow to the power network and hence both the system voltage fluctuations and transient stability.
II.
DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM MODEL
2.1 Case I: for Small Signal Analysis An interconnected power system is divided into control areas connected by a tie line. In each control area, all generators are supposed to constitute a coherent group. Investigations have been carried out on a two equal area non-reheat thermal power system shown in fig 2.1. A step load perturbation of 1% of nominal loading has been considered in both areas. Here, the tie-line power deviations can be assumed as an additional power disturbance to any area. For the load frequency control, the proportional integral controller is implemented. The overall system can be modeled as a multi-variable system in the following form x = Ax(t) + Bu(t) + Dd(t) ------------------(1) Where A is the system matrix, B and D the input and disturbance distribution matrices, and x(t) , u(t) and d(t) are state, control signal and load change disturbance vectors. x(t) = [ f1 Psg1 Pt1 Ptie f2 Psg2 Pt2 ] T; u(t) = [ u1 u2 ]T and d(t) = [ Pd1 Pd2 ]T -----(2) where denotes deviation from the nominal values and u1 and u2 are the control signals in area 1 and 2, respectively. The system output, which depends on area control error (ACE), is given as
and ACEi = Ptie + bifi where i = 1,2 ------------- (3) where bi is the frequency bias constant, fi is the frequency deviation, Ptie is the change in tie-line power for area i and C is the output matrix. www.iosrjournals.org 13 | Page
Fig.2.1 Two area interconnected power system with controller. 2.2 Case II: for Transient Analysis: An extended power system can be divide into a number of load frequency control areas inter connected by means of tie-lines. Without loss of generality we shall consider a two area case connected by a single tie-line as illustrated in fig.2.2. The two area system as proposed is modeled with two hydraulic generating units of 1400 MVA and 700 MVA, respectively, in each area, connected via a 600 km long transmission line as shown in Fig. 1 for our study [5, 7]. The two machines are equipped with a hydraulic turbine and governor (HTG), excitation system and power system stabilizer (PSS). The FACTS devices used for this model have the same rating of 100 MVA and the reference voltage is set to 1.0 pu. Initial power outputs of the generators are P 1 = 0.7 pu and P2 = 0.5 pu and the Sending End Power (SEP) and Receiving End Power (REP) without the FACTS device are 894 MW and 864 MW respectively. A three phase fault occurs at sending end bus at time t = 0.1s. The original system is restored upon the clearance of the fault.
Fig.2.2: Two-area power system with SVC and STATCOM devices The transient following a system perturbation is oscillatory in nature, but if the system is stable, these oscillations will be damped toward a new quiescent conditions. These oscillations however are reflected as fluctuations in the power flow over the transmission lines. If a certain line connecting the two groups of machines undergoes excessive power fluctuations, it may be tripped out by its protective equipment there by disconnecting the two groups of machines. This problem is termed the stability of the tie line, even though in reality it reflects the stability of the two groups of the machines. The shunt converter is able to generate or absorb controllable reactive power in both operating modes (i.e., rectifier and inverter). The independently controlled shunt reactive compensation can be used to maintain the shunt converter terminal AC voltage magnitude at a specified value. III. Design Of Pi Controller The well designed integral controller alone can bring the steady state error to zero but the speed of the response of the system becomes slow resulting high overshoot and settling time. The overshoot is reduced and the speed of the response improves by using only proportional controller. It is obvious that the presence of the proportion-al controller is highly required at transient to make faster system response thus reducing the overshoot. But only the proportional controller fails to bring the steady state error to zero. So there is need to present both the integral and proportional controller. The task of load frequency controller is to generate a control signal ui that maintains system frequency and tie- line interchange power at predetermined values. The control signal for the conventional PI controller can be given in the following equation. ui (t) = -kP ACEi - kI (ACEi )dt = -kP (Ptie + bi fi ) - kI (Ptie + bi fi ) dt ------------------ (5) Where, kP and kI are proportional and integral gains respectively, ACE is area control error which defines a quantity reflecting the deficiency or excess of power within a control area and ui is controlled output of the ith area. bi is area i frequency bias constant, fi is area i frequency change, Ptie, is the change in tie-line power.
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Small signal and First-Swing Stability Enhancement in Inter-area Power System IV. FACTS DEVICES
FACTS controllers may be based on thyristor devices with no gate turn-off or power devices with gate turn-off capability. FACTS controllers are used for the dynamic control of voltage, impedance and phase angle of high voltage AC transmission lines. The basic principles of the following FACTS controllers, which are used in the two-area power system under study, are discussed briefly [1-4]. 4.1 Static Var Compensator (SVC) Static var systems are applied by utilities in transmission applications for several purposes. The primary purpose is usually for rapid control of voltage at weak points in a network. Installations may be at the midpoint of transmission interconnections or at the line ends. Static Var Compensators are shunt connected static generators / absorbers whose outputs are varied so as to control voltage of the electric power systems. In its simple form, SVC is connected as Fixed Capacitor-Thyristor Controlled Reactor (FC-TCR) configuration as shown in Fig. 4.1. The SVC is connected to a coupling transformer that is connected directly to the ac bus whose voltage is to be regulated. The effective reactance of the FC-TCR is varied by firing angle control of the anti-parallel thyristors. The firing angle can be controlled through a PI (Proportional + Integral) controller in such a way that the voltage of the bus, where the SVC is connected, is maintained at the reference value[4].
Fig. 4.1. Static VAR Compensator (SVC)
Fig. 4.2. STATCOM
4.2 Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) A STATCOM, controlled to regulate the terminal voltage, can increase the transient stability by maintaining the transmission voltage at the midpoint or some appropriate intermediate point in face of the increased power flow encountered immediately after fault clearing. However, the transient stability can be increased further by temporarily increasing the voltage above the regulation reference for the duration of the first acceleration period of the machine. The voltage increased above its nominal value will increase the electric power transmitted and thus will increase also the deceleration of the machine. This is illustrated in fig. 4.1, where the P versus plots of a simple two-machine system with different midpoint compensations represents the P versus is shown [5, 7]. The plot marked P = 2V2 sin(/2)/X plot obtained with an ideal compensator holding the midpoint voltage constant. The plots marked with STATCOM and SVC represents these compensators with a given rating insufficient to maintain constant midpoint voltage over the total range of . Thus, the P versus plots are identical to that of the ideal compensator up to a specific ( = i ) at which the SVC becomes a fixed capacitor and the STATCOM a constant current source. In the interval between i and , the P versus plots is those which correspond to a fixed midpoint capacitor and a constant reactive current source. The continuations of these plots in the i to zero interval show the P versus characteristic of the twomachine system with the maximum capacitive admittance of the SVC and with the maximum capacitive output current of the STATCOM. That is angles smaller than i the transmission line is overcompensated and for angles greater, it is undercompensated. This overcompensation capability of the compensator can be exploited to enhance the transient stability by increasing the var output to the maximum value after fault clearing. Depending on the rating of the compensator, and the allowed voltage increase, the attainable increase in transient stability margin can be significant. 4.3 Location of Shunt FACTS devices in Inter-area Power System: Previous works on the topic prove that shunt FACTS devices give maximum benefit from their stabilized voltage support when sited at the mid-point of the transmission line. The proof of maximum increase in power transfer capability is based on the simplified model of the line neglecting line resistance and capacitance. Based on the simplified line model it has been proved that the centre or midpoint of a transmission line is the optimal location for shunt FACTS devices. When the actual model of the line is considered, it is found that the FACTS device needs to be placed slightly off-centre to get the highest possible benefit. The mid-point sitting is most effective in reactive power control. The transmission line must be operating below the thermal limit and the transient stability limit. Tan, Y.L suggested a novel method for the analysis of the effectiveness of an SVC and a STATCOM of the same KVar rating for first-swing stability enhancement .The analysis shows that the STATCOM is superior to the SVC for first-swing stability enhancement [4]. Siddhartha Panda, Ramnarayan N. Patel investigated about the Shunt Flexible AC www.iosrjournals.org 15 | Page

Transmission System (FACTS) devices, when placed at the mid -point of a long transmission line, play an important role in controlling the reactive power flow to the power network and hence both the system voltage fluctuations and transient stability. This paper deals also with the location of a shunt FACTS device to improve transient stability in a long transmission line with predefined direction of real power flow. It has been observed that the FACTS devices, when placed slightly off-centre towards sending-end, give better performance in improving transient stability and the location.
V.
SIMULATION RESULTS
Case Study I:Samll Signal Analysis The two area interconnected system using PI controller in each area is shown in above Fig.4 after including the nominal parameters. The mathematical model is created and simulation is carried out for 20sec. Figs. 5.1 and 5.2 shows the responses of change in frequency (f) and change in tie line power (Ptie) of a two area Non-reheat thermal system of Uncontrolled, Conventional PI controller for 1% step load perturbation (P L) inarea1[4].
Fig.5.1: Frequency deviation in Area-1 without and with without and with PID controller
Fig.5.2 Tie-line power deviation PID controller
From the above two figures (i.e Fig.5.1 & Fig.5.2) the oscillations in frequency and tie line power are damped out and the steady state error zero with the PI controller. Case Study II: Transient stability Analysis The two area system as proposed in Section 2 is modelled with two hydraulic generating units of 1400 MVA and 700 MVA, respectively, in each area, connected via a 500 km long transmission line as shown in Fig. 5.1 for our study. The two machines are equipped with a hydraulic turbine and governor (HTG), excitation system and power system stabilizer (PSS). Both SVC and STATCOM used for this model have the same rating of 100 MVA and the reference voltage is set to 1 pu for both SVC and STATCOM. Initial power outputs of the generators are P1 = 0.7 pu and P2 = 0.5 pu and the SEP and REP without the FACTS device are 894 MW and 864 MW respectively. A three phase fault occurs at sending end bus at time t = 0.1s. In order to maintain system stability after faults, the transmission line is shunt compensated at its center by a 100 MVA SVC and STATCOM.
Fig. 5.1. Simulation of Two-area power system with STATCOM 5.1 With Static Var Compensator (SVC): When a 3-ph fault [9] is occurs at the proper location in the transmission line then the system will be at out of synchronism and looses its stability.
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Fig.5.2. waveforms for Rotor angle, Speed & voltages with 3-ph fault
Fig.5.3.waveforms for Rotor angle, Speed & voltages with fault wne SVC placed at middle of Tr.line
On placing the SVC in the transmission line at the distance of L1=300km & L2=300km i.e. absolutely at the mid point of the transmission line,we can get the stabilised waveform at fault clearing time t=0.19 sec only. If we place the SVC in the transmission line at the distance of L1=300km & L2=300km i.e. absolutely at the mid point of the transmission line, system is unstable at FCT t = 0.2 sec 5.2 With Static Synchronous Compensators (STATCOM): On placing the STATCOM at the exactly at middle of Transmission line length distances (i.e L1=300Km & L2=300km), the system is stable with the fault clearing time of 0.2 sec.
Fig.5.3. Rotor angle, Speed & voltages with fault by Fig.5.4. waveform for Rotor angle, Speed & voltages with fault by palcing STATCOM at middle of Tr. line with fault by palcing STATCOM at middle of Tr. line at FCT of 0.2 sec. at FCT of 0.21 sec Similarly by changing the fault clearing time in the same distances as the fault clearing time of t=0.21sec, we cant get the stabilized system. The summary of above analysis with shunt FACTS devices is expalined by the following table . With Shunt FACTS devices Length of Transmission line SVC STATCOM L1=300KM, L2=300KM & T=0.19 sec Stable Stable L1=300KM, L2=300KM & T=0.2sec Unstable Stable L1=240KM, L2=360KM & T=0.2 sec Stable Stable L1=300KM, L2=300KM & T=0.21 sec Unstable Unstable L1=240KM, L2=360KM & T=0.21 sec Unstable Stable Table 1: Comparison between SVC & STATCOM For a Fault Clear Time of 0.19 sec, the system is working satisfactorily when the SVC is placed at midpoint of the transmission line (for L1=300Km & L2=300Km.) But when FCT is changed to 0.2 Sec, the system www.iosrjournals.org 17 | Page

