Energy Perf of Boilers

ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF BOILERS
Performance Terms and Definitions

Boiler Efficiency, = Heat output Heat Input Heat in steam output (kCals) Heat in Fuel Input (kCals)
Evaporation Ratio
Quantity of Steam Generation Quantity of fuel Consumption
The efficiency of a boiler is expressed as the % of useful heat available from the total energy available by burning the fuel. This is expressed on the basis of gross calorific value (GCV) .
Standards
British standards, BS845: 1987 This describes the methods and conditions under which a boiler should be tested.Boiler should be operated under steady load conditions (generally full load) for a period of one hour before taking reading ASME Standard: PTC-4-1 Power Test Code for Steam Generating Units
Part One: Direct method (also called as Input -output method) Part Two: Indirect method (also called as Heat loss method)
IS 8753: Indian Standard for Boiler Efficiency Testing All standards do not include blow down as a loss in the efficiency determination process.
Direct Method Testing

Steam Output
Flue Gas
Fuel Input 100% + Air
Boiler
Efficiency =
Heat addition to Steam x 100 Gross Heat in Fuel
Boiler Efficiency =
Steam flow rate x (steam enthalpy feed water enthalpy) x 100 Fuel firing rate x Gross calorific value
Water
Indirect Method Testing

Steam Output
1. Dry Flue gas loss 2. H2 loss 3. Moisture in fuel 4. Moisture in air 5. CO loss
6. Surface loss
7. Fly ash loss
Fuel Input, 100%
Boiler
Flue gas sample
Air
Water
8. Bottom ash loss Blow down
Efficiency = 100 (1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8)
(by Indirect Method)
Instruments used for Boiler Performance Assessment.

Instrument Flue gas analyzer Temperature indicator Type Portable or fixed Thermocouple, liquid in glass Measurements % CO2 , O2 and CO Fuel temperature, flue gas temperature, combustion air temperature, boiler surface temperature, steam temperature Amount of draft used or available
Draft gauge
Manometer, differential pressure Conductivity
TDS meter
Boiler water TDS, feed water TDS, make-up water TDS. Steam flow, water flow, fuel flow, air flow
Flow meter
As applicable
1.Technical specification of boiler

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Boiler ID code and Make Year of Make Boiler capacity rating Type of Boiler Type of fuel used Maximum fuel flow rate Efficiency by GCV Steam generation pressure &superheat temperature Heat transfer area in m2 Is there any waste heat recovery device installed Type of draft Chimney height in metre
2 - Fuel analysis details Fuel Fired GCV of fuel Specific gravity of fuel (Liquid) Bulk density of fuel (Solid) Proximate Analysis Date of Test:
1 2 3 4
Fixed carbon Volatile matter Ash Moisture
% % % %
Ultimate Analysis
Carbon Hydrogen Sulphur Nitrogen Ash Moisture Oxygen Water Analysis Feed water TDS Blow down TDS PH of feed water PH of blow down Flue gas Analysis CO2 O2 CO Flue gas temperature
Date of Test:
% % % % % % %
Date of Test: ppm ppm
Date of Test: % % %
OC
4. Format sheet for boiler efficiency testing

Date:
S . N o 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . T i m e
Ambient air Dry bulb Temp, o C Wet Bulb Temp, o C
Boiler Code No.