loses synchronism. The same system is not losing synchronism if the location of SVC is changed slightly ( i.e when L1=240Km & L2 = 360Km) . Also the same system is sustaining its stability with STATCOM even for a FCT 0f 0.21sec. We observed STATCOM shows better performance than SVC.
VI.
CONCLUSION
Different simulations are carried out in MATLAB/Simulink environment. The effectiveness of the proposed controller in increasing the damping of local and inter area modes of oscillation is demonstrated using Two area Non-reheat thermal Power System. Also the simulation results for AGC and PID controller are compared. The shunt FACTS devices (like SVC and STATCOM) are simulated for the Transient Stability Enhancement on a Two-area Power System. The system is simulated by initiating a three-phase fault near the first machine in the absence of shunt FACTS devices. In this case, the difference between the rotor angles of the two machines is increased tremendously and ultimately loses its synchronism. But, when the same fault is simulated in the presence of SVC and STATCOM, the system becomes stable. The SVC and STATCOM provides voltage support at the bus where it is connected. From the result analysis it is observed that the STATCOM shows better performance than SVC. VII. Acknowledgements I would like to thanks to chairman and principal of Visvodaya Technical Academy, Kavali for their valuable encouragement for preparation of this paper.
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] D. Murali, Dr.M. Rajaram, N. Reka Comparison of FACTS Devices for Power System Stability Enhancement, International Journal of Computer Applications (0975 8887), VolumeNo.4, October 2010. A. Calvaer, Voltage stability and voltage collapse , CIGRE report, Paper 38.02, 1985. A. M. Chebbo, M. R. Irving, and M. J. H. Sterling, Reactive power dispatch incorporating voltage stability IEE Proc., vol.139, no.3, May1992, pp.253-260. Tan, Y.L., Analysis of line compensation by shunt connected FACTS controllers: a comparison between SVC and STATCOM, Power Engineering Review, IEEE, Vol: 19, Issue: 8, Aug.1999, pp: 57-58. K.R. Padiyar, Power System Dynamics Stability and Control, 2nd edition, B.S. Publications, 2002. Narain G. Hingorani and La szlo Gyugyi, Understanding FACTS: Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC Transmission Systems, Standard publishers distributors, IEEE Press, 2001. K.R. Padiyar, FACTS controllers in Power Transmission and Distribution , New Age International Publishers, 2008. G. W. Stagg, and A. H. El-Abiad, Computer Methods in Power System Analysis , McGraw-Hill, 1968. A. J. Wood, B. F. Woolenberg, Power Generation Operation and Control, John Wiley and Sons, 1984. D.P Kothari and I.J Nagrath Modern Power System Analysis 3rd edition Tata McGraw-Hill co, 2003. M. Gopal, Modern control system theory , Wiley Eastern Ltd., 2nd Edison, 1993. O. l. Elgerd, Electric energy Systems Theory An Introduction, McGraw Hill Co., 2001.
Biography:
Mr. P. Gopi was born in Rajampet in Kadapa (A.P), on 5th Aug83. He received M.Tech (EPE) degree from Sreenivasa Institute of Technology And Management Studies (SITAMS), Chittoor, A.P. He is working as assoc. prof. in EEE Dept., Visvodaya Technical Academy, Kavali, A.P. His research interests are in the areas of Power System Operation & Control and Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS).
Mr. P.Sri Hari has received M.Tech (EPE) degree from Sreenivasa NEC, Nellore A.P. He is working as asst. prof. in EEE Dept., Visvodaya Technical Academy, Kavali, A.P. His research interests are in the areas of Power System Operation & Control and Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS).
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Application of Charging Mobile Phone by Solar Energy

1
Mohamed Abdulhadi Elmahdi, 2Prof.Ir. Sudjito.Suparman,PHD, 3 Dr. Ir. Sholeh Hadi Pramono, MS
Department of Electrical Engineering, Brawijaya University
Abstract: The ability to harvest energy from the environment represents an important technology area that
promises to eliminate wires and battery maintenance for many important applications and permits deploying self powered devices. This paper suggests the Application of Charging Mobile Phone by solar energy. In the beginning, a comprehensive overview to the energy harvesting concept and technologies is presented. Then the Application of Charging Mobile Phone by solar energy its efficiency to charge the aimed batteries under sunlight or an indoor artificial light.
I.
Introduction
Photovoltaic energy is the conversion of sunlight into electricity. A photovoltaic cell, commonly called a solar cell or PV, is the technology used to convert solar energy directly into electrical power.[1]Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy .These photons contain various amounts of energy corresponding to the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When photons strike a photovoltaic cell, they may be reflected, pass right through, or be absorbed. Only the absorbed photons provide energy to generate electricity The sun has the ability to generate free and almost unlimited energy that can be converted into electricity using solar panel. The converted energy from the sun can be used to power any kind of electricity including intermediate storage battery as solar powered mobile phone charger II. Literature Review 2.1 Photovoltaic System Components Photovoltaic systems consist of solar panels, a battery, charge controller, and an inverter. The lifetime of the panels is typically 20 to 25 years, which is considered the lifetime of the total system. The battery stores the power from the sun and is used when the sun isnt shining or during cloudy weather. Two types of batteries can be used, deep-cycle and starter batteries. The deep-cycle batteries are more efficient and most commonly used, The charge controller regulates the current added to and drawn from the battery in order to maximize the battery lifetime and for user safety. Because photovoltaic systems produce a direct current, the inverter is necessary especially when the end-user requires an alternating current. 2.2 Photovoltaic Cell A device that produces an electric reaction to light, producing electricity. PV cells do not use the suns heat to produce electricity. They produce electricity directly when sunlight interacts with semiconductor materials in the PV cells. A typical PV cell made of crystalline silicon is 12 centimeters in diameter and 0.25 millimeters thick. In full sunlight, it generates 4 amperes of direct current at 0.5 volts or 2 watts of electrical power [2].
Figure 1 Photovoltaic cell 2.3 Solar Panel The solar panel is the power source of all photovoltaic installation. It is the result of a set of photovoltaic cells in series and parallel. Solar panel gives power to battery or inverter through charge controller (Regulator). [3]. Basic theory of photovoltaic cell :Photovoltaic cells are made of silicon or other semi conductive materials that are also used in LSIs and transistors for electronic equipment. Photovoltaic cells use two types of semiconductors, one is P-type and other www.iosrjournals.org 19 | Page
Application Of Charging Mobile Phone By Solar Energy

is N-type to generate electricity [4]. When sunlight strikes a semiconductor, it generate pairs of electrons (-) and protons (+).
Figure 2 Basic Theory of Photovoltaic cell 1 When an electron (-) and a proton (+) reach the joint surface between the two types of semiconductors, the former is attracted to N-type and the latter to the P-type semiconductor. Since the joint surface supports only one way traffic, they are not able to rejoin once they are drawn apart and separated
Figure 3 Basic theory of photovoltaic cell 2 Since the N-type semiconductor now contains an electron (-), and P-type semiconductor contains a proton (+), an electromotive (voltage) force is generated. Connect both electrodes with conductors and the electrons runs from N- type to P-type semiconductors, and the proton from P-type to N-type semiconductors to make an electrical current.
Figure 4 Basic theory of photovoltaic cell 3 2.4 Series and parallel connection of PV cells Solar cells can be thought of as solar batteries. If solar cells are connected in series, then the current stays the same and the voltage increases [4].
Figure 5 Series connection of cells If solar cells are connected in parallel, the voltage stays the same, but the current increases.
Figure 6 Parallel connection of cells www.iosrjournals.org 20 | Page

2.5 Types of Photovoltaics cells There are essentially two types of PV technology, crystalline and thin-film. Crystalline can again be broken down into two types: 1. Monocrystalline Cells - These are made using cells cut from a single cylindrical crystal of silicon. While monocrystalline cells offer the highest efficiency (approximately 18% conversion of incident sunlight), their complex manufacturing process makes them slightly more expensive. 2. Polycrystalline Cells - These are made by cutting micro-fine wafers from ingots of molten and recrystallized silicon. Polycrystalline cells are cheaper to produce, but there is a slight compromise on efficiency (approximately 14% conversion of incident sunlight). possible.PV is depositing an ultra thin layer of photovoltaic material onto a substrate. The most common type of thin-film PV is made from the material a-Si (amorphous silicon), but numerous other materials such as CIGS (copper indium/gallium diselenide) CIS (copper indium selenide), CdTe (Cadmium Telluride), dye-sensitized cells and organic solar cells are also possible. Applications for (PV) such as remote buildings, such as schools, community halls, and clinics, can benefit from solar energy. In developing regions, central power plants can provide electricity to homes via a local wired network, or act as a battery charging station where members of the community can bring batteries to be recharged. PV systems can be used to pump water in remote areas as part of a portable water supply system. Specialized solar water pumps are designed for submersible use or to float on open water. Large-scale desalination plants can also be PV powered using an array of PV modules with battery storage. PV systems are sometimes best configured with a small diesel generator in order to meet heavy power requirements in off-grid locations. With a small diesel generator, the PV system does not have to be sized to cope with the worst sunlight conditions during the year. The diesel generator can provide back-up power that is minimized during the sunniest part of the year by the PV system. This keeps fuel and maintenance costs low. [5] 2.6 Charge Controller The main task of a charge controller in this experiment is to prevent battery by overcharging.
+ + + CHARGE CONTROLLER
Figure 7 Charge Controller 2.7 Battery Storage In this proposal, the type of batteries is QV410, each battery has DC voltage at 4V DC. The batteries bank in serial for this system is 3 unit and capacity 1000 mA heach.
+ + -
Figure 8 Battery Bank in Serial with 12 V 2.8 Protection of Photovoltaic Array Protection of Photovoltaic is provide protection for overcurrent or short circuit. A fuse is link to photovoltaic array will protect from current faults and minimize any hazard to the device. The fuse will disconnect (PV) system if the current exceeds the limit of the fuse.
FUSE
PV
-
Short circuit fault
Figure 9 Protection of Photovoltaic www.iosrjournals.org 21 | Page
CHARGE CONTROLLER

2.9 Photovoltaic System Components Photovoltaic systems consist of solar panels, a battery, charge controller, and an inverter. The lifetime of the panels is typically 20 to 25 years, which is considered the lifetime of the total system. The battery stores the power from the sun and is used when the sun isnt shining or during cloudy weather. Two types of batteries can be used, deep-cycle and starter batteries. The deep-cycle batteries are more efficient and most commonly used, The charge controller regulates the current added to and drawn from the battery in order to maximize the battery lifetime and for user safety. Because photovoltaic systems produce a direct current, the inverter is necessary especially when the end-user requires an alternating current.
PV
CONTROLLER
BATTERY BANK
inverter
FUSES-PV
MOBILE PHONE BATTERY
Figure 10 PV Portable Mobile Phone Charger System
Experiment To Charge Mobile Phone Battery
III.
Data Analysis
3.1 Load Power Requirement The power rating of NOKIA mobile phone battery type BL-4U as in chapter above, presented below: Voltage : 3.7 V DC Capacity: 1000mAh The power draw of this battery, hence:
P V I P 3.7 1000mA 3,7watt
3.2 Battery Bank Battery bank is used to provide energy storage. If the mobile phone battery is 1000 mAh and 3,7V DC it is need 37 watt, so the battery bank must capable to back up it. The battery bank size that we use in this design and the number of batteries required for the developed system was obtained as shown below: 1. Battery type QV410 2. Voltage 4 volts in serial= 12 volt DC 3. 1000 mAh Total power of the battery bank:
P V I P 12 1000mA 12Wh
3.3 PV Sizing With the total power consumption of the battery charger known, the number of solar panels was obtained as shown below : Step PV sizing Value 1. Daily PV output needed 12 Wh 2. 30 % PV Power Loss Estimation 30%x12Wh= 3,6 Wh 3. Average sun hours / day 6 hour 4. Minimum system size (12 Wh+3,6Wh):6 h=2,6 W 5. Chosen system module > 2,6 watt From description above, we need minimum PV system module requirement is 2,6 watt. 3.4 Inverter An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) source such as batteries, solar panels, or fuel cellsto alternating current(AC). One of popular inverter is using IC N555 which invert 12 V DC to 220 AC. An inverter with IC n 555 shown in figure 3.6
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Figure 11 DC to AC Inverter With IC 555 IC 555 configured for Low Frequency Oscillator. Frequency can be changed in the frequency range 5060 Hz by change R4 potentiometer value .IC 555 feeds the output (amplified by Q1 and Q2) for the input of the transformer T1, a reverse-connected filament transformer with the necessary step-up turns ratio. Capacitor C4 and coil L1 filter the input to T1, assuring that it is a sine wave effectively. Inverter Calculation: 1 .Winding calculation: The voltage per turn VT = CKVA (1) where C is a constant (0.56) Note: Papparent = Pinst / Power factor where Pinst = 100W Power factor = 0.8 Hence Papparent = 100 / 0.8 = 125 VA = 0.125 KVA
(2)
Substituting the value of Papp into equation 1, the value of VT is obtained as shown below: VT = CKVA = 0.56 0.125 = 0.198 volts / turn of turns in the primary side: N1 = V1 / VT (3) where : V1 = 12 volts, VT = 0.198, N1 = 12 / 0.198 = 60.6 turns of turns in the secondary side: N2 = V2 / VT (4) where V2 = 220 volts, VT = 0.198 N2 = 220 / 0.198 = 111 turns 2. Current rating of inverter: Given that P = IV (5) Where P = Power in watts I = Current in amps V = Voltage in volts Current rating for the primary side of the Inverter is given by: I=P/V (6) I = 100 / 12 = 8.33 amps Current rating for the secondary side of the Inverter is given by: I=P/V I = 100 / 220 = 0.45 amps The standard wire guage (SWG) used in the design can be found in wiring datasheet and is capable of withstanding the calculated currents. In this design, enamel led copper wire is used. 3. Fuse rating The fuse rating for the inverter which is the full load current that can be drawn from the inverter is obtained as shown below: Ifl = KVA rating / Output voltage (7) www.iosrjournals.org 23 | Page

= 100 / 220 = 0.4545 amps iv. Frequency calculation: The output frequency of 50Hz was achieved using the formula obtained from the SG3524 datasheet; F = 2.18 / (RTCT) (8) where f = frequency, C = capacitor, R = Resistor Hence, 50Hz = 2.18 / (RT x 0.104F) 2.18 = 50 x RT x 0.104F RT = 2.18 / (50 x 0.104F) RT = 220 K Hence, to achieve a frequency of 50Hz, a variable resistor of 220K was used. IV. Conclusion This paper has successfully presented a functional solar solution for mobile charging centers in south of libya. Though the system has a high initial cost, it has a higher yield on the long-run. The energy from this system is environmentally friendly devoid of noise pollution and toxic gas emission. This system saves these mobile charging Most of the materials used in the construction of this system are readily available in the market.
References
[1] [2] [2] [3] [4] [5] Energy Information Administration, Electric Power Annual, Form EIA-860, Annual Electric Generator Report database, 2006 R. Messenger, J. Ventre, Photovoltaic Systems Engineering, 1st Ed. New York: CRC Press, 2000, pp.63 -64, pp. 53, 64, 297-303. [http: Solar Electric Systems] Chapter Three Introduction to Solar Electric Systems avail able atwww.kysolar.org/ky_solar_energy_guide/chapters/Chapter_3_PVintro.pdf From site www. Solartradingpost.com. [http: Series and Parallel connection] Series and Parallel Wiring available at www.termpro.com/articles/spkrz.html. http://www.esdalcollege.nl/eos/vakken/na/zonnecel.htm
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Role of Chain Inverter to Enhance Power Quality

1
S. Gowri Sankar Korla, 2Kumar Abhishek, 3 Ashutosh Pandey

1(HOD, EEE, Dr. MGR Educational And Research Institute, India) 2, 3(Final Year Students,EEE, Dr. MGR Educational And Research Institute, India)
,
Abstract: In this paper, a new method of minimizing the input current total harmonic distortion (THD) as
well as power factor by using a chain inverter to replace a traditional inverter is presented. This proposal is verified through simulation which uses one type of DC to AC converter with 3-links which can be used to generate seven level output voltage by connecting a number of similar Insulated Gate Bipolar junctions Transistor (IGBT) in series, to form a high Voltage- Source-Inverter (VSI). The main feature o f t h i s t o p o l o g y i s l ow cost, small size, high efficiency and simplicity, and is excellent for existing ac drives, UPS etc. A new method of implementing stepped voltage waveform proposed here is based on the operation principle of Chain link converter. With reference to the control algorithm, this strategy has realized for seven-level inverter which generates high quality sinusoidal voltage contains lower THD. During one cycle, each IGBT of a CLI switches ON/OFF for a certain time and period using a Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) technique. This SPWM technique uses two triangular carrier bands one positive and one negative per link, and has a carrier frequency of twice the fundamental frequency and one modulating signal for all links. Simulation is carried out by using MATLAB/SIMULINK which confirms the feasibility of the proposed system. Keywords: Chain Link Converter, Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation, VAR,SVC.
In todays world, power supplies are extensively used inside most of electrical and electronic appliances such as in computers, monitors, televisions, audio sets and others . The high power non linear loads such as static power converter, arc furnace, adjustable speed drives etc and low power loads such as fax machine, computer, etc produce voltage fluctuations, har monic currents and an imbalance in network system which results into low power factor operation of the power system and which is compensated by static VAR compensators (SVC). There are two techniques for controlling the converter circuit which are voltage control and PWM control. In voltage control method chopper circuit is used for varying the DC source voltage. It has several drawbacks such as high harmonics content and low power factor. Pulse Width Modulation has better performance against voltage control technique. Besides eliminating the drawbacks of voltage control technique, the circuit is also simple and less unwieldy. There are several PWM techniques that can be categorized such as MPWM, SPWM, and etc. The number of pulses and the size of pulse in each duty cycle are the criteria that are being investigated in PWM technique to eliminate the harmonic contents. On the other hand, the PWM techniques used today to control modern static converters such as machine drives, power factor compensators or active power filters, do not give smooth sinusoidal voltage shapes, which strongly depends on switching frequency of the power semiconductors. Normally, voltage or current in devices moves to discrete values, forcing the design of machines with good isolation, and sometimes load with inductances in excess of the required value. In other words, neither voltage nor current are not up to the expected level which means harmonic contamination, additional power losses, and high frequency noise that can affect the controllers. All these reasons have generated many research works on PWM modulation [1-4]. Some traditional high-frequency pulse width modulation (PWM) inverters for automotive drives can have problems associated with their high rate of change of voltage (dv/dt), which produces a common mode voltage. High frequency switching may be one of the problems to generate common mode voltage. PWM controlled inverters also require a greater amount of heat removal because of the additional switching losses [4 -6]. Chain inverters solve these problems because their individual devices have a much lower dv/dt per switching cycle. Chain link converters [5-7] work with amplitude modulation rather than pulse modulation, and this fact makes the smooth outputs of the inverter. This way of operation allows having almost sinusoidal currents and voltage waveforms, eliminating most of the undesirable harmonics. The bridges of each converter work even at a very low switching frequency, which gives the possibility to work with low speed semiconductors, and reduces switching losses [8-10]. The objective of this paper is to high light the advantages of chain link converters for various applications. Chain link converter circuit consists of four major areas controller unit, power drive, www.iosrjournals.org 25 | Page
I.
Introduction