Fuel Flow Rate, kg/hr T e m p
o
Feed water Flow rate, m3/hr T e m p

o
Steam Flo w rat e, m3 /hr
Flue gas analysis T e m p

o
Pr ess ur e
kg /c m2 g
O C O 2 % 2 %
C O
%
T e m p
0
Surface Temp of boiler, oC
Boiler Supervisor
Energy Manager
Energy Auditor
Fuel firing rate Steam generation rate Steam pressure
= 5599.17 kg/hr = 21937.5 kg/hr = 43 kg/cm2(g) = 377 oC = 96 oC = 14 = 0.55 = 190 oC = 31 oC = 0.0204 kg / kg dry air = 70 oC = 3.5 m/s = 90 m2 = 800 kCal/kg = 452.5 kCal/kg = 90:10
The data collected are for a boiler using coal as the fuel. Find out the boiler efficiency by indirect method.
Steam temperature Feed water temperature %CO2 in Flue gas %CO in flue gas Average flue gas temperature Ambient temperature Humidity in ambient air Surface temperature of boiler Wind velocity around the boiler Total surface area of boiler GCV of Bottom ash GCV of fly ash Ratio of bottom ash to fly ash Fuel Analysis (in %) Ash content in fuel Moisture in coal Carbon content Hydrogen content Nitrogen content Oxygen content GCV of Coal
= 8.63 = 31.6 = 41.65 = 2.0413 = 1.6 = 14.48 = 3501 kCal/kg
Boiler efficiency by indirect method Step 1 Find theoretical air requirement Theoretical air required for complete combustion = [(11.43 x C) + {34.5 x (H2 O2/8)} + (4.32 x S)] / 100 kg/kg of coal = [(11.43 x 41.65) + {34.5 x (2.0413 14.48/8)} + (4.32 x 0)] / 100 = 4.84 kg / kg of coal
Step 2 Find theoretical CO2 % Moles of C % CO2 at theoretical condition ( CO2 )t Where, 4.84 x 77/100 Moles of N2 Where moles of C = 28 = 0.4165/12 = 0.0347 0.0347 ( CO2 )t = 0.1332 + 0.0347 + 28 0.016 = 0.1332 = Moles of N2 + Moles of C
= 20.67
Step 3 To find Excess air supplied Actual CO2 measured in flue gas = 14.0%
% Excess air supplied (EA)
= 7900 x [ ( CO2)t (CO2)a] (CO2)a x [100 (CO2)t ] = 7900 x [20.67 14 ] 14a x [100 20.67] = 47.44 %
Step 4 to find actual mass of air supplied Actual mass of air supplied = {1 + EA/100} x theoretical air = {1 + 47.44/100} x 4.84 = 7.13 kg/kg of coal
Step 5 to find actual mass of dry flue gas Mass of dry flue gas consists of Mass of CO2 +Mass of N2 content in the fuel+ Mass of N2 in the combustion air supplied + Mass of oxygen in combustion air supplied 0.4165 x 44 Mass of dry flue gas = 12 = 7.562 kg / kg of coal + 0.016 + 100 7.13 x 77 + 100 (7.13-4.84) x 23
Step 6 to find all losses 1. % Heat loss in dry flue gas (L1) = m x cp x (Tf Ta ) x 100 GCV of fuel 7.562 x 0.23 x (190 31) = 3501 L1 = 7.89 % x 100
2. % Heat loss due to formation of water from H2 in fuel (L2)
9 x H2 x {584 + Cp (Tf Ta )} x 100 GCV of fuel 9 x .02041 x {584 + 0.45(190-31)}
= 3501 L2 = 3.44 %
x 100
M x {584 + Cp ( Tf Ta )} 3. % Heat loss due to moisture in fuel (L3) = GCV of fuel X 100
0.316 x {584 + 0.45 ( 190 31) } = 3501 L3 = 5.91 % x 100
AAS x humidity x Cp x (Tf Ta ) x 100 4. % Heat loss due to moisture in air (L4) = GCV of fuel 7.13 x 0.0204 x 0.45 x (190 31) x 100 = 3501 L4 = 0.29 %
%CO x %C 5. % Heat loss due to partial conversion of C to CO (L5) = % CO + (% CO2)a 0.55 x 0.4165 x = 0.55 + 14 3501 5744 x
5744 x GCV of fuel 100
x 100
L5 = 2.58 %
6. Heat loss due to radiation and convection (L6)
= 0.548 x [ (343/55.55)4 (304/55.55)4] + 1.957 x (343 - 304)1.25 x sq.rt of [(196.85 x 3.5 + 68.9) / 68.9] = = = = 633.3 w/m2 633.3 x 0.86 544.64 kCal / m2 544.64 x 90
Total radiation and convection loss per hour % radiation and convection loss
= 49017.6 kCal = 49017.6 x 100 3501 x 5591.17 = 0.25 %
L6
7. % Heat loss due to unburnt in fly ash % Ash in coal Ratio of bottom ash to fly ash GCV of fly ash Amount of fly ash in 1 kg of coal Heat loss in fly ash % heat loss in fly ash L7 = = = = = = = = = 8.63 90:10 452.5 kCal/kg 0.1 x 0.0863 0.00863 kg 0.00863 x 452.5 3.905 kCal / kg of coal 3.905 x 100 / 3501 0.11 %
8. % Heat loss due to unburnt in fly ash GCV of bottom ash = 800 kCal/kg Amount of bottom ash in 1 kg of = 0.9 x 0.0863 coal = 0.077 kg Heat loss in bottom ash = 0.077 x 800 = 62.136 kCal/kg of coal % Heat loss in bottom ash = 62.136 x 100 / 3501 L8 = 1.77 %
Boiler efficiency by indirect method
= 100 (L1+ L2+ L3+ L4+ L5+ L6+ L7+ L8) = 100-(7.89 + 3.44+ 5.91+ 0.29+ 2.58+ 0.25+ 0.11+1.77) = 100-22.24 = 77.76 %
Summary of Heat Balance for Coal Fired Boiler Input/Output Parameter kCal / kg of % loss coal Heat Input = 3501 100 Losses in boiler 1. Dry flue gas, L1 = 276.23 7.89 2. Loss due to hydrogen in fuel, L2 = 120.43 3.44 3. Loss due to moisture in fuel, L3 = 206.91 5.91 4. Loss due to moisture in air, L4 = 10.15 0.29 5. Partial combustion of C to CO, L5 = 90.32 2.58 6. Surface heat losses, L6 = 8.75 0.25 7. Loss due to Unburnt in fly ash, L7 = 3.85 0.11 8. Loss due to Unburnt in bottom ash, = 61.97 1.77 L8 Boiler Efficiency = 100 (L1 + L2+ L3+ L4+ L5+ L6+ L7+ L8) = 77.76 %
Factors Affecting Boiler Performance