power electronic converter and load. The controller unit depends mainly on the controller technique and hardware approaches. It provides control signals to the high power converter. The signal is amplified via a power drive circuit to turn on/off proper power devices of the converter. The function of the converter is to transfer and regulate the power with high efficiency from the main supply to the load. A four-stage converter using three-state power modules, which gives 81 different levels of voltage amplitude and the results are compared with conventional PWM modulators for a switching frequency of 10 kHz. All the load parameters of both types of inverters are set at the same values.
II.
Basics Of Three Level Converters
A. Basic Principle Fig.1 shows the basic topology of one converter used for the implementation of multi-stage converters. It i s based o n four switch converter, used for single phase inverters or for dual converters. These converters are able to produce three levels of voltage in the load: +Vdc, -Vdc, and Zero.
Figure 1. Three-level module for building multiconverters
III.
Chain Link Converte
Chain Link Inverter Chain inverters are used for a source of high power, often used in industrial applications and can use either sine or modified sine waves. Instead of using a converter to convert an AC into a DC a chain inverter which uses a series of semiconductor power converters usually two or three stages for generating higher voltage. The chain link inverter comprises number of IGBT converter links connected in series to form a separate chain per phase as shown in figure 2. Each link consists of 3- level, full bridge VSC [11] with four IGBT-diode pairs as switches. By switching each IGBTdiode pairs ON/OFF once per cycle of the fundamental frequency, a 3 - level output voltage waveform is synthesized for each link. Therefore, with N links in series (where N is a positive integer), the chain link converter output voltage contains (2N+1) voltage levels that can give a good approximation to a sine wave. The total (fundamental frequency) output voltage of the CLI is thus the sum of the individual link ac voltage, and similarly for the total CLI rating. The circuit of CLI is shown in Fig2 below.
Fig 2. Circuit Diagram of CLI (Chain Link inverter) IV. Driver Unit The driver unit drives the control signals to the chain link inverter and isolates the inverter control unit from power unit. It operates with the voltage range of (7-10) V dc and lower power ratings. The control unit consists of linear and digital integrated circuits. Microcomputers, microprocessors, microcontrollers and digital signal processor have made a tremendous impact in to generate gating signals. They also enable the implementation of sophisticated and complex algorithms for control and protection. In DC-AC inverter system, the power drive control unit has been upgraded continuously from complex and large current to be integrated in a small IC. For the old generation of gate drive circuits, the inverter typically use www.iosrjournals.org 26 | Page

optocouplers with a number of discrete devices that tend to results in high component count and bigger size of board space. This power circuit interfaces the microcontroller and inverter switches. V. Controller Unit Mmicrocontrollerisa single chip controller containing a processor core,memory andprogrammableinput/outputperipherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for e mbedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications. It can be used to controls the operation of a system. In CLI, a good approximation of the sinusoidal voltage waveform can be produced by a set of triangular carrier signals and a sinusoidal modulating signal using a technique known as Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM). For the CLI, there are two triangular carriers per link and one modulating signal for all the links. Therefore, in a CLI having N- links, a total of 2N triangular carriers are required. The frequency of the triangular carriers (f c) is selected to be twice the fundamental frequency (f o) so that each IGBT-diode switches ON/OFF only once per cycle of the fundamental frequency. The frequency of the modulating signal ( fm) is chosen as the fundamental frequency. The intersection points of the triangular carrier signals and the modulating signal determine the switching instants. Fig 3 shows the SPWM [12-13] waveforms used for the chain link converter with 3-links. The upper carrier signals switch the IGBT-diode pairs G1 and G4 to contribute +Vdc to the output voltage. The lower carrier signals switch the IGBT-diode pairs G2 and G3 to contribute -Vdc. When the carrier does not intersect the modulating signal, the link is in a non contributing state VI. Matlab Simulation Results The simulation of chain link inverter circuit operation with MATLAB simulation can be divided into three parts. First, is the simulation of PWM generation sub system shown in Fig 3, secondly complete circuit of three-links chain link converter circuit and the last part is the total harmonic distortion (THD). Fig 5 shows the output PWM waveforms of the PWM generation sub system. It consists of six pulses that used to trigger a three-links CLC. The first two pulses are for first link, and the second pair pulses are for second link and so on. The ON period of the first link is the longest, while the ON time for the second link is slightly shorter than the first link, and the last link has the shortest ON period. Fig 4 shows the complete simulink model of Chain Link Converter. Fig 6 shows the output voltage and current waveforms of a three- links chain link converter and fig 7 shows voltage harmonics present in the output
Fig 3. Subsystem for Generation of Gate Signals Using SPWM
Fig 4. Simulink Model of Chain Converter www.iosrjournals.org 27 | Page
VII.
Role of Chain Inverter to Enhance Power Quality Matlab Graphs-
Fig 5. Six SPWM Output Signals Fig 6. Output Voltage and Output Current Waveforms for Resistive load
Fig 7. Output voltage harmonics
VIII.
Conclusion
A chain link converter, with three series-connected links, was simulated in MATLAB. The SPWM technique has been used to drive the IGBTs of CLI, such that each IGBT turns ON/OFF once per cycle of the fundamental frequency. This can reduce the converter losses by producing a 3-level output voltage waveform per link and to synthesize the output voltage of seven level chain link converter. How ever with an inverter transfer of energy is done with the flip of one switch, where with a chain inverter requires a flip of several switches, each switch requiring a circuit. These multiple switchesand circuits usually make multilevel inverters more expensive than inverters. Unlike standard inverters, chain inverters make use of renewable energy sources. Wind, fuel cells and even photovoltaic energy can be added to a chain inverter as DC sources. These environmentally-friendly energy sources can then be converted into AC currents. However, while chain inverters are capable of producing large amounts of energy, the amount of energy produced is dependent upon how much DC power is being used. Higher sources of DC power will provide more powerful AC power. The chain inverter's unique structure allows them to reach high voltages with low harmonics without the use of filters. The THD has been reduced in the case of 3-links chain converters. The proposed topology results in reduction of dc sources and switches number, losses, installation area and converter cost. IX. Acknowledgement I am heartly greatful to all my faculties for their encouragement and support during my work on this project. My special thanks goes to Dr.B.Justus Rabi Sir for his guidance in completion of this paper. I would also like to express my gratitude towards my lecturers Mrs. K.V.Bindu and Mrs. S. Krishnaveni for their assistance in carrying Matlab Simulations.
References
BOOKS[1] [2] [3] [4] Shukla, A., A. Ghosh, and A. Joshi, 2007. Multilevel Converters for Unified Power Flow Controller: A Performance Based Analysis, IEEE PowerEngineering Society GeneralMeeting 2007 , Tampa, USA, 24-28 June 2007, pp. 1-8. Skvarenina, T.L., 2002. Power Electronics Handbook. USA: CRC Press,2002. Soto, D. and T.C. Green, 2002. A Comparison of High-Power Converter Topologies for the Implementation of FACTS Controllers, IEEE Transaction on Industrial Electronics, Volume 49, Issue 5, October 2002, pp. 1072-1080. Zambra, D.A.B., C. Rech, F.A.S. Goncalves and J.R. Pinheiro, 2008. Power Losses Analysis and Cooling System Design of Three
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[5] [6] [7] [8] Topologies of Multilevel Inverters , IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference 2008 , 15-19 June 2008, pp. 4290-4295. Dubey, G.K., (1989), Power Semiconductor Controlled Drives, Prentice Hall. Rashid M.H., (2001), Power Electronics Handbook, 2nd edition, Academic Press. Shah N.M., Sood V.K.and Ramachandran V., (2006), Modeling of a chain link STATCOM inEMTP- RV, IEEE CCECE/CCEI, Ottawa. USA. Pp 1252 1257. Zhong D., Tolbert, L.M. Chiasson, J.N. Hui Li, (2005), Low switching frequency active harmonic elimination in multilevel converters with unequal DC voltages, Industry Applications Conference, Fortieth IAS Annual Meetingm Conference, (1), pp 92-98. Zhong D., Leon M.T, and John N.C, (2004), Harmonic Elimination for Multilevel Converterwith Programmed PWM Method, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, pp 2210- 2215. European Journal of Scientific esearch. http://www.eurojournals.com/ejsr.htm Rodriguez, J., J.S. Lai and F.Z. Peng, 2002. Multilevel Inverters: A Survey of Topologies, Controls and Applications, IEEE Transaction on Industrial Electronics, Volume 49, Issue 4, August 2002, pp.724-738. Nguyen, T.H., P.K.W. Chan, Y. Shrivastava and S.Y.R. Hui, 2005. A Three-Dimensional Space Vector Modulation Scheme for Three-Level Three- Wired Neutral Point Clamped Converters, IEEE 36th Power Electronics Specialists Conference 2005 . pp. 2307-2314. Franquelo, L.G., J.Rodriguez, J.I. Leon, S. Kouro, R. Portillo, and M.A.M. Prats, 2008. T he Age of Multilevel Converters Arrives , IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine , June 2008, pp.28-39.
Proceedings Papers:
[9] [10] [11] [12]
[13]
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Islanding Detection In Distributed Generation By Using Fuzzy Rule Based Approach

1
K. Mahaboob Shareef , 2K.Harinath Reddy, 3K.Sujindra kumar

1,2
eee, A.I.T.S. Rajampeta, India 3 eee, J.N.T.U.A, India
Abstract: The proposed method develops a fuzzy rule-based classifier that was tested using features for
islanding detection in distributed generation. In the developed technique, the initial classification boundaries are found out by using the decision tree (DT). From the DT classification boundaries, the fuzzy membership functions (MFs) are developed and the corresponding rule base is formulated for islanding detection. But some of the fuzzy MFs are merged based upon similarity the measure for reducing the fuzzy MFs and simplifying the fuzzy rule base to make it more transparent. The developed fuzzy rule-based classifier is tested using features with noise up to a signal-to-noise ratio of 20 dB and provides classification results without misdetection, which shows the robustness of the proposed approach for islanding detection for distributed generations in the distribution network. Index Terms - Decision tree, fuzzy rule base, islanding detection, similarity measure. I. Introduction Integrations of distributed generations (DGs) in the distribution network is expected to play an increasingly important r ol e in th e el ectri c power system infrastructure and market. As more DG systems become part of the power grid, there is an increased safety hazard for personnel and an increased risk of damage to the power system. Despite the favorable aspects grid-connected DGs can provide to the distribution system, a critical demanding concern is islanding detection and prevention. Islanding is a condition where the DG supplies power and is not under the direct control of the utility. Islanding detection techniques may be classified as passive or active. Passive techniques use information available at the DG side to determine whether the DG system is isolated from the grid. The advantage of passive techniques is that the implementation does not have an impact on the normal operation of the DG system. Active techniques introduce an external perturbation at the output of the inverter. These tend to have a faster response and a smaller non detection zone compared to passive approaches. However, the power quality (PQ) of the inverter can be degraded by the perturbation. Different method for islanding detection techniques have been reported in recent years. Some of the papers provides detailed review of islanding detection for DGs in distributed networks. The islanding detection based upon the rate-of-change of power signal , the rate-of-change of voltage and change in power factor , the vector surge technique , the rate-of-change of frequency , the phase-shift method , the harmonic impedance estimation technique have attracted wide spread attention. For ROCOF relays, the rate of change of frequency is calculated within a measurement window and used to detect islanding operation. The ROCOF relays, however, may become ineffective if the power imbalance in the islanded system is less than 15%, resulting in a high risk of false detection . The proposed approach is based on the passive method of islanding detection considering the data mining approach. The method includes building a simplified and robust fuzzy classifier initialized by the decision tree (DT) for islanding detection. As a result of the increasing complexity and dimensionality of classification problems, it becomes necessary to deal with structural issues of the identification of classifier systems. Important aspects are the selection of the relevant features and determination of effective initial partition of the input domain. Moreover, when the classifier is identified as part of an expert system, the linguistic interpretability is also an important aspect which must be taken into account. The first two aspects are often approached by an exhaustive search or educated guesses, while the interpretability aspect is often neglected. Now the importance of all these aspects is recognized, which makes the automatic data-based identification of classification systems that are compact, interpretable, and accurate. DT-based classifiers perform a rectangular partitioning of the input space while the fuzzy models generate nonaxis parallel decision boundaries. Hence, the main advantage of rule-based classifiers over crisp DTs, is greater flexibility of the decision boundaries. Therefore, fuzzy classifiers can be more interpretable compared to DT classifiers. Generally the initialization steps of the identification of the fuzzy model become very significant. Common methods for such as grid-type partitioning and rule generation on extrema initialization , result in complex and noninterpretable initial models. To avoid such problems, a crisp decision www.iosrjournals.org 30 | Page

tree, having high performance and computational efficiency, is proposed for initial partitioning of the input domain for the proposed fuzzy model. In the proposed approach, two major steps are involved. In the first step, features are extracted and in the second step, classification task is performed for islanding detection. Thus, feature selection is one of the important tasks involved in the proposed approach. Different techniques have been proposed which work on one of the estimated parameter. Thus, we have derived all possible features such as change in power, change in voltage, rate of change of power, rate of change of voltage, total harmonic distortion (THD) (current), THD (voltage), change in power factor, etc., could be affected by islanding and can be measured locally at the target location. The derived features [18] are used as inputs to the DT for deciding the most significant features which take part in the decision-making process and the initial classification boundaries. From the DT classification boundaries of the most significant features, trapezoidal fuzzy membership functions are developed and corresponding rule base is formed for classification. But some of the fuzzy MFs are merged depending upon the similarity measure and thus reducing the number of fuzzy MFs. From the reduced fuzzy MFs, a simplified fuzzy rule base is developed for islanding detection. II. Studied System And Feature Extraction The system studied for the proposed method is shown in fig.1. The details of the studied system are given as follows.The base power has been chosen as 20 MVA. Generators data : Equivalent System S : rated short circuit MVA=1000, f=60Hz , rated kV=69, Vbase =69 k v. Generators DG1 and DG2 : rated MVA=10,f=60Hz,54 poles, Yn , rated kV=13.8,Vbase =13.8 kV, Inertia constant H=3.0 sec.,R0 =0.0025 pu , X0 = 0.113 pu, R1 =0.001pu , X1 = 0.15 pu , X d = 1.028 pu , Xq=0.654 pu, X'd =0.34 pu , X'q= 0.654 pu , X"d = 0.253 pu, X"q=0.298 pu, T'd0=7.5 s, T'q0=0 s, T"d0=0.07 s, T"q0=0.09 s Power Transformers data : Transformer T1 : rated MVA=25,f=60Hz, rated kV=69/13.8, Dyn 1,Vbase = 13.8 kV, R1= 0.00375 pu, X1= 0.1 pu, Rm= 500 pu, Xm = 500 pu. Transformer T2 and T3: rated MVA=10,f=60Hz, rated kV=13.8/13.8, Ynd1,Vbase = 13.8 kV, R1= 0.00375 pu, X1= 0.1 pu, Rm= 500 pu, Xm = 500 pu. Transmission lines data ;Rated kV=13.8, rated MVA=20,Vbase =13.8 kV,R0L= 0.0414 ohms/km,R1L=0.0138 ohms/km , X 0L= 0.0534 ohms/km, X1L=0.0178 ohms/km ,X0CL= 5.1 nF/km, X1CL=17 nF/km, Line 1= 20 km, Line 2= 10 km, Line 3= 10 km. Normal Loading data : (Rated kV=13.8)L-1= 10 MW, 3.5 MVAR.L-2= 5.0 MW,2.0 MVAR,L-3=5.0 MW, 2.0 MVAR,L-4=5.0 mMW,2.0 MVAR. The various features are collected at the DRx with different operating conditions of the network. Normally , the indices are chosen to include all possible sensitive system parameters that could be affected by islanding and hat can be measured locally. In the proposed technique , the following 11 features are chosen and defined for any target distributed resource DRx. x1= f is the frequency deviation(Hz) x2 = V Iis the voltage deviation (pu) x3 =( f/ t) is the rate of change of frequency(Hz/s). x4=( V/ t) is the rate of change of voltage.(pu/s). x5=( P/ t)is the rate of change of the DRx power (MW/s). x6=. ( f/ P) is the rate of change of frequency over power (Hz/MW). x7= CTHD is the total harmonic distortion of the current (pu). x8= VTHD is the total harmonic distortion of the voltage (pu). x9= pf is the power factor deviation under. x10=(U.cos(phi)) is the absolute value of the phase voltage times power factor (pu) x11=( (U.cos(phi))/ t) is the gradient of the voltage times power factor(pu/s).
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Fig.1 . Power distribution system with multiple DG(distributed generations) interface. The aforementioned features are extracted under different islanding and nonislanding conditions of the network as follows. 1) Condition-1: Tripping of the circuit breaker CB-1 to simulate the condition of islanding of the DG with the PCC bus loads. 2) Condition-2: Tripping of the circuit breaker CB-2 ( iso-lating the PCC bus loads) to simulate disturbances on the DG. 3) Condition-3: Tripping of the circuit breaker CB-3 to simulate the islanding of the DG without the PCCbus loads. 4) Condition-4: Three-phase fault on the GEN_BUS with instantaneous (1 cycle) fault-clearing time by the CB-1 which, in turn, causes islanding of the DG. 5) Condition-5: Sudden decrease of the loading on the target distributed resource by 40%. 6) Condition-6: Tripping of the largest distributed resource within the DG other than the target one. Each condition of these events is simulated under different operating conditions of the DG and power system network. The operating conditions are given as follows. Normal loading (Zs= j0.02 pu) with normal PCC- bus loading (P=0.5 pu, Q=0.175 pu). Normal loading (Zs= j0.02 pu) with minimum PCC- bus loading (P=0.3 pu, Q=0.105 pu). Normal loading (Zs= j0.02 pu) with maximum PCC- bus loading (P=0.625 pu, Q=0.22 pu). Minimum loading (Zs= j0.05 pu) with normal PCC- bus loading (P=0.5 pu, Q=0.175 pu). Minimum loading (Zs= j0.05 pu) with minimum PCC- bus loading (P=0.3 pu, Q=0.105 pu). Minimum loading (Zs= j0.05 pu) with maximum PCC- bus loading (P=0.625 pu, Q=0.22 pu). Maximum loading (Zs= j0.01 pu) with normal PCC- bus loading (P=0.5 pu, Q=0.175 pu). Maximum loading (Zs= j0.01 pu) with minimum PCC- bus loading (P=0.3 pu, Q=0.105 pu). Maximum loading (Zs= j0.01 pu) ) with maximum PCC- bus loading (P=0.625 pu, Q=0.22 pu). From the aforementioned conditions, various features are derived and used to train the DT for generating initial classification boundaries to develop the fuzzy rule base for islanding detection.
Fig.2.Fuzzy interference system for islanding detection. www.iosrjournals.org 32 | Page
Islanding Detection In Distributed Generation By Using Fuzzy Rule Based Approach III. Decision Tree For Initial Classification
DT is a classifier in high dimensions. Each internal node in the tree tests the value of a predictor while each branch of the tree represents the outcome of a test. The terminating nodes, also referred to as leaf nodes, represent a classification. The number of predictors, used in the classification problem, indicates the dimension of the problem. Associated with each decision (leaf) of the tree is the confidence of the decision. This is simply a measure of the ratio of the particular class to all the classes present in the dataset for that node. The proposed approach uses the Insightful Miner software package for generating DT for classification. In- sightful Miner is a powerful, scalable, data mining and analysis workbench that enables organizations to deliver cus- tomized predictive intelligence where and how it is needed. Its easy-to-use interface is specifically designed for statisticians and business analysts without specialized programming skills. With Insightful Miner, one can quickly find the answers you need to solve specific business issues and easily communicate your results to colleagues across the organization. As data sets increase in size, traditional data mining tools become less and less efficient for analysis, and in these situations Insightful Miner performs better providing a rich statistical analysis and graphics capability. Thus, this has been chosen for developing DT structure for the proposed study. The DT analysis is carried out with most splitting setting taking all the extracted features and provides the most significant features which take part in the decision-making process. It is found that though there are 11 features fed to the DT, but finally only three features ( f/ t, P/ t, f) are used to develop the classification tree as shown in Fig. 2. Thus, DT provides information on the most significant features (3 features) which take part in real decision-making process, leaving rest 8 features redundant. From the classification boundaries of the most significant features resulted from DT, fuzzy membership functions are developed and used in fuzzy rule base for islanding detection.
IV.
Dt Transformation Into The Fuzzy Rule Base
The DT is transformed to a fuzzy rule base by developing the fuzzy membership functions from the partition boundaries of the DT. From the DT boundaries, rectangular MFs are developed for each independent variable. For illustration, consider the DT classification boundaries shown in Fig. 3(a). The associated trapezoidal fuzzy MFs [Fig. 3(b) and (c)] are developed for variables and as follows:
Fig. 3. DT-based islanding detection. Class-1 means islanding and class-0 means nonislanding A1 ={X1,[0,0,a,a]} A2 ={X1,[a,a,c,c]} B1 ={X2,[0,0,b,b]} B2 ={X2,[b,b,d,d]} where j(Xj;a,b,c,d)= max(0,min(x-a/b-a,1,d-x/d-c)).(1) From the fuzzy MFs, a simple rule base can be generated for classes 1 and 2 as follows: If X1 is A1 and X2 is B1 ,then Class-1 (C-1) If X1 is A2 and X2 is B2 ,then Class-1 (C-2) From the aforementioned DT-fuzzy transformation technique, the resulting DT output (Fig. 2) is converted to the corresponding fuzzy rule base. The most significant features f/ t, P/ t, f are considered as , and , respectively. Depending upon the values of the above three variables, the classification boundaries are decided for islanding detection. Thus, when is greater than 2.18, then the is less than 2.18 and less than 0.64, then the class 1. If is greater than 0.64 and class is 1. If less than 0.1664, then class 0, otherwise class 1. From the DT boundaries, trapezoidal MFs are developed for each variable ( , and ). The fuzzy MFs developed for variable are and , for are , , and for are , . Per the above formulations ,the rectangular MFs are derived as A1={ X1 ,[2.18,2.18,34.0,34.0]} www.iosrjournals.org 33 | Page

A2={ X1 , [-9.5,-9.5,2.18,2.18]} B1={ X2 , [0.64,0.64,19.0,19.0]} B2={ X2 , [-0.5,-0.5,19.0,19.0]} B3={ X2 , [-0.5,-0.5,0.64,0.64]} C1={ X3 , [0.16,0.16,0.6,0.6]} C2={ X3 , [-0.05,-0.05,0.16,0.16]}. The fuzzy MFs generated from the DT classification boundaries are rectangular in nature. But to further add fuzziness to the membership functions, the rectangular boundaries are skewed to a certain extent by heuristic tuning. The coordinates of the trapezoidal fuzzy MFs are decided after testing on several values around the initial values resulting from DT. . Thus, the final fuzzy MFs are A1={ X1 ,[2.18,2.18,34.0,34.0]} A2={ X1 , [-9.5,-9.5,2.18,2.18]} B1={ X2 , [0.64,0.64,19.0,19.0]} B2={ X2 ,[-0.5,-0.4,18.0,19.0]} B3={ X2 ,[-0.5,-0.4,0.55,0.64]} C1={ X3 , [0.16,0.2,0.5,0.6]} C2={ X3 ,[-0.05,-0.03,0.12,0.16]}. The corresponding fuzzy rule base is developed for each clasSification category and given as follows: R1 : If X1 is A1 and X2 is B2 , then Class -1 R2 : If X1 is A2 and X2 is B3 , then Class -1 R3 : If X1 is A2 and X2 is B1 and X3 is C1 , then Class -1 R4 : If X1 is A2 and X2 is B1 and X3 is C2 , then Class -0 In fuzzy rule-based models acquired from numerical data, redundancy may be present in the form of similar fuzzy sets that represent compatible concepts. This results in an unnec- essarily complex and less transparent linguistic description of the system. By using a measure of similarity, a rule base simplification method is proposed that reduces the number of fuzzy sets in the model. Similar fuzzy sets are merged to create a common fuzzy set to replace them in the rule base. If the redundancy in the model is high, merging similar fuzzy sets might result in equal rules that also can be merged, thereby reducing the number of rules as well. The similarity measure based on the set-theoretic operations of intersection and union, can be expressed as follows: S(A,B) = (A B) / (A B ) (2) Where denotes the cardinality of a set, and the and operators represent the intersection and union, respectively. Rewriting this expression in terms of the membership functions gives S(A,B) = ( A (xj) B (xj) ])/( A (xj) B (xj) ] In a discrete universe X= ( xj ,j =1,2,.m}, and and are the minimum and maximum operators, respectively. Based on the aforementioned criteria, the fuzzy membership function of set and are merged with a similarity measure of 0.9152 to provide another common fuzzy nembership function W= {X2 ,[-0.5,0.1,18,19]},shown in Fig.4. After merging, there are 6 fuzzy MFs instead of the originally developed 7 MFs. Depending upon the new fuzzy MFs, the rule base is simplified to R1 : If X1 is A1 and X2 is W , then Class -1 R2 : If X1 is A2 and X2 is B3 , then Class -1 R3 : If X1 is A2 and X2 is W and X3 is C1 , then Class -1 R4 : If X1 is A2 and X2 is B1 and X3 is C2 , then Class -0 V. Results And Discussion The details of the fuzzy inference system developed for islanding detection are shown in Fig. 5. The Mamdani model with centroid defuzzification is used for implementing the rule base. Table I provides the test results for different conditions of inputs , , and for islanding detection. The FIS provides 0.5 for islanding detection and 0 for non islanding detection. Table II depicts the classification accuracy for data with and without noise.The classification accuracy is 100% on 36 test cases of different conditions for features without noise and with SNR 30 dB. The misdetection and false alarm using only DT is given in bracket (Table III). The misdetection and false alarm conditions for the testing data sets with and without noise have been given in Table III. It is found that there is no misdetection and false alarm in www.iosrjournals.org 34 | Page

the case of data sets without noise and with SNR 20 dB (Gaussian noise). Only two false alarms are generated in the case of data sets with SNR 20 dB. Thus, the proposed DT initialized fuzzy rule base is found to be accurate and robust for islanding detection. The flowchart for the proposed scheme for islanding detection is given in Fig. 4. The proposed fuzzy rule base is found to be accurate and robust for islanding detection for wide variations in operating parameters of the distribution network. Although the DT-fuzzy-based approach provides similar results compared to DT only (for our studied database), the fuzzy transformation helps to improve the interpretability of knowledge-based classifiers through its semantics that provide insight in the classifier structure and decision-making process over crisp classifiers. In case of DT only used for the islanding detection task, the scheme is based on an offline decision-making process (a data mining approach) where final implementation is based on the threshold values of the corresponding features of DT output. But in the proposed approach, DT is used for selecting most
Fig. 4. Flowchart for the proposed fuzzy rule-based scheme for islanding detection. TABLE 1 FIS OUTPUTS FOR DIFFERENT ISLANDING CONDITION
significant feature and classification boundaries, which are done offline from various derived features. From the DT classification boundaries of the most significant features, fuzzy MFs and the corresponding rule base are formulated for islanding detection. Thus, for final implementation, only three features are derived at the target DG location and directly fed to the fuzzy inference system for islanding detection as shown in Fig. 4.The proposed fuzzy rule-based classifier is easier to implement for online islanding detection compared to DT only, since DT is an offline data mining algorithm. Also the fuzzy rule base can handle more uncertainties (like noise), which falls on the slope of the fuzzy trapezoidal MFs, compared to the crisp classifiers such as DT having sharp boundaries, with a larger data base. Thus, the superior approximation capabilities of the fuzzy systems over crisp classifiers help to develop the relay to meet the real time application with wide range of uncertainties. The fuzzy MFs can be further tuned to remove redundancy in the model using the real coded genetic algorithm and are being considered for real-time implementation.
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Fig.5. Instantaneous active and reactive power.
Fig.6. Total Harmonic distortion current and voltage VI. Conclusion A DT-initialized fuzzy rule base classifier is proposed for islanding detection. The initial classification model is developed using DT which is a crisp decision tree algorithm. The DT is transformed into a fuzzy rule base by developing fuzzy MFs from the DT classification boundaries. The fuzzy MFs reduction and rule base simplification are performed using similarity measure. The proposed method is tested on data with and without noise and found to provide 100% islanding detection. As the online implementation is easier with a fuzzy rulebased approach, it is thus suitable for developing real time relay for islanding detection in a large power network.
References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] J. Yin, L. Chang, and C. Diduch, Recent development in islanding detection for distributed power generation, in Proc. Large Engineering Systems Conf. Power Engineering, Jul. 2830, 2004, pp. 124128. W. Freitas, Z. Huang, and W. Xu, A practical method for assessing the effectiveness of vector surge relays for distribute generation applications, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 5763, Jan. 2005. T. Funabashi, K. Koyanagi, and R. Yokoyama, A r eview of islanding detection methods for distributed resources, in Proc. IEEE Bologna Power Tech Conf., Bologna, Italy, Jun. 2326, 2003, vol. 2, pp. 2326. H. Ishibuchi, T. Nakashima, and T. Murata, Performance evaluation of fuzzy classifier systems for multidimensional pattern classification problems, IEEE Trans. Syst., Man, Cybern. B, vol. 29, no. 5, pp. J. Yin, C. P. Diduch, and L. Chang, Islanding detection using proportional power spectral density, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 776784, Apr. 2008. S. K. Salman, D. J. King, and G. Weller, New loss of mains detection algorithm for embedded generation using rate of change of voltage andchanges in power factors, in Proc. Developments in Power System Pro- tection Conf., 2001, pp. 8285. M. A. Redfern and O. Usta, A new microprocessor based islanding protection algorithm for dispersed storage and generation units, IEEE Trans. Power Del.,vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 12491254, Jul. 1995. L. Breiman, J. H. Friedman, R. A. Olshen, and C. J. Stone, Classifica- tion and Regression Trees. New York: Chapman & Hall, 1984.
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Transient Stability Improvement Using Neuro-Fuzzy Controller Design For STATCOM

1
1 2
P.K.Dhal ,2Dr.C.Christober Asir Rajan
Research Scholar, Sathyabama University, Chennai 600 119 Professor, Pondicherry Engineering College, Pondicherry 605 014
Abstract : This paper presents a transient stability improvement using neural-fuzzy controller design for STATCOM with static synchronous time critical error and better damping system oscillations after a short circuit fault. This article on a STATCOM Control for transient stability improvement has proposed a system to meet with the addition of Lyapunov stability criterion to the ability and conditions as well. The performance is analyzed using digital simulation with SMIB. Keywords Fuzzy Logic, Neural Network, lyapunov energy function, STATCOM, transient stability
I. INTRODUCTION Development in electronics can power up, the interest using these elements as the high voltage network devices has increased. These elements not only in the steady state performance can be improved power systems are, but also its high speed compared to the system against disturbances. The generation of bulk power at remote locations necessitates the use of transmission line to connect generation sites to load centers. With long distance ac power transmission and load growth, active control of reactive power is indispensable to stabilize the power system and to maintain the supply voltage. The static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) using voltage source inverters has been accepted as a competitive alternative to the conventional static VAr compensator (SVC) using thyristor-controlled reactors STATCOM functions as a synchronous voltage source. It can provide reactive power compensation without the dependence on the ac system voltage. By controlling the reactive power, a STATCOM can stabilize the power system, increase the maximum active power flow and regulate the line voltages. Faster response makes STATCOM suitable for continuous power flow control and power system stability improvement. The interaction between the AC system voltage and the inverter-composed voltage provides the control of the STATCOM var output. When these two voltages are synchronized and have the same amplitude, the active and reactive power outputs are zero. However, if the amplitude of the STATCOM voltage is smaller than that of the system voltage, it produces a current lagging the voltage by 90 and the compensator behaves as a variable capacitive load. This amplitude control is done through the leading the STATCOM voltage, it is possible to charge or discharge the dc capacitor; as a consequence, change the value of the dc voltage and the STATCOMs operational characteristics and the compensator behaves as an inductive load, which reactive value depends on the voltage amplitude. Making the STATCOM voltage higher than the AC system voltage the current will lead the voltage by 90. In the past few decades, various STATCOM systems have been put into service. In this topology, multiple six-pulse inverters are magnetically coupled through a complex zig-zag transformer. An alternative approach is to use multilevel inverters [1-4], which can eliminate the bulky zig-zag transformer. In [5], to eliminate unequal duty cycles, the required dc capacitance of each inverter unit is calculated according to the corresponding duty cycle. But in practical application modular design is very difficult. By using proposed method inverter units fundamental output voltage are equalized. A special gating pattern is used for maintain the dc capacitor charge balance and equalize the current stress of the switching device. Among these various multilevel topologies, the cascaded multilevel inverter can implement a high number of levels with ease. The modular structure and the ease of redundant operation are also advantages. In STATCOM to balance the dc-link voltages, additional auxiliary inverters were used to exchange the energy among various capacitors. But the disadvantage is high cost and complexity in hardware design. In conventional cascaded multilevel inverter use fundamental switching frequency [6] to generate step waveform at low harmonic distortion and keep the switching loss as low as possible. But the inverter units duty cycles are different from each other. Due to unequal duty cycle the inverter units cannot equally share the exchanged power with the utility grid [7]. To overcome the limitations of semiconductor device, many new techniques are developed [8-10]. Recently alternate methods [11] of implementing these switching patterns have been developed without using real time solution of nonlinear harmonic elimination equation; an ANN is trained offline to output the switching angles for wanted output voltage. The ANN to be used for the generation of the www.iosrjournals.org 37 | Page
Transient Stability Improvement Using Neuro-Fuzzy Controller Design For Statcom

optimal switching angles has a single input neuron fed by the modulation index, one hidden layer and s outputs where each output represents a switching angle [11-13]. They are multiple switching elements in one leg of an inverter, series connected inverter and parallel connected inverters [14-15]. Fuzzy control and dynamic performance of STATCOM were analyzed and found that it was giving better performance than the without controller case. The time critical error was reduced and transient performance was improved [16]. Application of a fuzzy controller for transient stability enhancement of AC transmission system by STATCOM was analyzed and found that through the transient stability curve and concluded that the transient stability value was reduced in the considered method. But the rules framed are not made through the actual occurrence of a fault [17-18]. In this paper, the neuro-fuzzy controller (NFC) design for creating controller is very effective. This article on a STATCOM control for transient stability improvement has proposed a system to meet with the addition of Lyapunov stability criterion to the ability and conditions as well. II. FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY MODULATION 2.1. Cascaded multilevel inverter Fig. 1 shows the basic structure of cascaded multilevel inverter with separate dc source. For a three phase system, the output voltage of the three cascaded inverters can be connected either star or delta [4].
Fig 1: Basic Structure of Cascaded Multilevel Inverter
III.
MULTILEVEL OPTIMAL MODULATION STRATEGY
3.1. Algorithm of the Multilevel Optimal Modulation A 100Mvar STATCOM device is connected to the 230-kV (L-L) grid network. Fig. 2 shows the single line diagram representing the STATCOM and the host sample grid network. The feeding network is represented by a Thevenin equivalent at (bus B1) where the voltage source is represented by a kV with 10,000 MVA short circuit power level with a followed by the transmission line connected to bus B2. The STATCOM device comprises the voltage source converter-cascade model connected to the host electric grid. 7-level is chosen here for STATCOM. It is connected to the network through the coupling transformer. The dc link voltage is provided by the capacitor C which is charged from the ac network. The decoupled current control system ensures full dynamic regulation of the bus voltage and the dc link voltage.
Fig 2: Single line Diagram representing the STATCOM At the time of starting the source voltage is such that the STATCOM is inactive. It neither absorbs nor provides reactive power to the network. The following load sequence is tested and results are taken. At t=0.06 sec STATCOM is connected to the system by switching circuit breaker CB4. www.iosrjournals.org 38 | Page

At t=0.1 load 1 is connected by switching CB1. At t= 0.3 load 2 is connected by switching CB2. At t= 0.5 load 2 is connected by switching CB3. STATCOM system is given in the Appendix.
Fig 3: Waveforms of the output voltages of inverter units and their switching angles Fig. 3 illustrates the typical output voltage waveforms when using the proposed optimal modulation strategy. The square wave is chopped three times per half cycle and the corresponding switching frequency of the IGCTs is 150Hz.The three switching angles of the inverter unit are depicted using. Since the waveform has quarter-wave and half wave symmetry, not even harmonics exist. And it is normalized with respect to the corresponding dc-link voltage. 3.2. Gating-Pattern Swapping Among Various Devices Compared with the fundamental frequency technique, a disadvantage of 150 Hz modulation techniques is the unequal conduction time of the four switching devices in one inverter unit, as illustrated in Fig. 4
Fig 4: Modulation Technique They are denoted as Pattern-1 and Pattern-2. Swapping these two gating patterns per cycle can equalize the average conduction time of the switching devices and equalize the devices current stress. However it should be noted that an additional switching action occurs at the swapping time, which brings unexpected increase of switching loss. To minimize this additional switching loss, the gating-pattern is swapped every ten cycles, instead of one cycle. Thus the increased switching loss brought by gating pattern swapping can be omitted. 3.3. Calculation of switching angle The three switching angles are depicted using i1-i3. Since the waveform has quarter wave and half wave symmetry, not even harmonics exist. Normalized with respect to dc voltage, the Fourier coefficient is magnitudes of the output voltage of the ith inverter unit is given by,
3 k 1
hi ( n) (4 / n ) ( 1)
Where n = 1, 2, 3-------k 1
cos( n ik )
-------------- (1)
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The first optimization objective is to equalize the inverter units fundamental output voltages.
hi (1) (4 / ) ( 1)
k 1
k 1
cos( ik ) M
----------------- (2)
Where, i=1, 2N M=Modulation Index Another optimization objective is the harmonic distortion of the synthesized output voltages. The coefficient magnitude of the nth harmonic of the synthesized phase voltage is given by
hi ( n) ( 4 / n ) ( 1) k 1 cos( n ik )
i 1 k 1
----------- (3)
The minimizing function of the THD is given by
min F
Where, G=2Nk-1
n 3, 5 , 7
H ( n)
---------------------------- (4)
The linear inequality constraint that the minimization should be subjected to is 0<i1<i2<i3</2 ------------------------ --(5) Using equation (2), (4), (5) switching angles can be calculated using mathematical tool such as MATLAB.
IV.
STATCOM
Fig.5 shows a STATCOM with DC link and a link type GTO converter. Its simplest form includes only one capacitor displaying a single-phase power system and single infinite bus.
Fig 5: STATCOM with DC link A major element modeling is that the system can be given it like a current source model, STATCOM performance. It can usually drive for more reactive to consider or before the current phase of the STATCOM are for power system to inject. Because this model at this stage it with the ability that each waveform is STATCOM Sinusoidal current favorite for a very short time and accurately can produce. It can improve transient stability of FACTS controllers in power are applied. Of these devices to improve transient stability on oscillation equations and methods can be equivalent to levels is explained. The voltage and current equations related to STATCOM is given below. V = - c Is sin ( - k) ISTATCOM = K ( - s) sin /2 -----------------------------------------------www.iosrjournals.org (6) (7) 40 | Page

V(, ) = M2 + [- Pm( - s) - Pmax (cos coss)] ----------------------------------- (8)
Compensating synchronous static can also plays in the system by increasing and decreasing capacitive power transfer mode and the effect on system stability. Fig.6 shows the effects after the occurrence of an error control method. In this shape changes of potential energy, kinetic energy and energy systems transient error of the whole system after short circuit, despite controlling shows, E is specified in inches STATCOM. Because the first system is in steady state the amount of energy system is zero, then the error system, despite the compensating amount STATCOM system more energy function decreases. These effects of energy function are shown Fig. 7.
Fig 6: Different Energy levels of STATCOM
Fig 7: Effects of energy function
V.
NEURO-FUZZY CONTROLLER
The operating point changes, select an appropriate method of fuzzy inference method. But the rules for determining the fuzzy controller must be followed in an efficient way. The rule of fuzzy inference rules of the system energy function has been used [4-5]. We can obtain rules by a set of combined methods. If the property adaptive and adjustable being added to the fuzzy system, we can obtain Neuro-Fuzzy system. In all of these systems, parameters belonging to the fuzzy rules can be using the property learning neural networks can be set up in each replicate. Work with other concerned about how the formation of laws and functions, membership and range changes, coefficients will not be output. This means every time parameters set and reach their optimum value. Method proposed here using paired input - output system to produce rules and membership functions is used. System ANFIS parameters can be adaptive neural fuzzy inference consumer ANFIS adaptive network and fuzzy controller to regulate terms of educational performance is quite similar inference system, hybrid algorithm to obtain ANFIS is fuzzy [12] uses membership function parameters. In fact, the hybrid method propagation algorithm for training the minimum square error and system as ANFIS uses fuzzy inference. The network is having five layers. First layer: This layer is related to membership functions; Second layer: This layer is related to the formation of fuzzy rules; Third layer: layer is normalization; Fourth layer: the output of this layer to multiply the output of the third layer in a first order polynomial finds formation; Fifth layer: All www.iosrjournals.org 41 | Page

statements fourth layer has formed. Trained network and the ANFIS method Controller can work with changepoint response is appropriate. This ANFIS controller structure is shown in Fig. 8.
Fig 8: ANFIS Controller Structure The input signal controlling the angle of internal R and Z is rapidly changing output signal flow static synchronous compensation injection fits both input vector is to obtain the neural network training patterns, work is under used. Working with these various conditions can be 50 pairs of input patterns would set a bad exit, the 50 patterns can function criteria Lyapunov well they meet. So that each output function of two vectors is input. Neural network using input signals are a system 2 and 50 the output of a matrix, respectively 50 educations so that the result obtained by A. Vrdn laws and interval membership functions and controller is finally better response. After learning process for fuzzy control surface curve - according to neural will be obtained. Level curve for the fuzzy controller trained by ANN is shown in Fig. 9.
Fig 9: level curve for the fuzzy controller trained by ANN
VI.
SIMULATION RESULTS
The indirect training strategy of ANN for transient stability was evaluated for the range of the modulation index with excellent results in all cases. Fig. 10 shows the obtained switching angles for various values of modulation index with and without BPA.
Fig 10: Switching angles after training phase Fig. 11 shows the output voltage at various load conditions without controller and Fig. 12 shows the real and reactive power of the system at bus 3 without controller.
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Fig 11: Output Voltage Waveform at Bus 3 without controller
Fig 12: Real and Reactive at Bus 3 without controller Fig. 13 shows the voltage at bus 3 by using NFC. Fig. 14 shows the real and reactive power of the system at bus 3 by using NFC. From the graph it is inferred that transient period is reduced and also voltage is regulated. Reactive power is reduced and active power is improved. By comparing without compensator, the time critical error is reduced in NC.
Fig 13: Output Voltage waveform at Bus 3 with NFC
Fig 14: Real and Reactive Power at Bus 3 with NFC From the graph it is inferred that transient period is reduced and also voltage is regulated. Reactive power is reduced and active power is improved. Compared to without controller case, NFC improves transient www.iosrjournals.org 43 | Page

stability for a network is investigated. Synchronous static in the middle of the line has been a short circuit at the time generator is applied and after bleaching for 200 ms pure is performing. Table I shows the amount of time to critical error in three cases without controller, FC, NC and NFC. Comparing the three time drive controller, transient stability improvement is evident in NFC. Table 1: Comparison of time critical error Without Controller NFC Controller Time Critical in sec 1/185 1/219
VII.
CONCLUSION
A NFC controller is designed based on energy function lyapunov, for compensating the effect of synchronous after the system disturbance. For switching the device, swapping technique is adopted. The scheme of gating-pattern swapping among the various devices can equalize device current stresses. A multilevel optimal modulation strategy was proposed for STATCOM, is incorporated in system line. So the system is easily balanced. NFC is employed to enhance the transient stability. It is inferred from the graph transient is reduced using NFC. Finally the proposed system reduces the critical time error. APPENDIX For STATCOM Rated Power = 100 MVAr Rated voltage= 138 kV Interface inductor (L) = 2.86 mH Resistance (Rs) = 0.0898 For grid Rated Voltage: 230 kV Short Circuit Capacity: 10000 MVA For Power Transformer (Y/Y) Rated Voltage 220 kV/33 kV Rated Power: 300 MVA For Coupling Transformer (Y/Y) Rated Voltage 138 kV/230 kV Rated Power: 100 MVA Three Phase Load Load 1: P= 100 MW Q= 80 MVAr Load 2: P= 70 MW Q= 50 MVAr Load 3: P= 60 MW Q= 40 MVAr
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[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] B. Boussahoua M. Boudou, Power System Transient Stability Robust Control Using Fuzzy Logic PSS and Genetic Algrithm, Journal of Electrical Engineering , Vol. 11, Edition 2, 2011, pp.79-83. J. S. Lai and F. Z. Peng, Multilevel converters A new breed of power converters, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., Vol. 32, no. 3 , May/Jun. 1996, pp. 509517. F. Z. Peng, J. -S. Lai, J. W. McKeever, and J. VanCoevering, A multilevel VSI with separate DC sources for static VAR generation, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., Vol. 32, no. 5 , Sep./Oct. 1996, pp. 1130 1138. P. M. Bhagwat and V. R. Stefanovic, Generalized structure of a multilevel PWM inverter, IEEE Trans. Ind. App., Vol. 19, Nov./Dec. 1983, pp. 1057 1069. M. Marchesoni and M. Mazzucchelli, Multilevel converter for high power ac drives: A review, IEEE Symp. Indl. Electrs., 1993 , pp.3843. H. Akagi, The state-of-the-art of power electronics in Japan, IEEE Trans. Power Electron. Vol. 13, Mar. 1998, pp. 345356. G. Carrara, S. Gardella, M. Marchesoni, R. Salutari, and G. Sciutto, A new multilevel PWM method: A theoretical analysis, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., Vol. 7 , July 1992, pp. 497 505. B. Mwinyiwiwa, Z. Wolanski, and B. T. Ooi, Microprocessor-implemented SPWM for multi converters with phase-shifted triangle carriers, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. Vol. 34 , May/June 1998, pp. 487 494. S. Ogasawara, J. Takagaki, H. Akagi, and A. Nabae, A novel control scheme of a parallel current-controlled PWM inverter, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., Vol. 28 , Sept. / Oct. 1992, pp. 1023 1030.
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[10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] F. Ueda, K. Matsui, M. Asao, and K. Tsuboi, Parallel-connections of PWM inverters using current sharing reactors, IEEE Trans. Power Electron. Vol. 10, Nov. 1995, pp. 673679. D.Daniolos, M.K.Darwish and P.Mehta, Optimised PWM inverter control using Artificial Neural Networks, IEE 1995 Electronics Letters Online, No. 19951186, 14 August 1995, pp. 1739-1740. A.M.Trzynadlowski and S.Legowski, Application of Neural Networ ks to the Optimal Control of Three-Phase Voltage-Controlled Inverters, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol.9, No.4, July 1994, pp.397 -402. M.Mohaddes, A.M.Gole and P.G.McLaren, A Neural Network controlled Optimal pulse -width modulated STATCOM, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 14, Issue:2, April 1999, pp.481-488. S. Mori, et al., Development of a Large Static Var Generator Using Self-Commutated Inverters for Improving Power Systems Stability, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, Vol. 8, No.1 , Feb.1993, pp. 371-377. N. Seki, H. Uchino, Converter Configurations and Switching Frequency for GTO Reactive Power Compensator, IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, Vol. 33, No. 4 , July/August 1997. S.A. Al-Mawsawi, Fuzzy Control and Dynamic Performance of STATCOM, IETECH J. of Elec. Analysis, 2007, Vol.1, No. 2, pp. 104-115. A. Ajami, S.H. Hosseini, Application of a Fuzzy Controller for Transient Stability Enhancement of AC Transmission System by STATCOM, Intl. Joint Conf. ICASE, October 2002, pp. 6059 6063. Yasser Ashkhane Mahdi Zarif, Voltage Stability Improvement by STATCOM in a Weak Network with Wind Generation, Journal of Electrical Engineering, Vol. 11, Edition 1, 2011, pp. 57-64.
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IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSRJEEE) ISSN: 2278-1676 Volume 2, Issue 2 (July-Aug. 2012), PP 01-06 www.iosrjournals.

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Load Factor & Loss Factor

Effect of system load factor on transmission & distribution losses

Graph: Loss factor as a function of load factor (Figure.1)

Effect Of Load Factor On Profitability

Annual Load Factor (%) of Southern States of India 2009-2010 2010-2011

Effect of system load factor on transmission & distribution losses

Annual Load Factor of Southern States of India in Percentage

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Small signal and First-Swing Stability Enhancement in Inter-area Power System

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Fig. 4.1. Static VAR Compensator (SVC)

Fig. 4.2. STATCOM

Small signal and First-Swing Stability Enhancement in Inter-area Power System

Fig.5.2 Tie-line power deviation PID controller

Small signal and First-Swing Stability Enhancement in Inter-area Power System

Small signal and First-Swing Stability Enhancement in Inter-area Power System

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Application Of Charging Mobile Phone By Solar Energy

Figure 6 Parallel connection of cells www.iosrjournals.org 20 | Page

Application Of Charging Mobile Phone By Solar Energy

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Figure 9 Protection of Photovoltaic www.iosrjournals.org 21 | Page

Application Of Charging Mobile Phone By Solar Energy

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Figure 10 PV Portable Mobile Phone Charger System

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S. Gowri Sankar Korla, 2Kumar Abhishek, 3 Ashutosh Pandey

Role of Chain Inverter to Enhance Power Quality

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Figure 1. Three-level module for building multiconverters

Chain Link Converte

Role of Chain Inverter to Enhance Power Quality

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Fig 4. Simulink Model of Chain Converter www.iosrjournals.org 27 | Page

Role of Chain Inverter to Enhance Power Quality Matlab Graphs-

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Role of Chain Inverter to Enhance Power Quality

[9] [10] [11] [12]

Islanding Detection In Distributed Generation By Using Fuzzy Rule Based Approach