Periodical cleaning of boilers Periodical soot blowing Proper water treatment programme and blow down control Draft control Excess air control Percentage loading of boiler Steam generation pressure and temperature Boiler insulation Quality of fuel
ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF FURNACES
Pusher-Type 3-Zone Reheating Furnace
Furnace Efficiency,
Heat in stock (material) Heat in Fuel /electricity
(kCals) (kCals)
Specific Energy Consumption = Quantity of fuel or energy consumed

Quantity of material processed.
Direct Method Testing

Measurement Parameters The following measurements are to be made for doing the energy balance in oil fired reheating furnaces (e.g. Heating Furnace) i) ii) iii) iv) v) Weight of stock / Number of billets heated Temperature of furnace walls, roof etc Flue gas temperature Flue gas analysis Fuel Oil consumption
Example: Energy Efficiency by Indirect Method

An oil-fired reheating furnace has an operating temperature of around 1340oC. Average fuel consumption is 400 litres/hour. The flue gas exit temperature is 750 oC. Air is preheated from ambient temperature of 40 oC to 190 oC through an air pre-heater. The furnace has 460 mm thick wall (x) on the billet extraction outlet side, which is 1 m high (D) and 1 m wide. The other data are as given below. Find out the efficiency of the furnace by both indirect and direct method. flue gas temperature before air preheater = 750oC Ambient temperature = 40oC Preheated air temperature = 190oC Specific gravity of oil = 0.92 Average fuel oil consumption = 400 Litres / hr = 400 x 0.92 =368 kg/hr Calorific value of oil = 10000 kCal/kg Average O2 percentage in flue gas = 12% Weight of stock = 6000 kg/hr Specific heat of Billet = 0.12 kCal/kg/0C
Furnace Efficiency (Direct Method)

Heat input Heat output = 400 litres / hr = 368 kg/hr = m x Cp x T = 6000 kg x 0.12 x (1340 40) = 936000 kCal = 936000 x 100 / (368 x 10000) = 25.43 % = 25% (app) = 75% (app)
Efficiency
Total Losses
1. Sensible Heat Loss in Flue Gas: O % Corresponding excess air = x100 21 O % (Where O2 is the % of oxygen in flue gas = 12% ) = 12 x 100 / (21 12) = 133% excess air
2 2
Theoretical air required to burn 1 kg of oil=14 kg (Typical value for all fuel oil) Total air supplied = Theoretical air x (1 + excess air/100) Total air supplied = 14 x 2.33 kg / kg of oil = 32.62 kg / kg of oil Sensible heat loss = m x Cp x T m = Weight of flue gas = Actual mass of air supplied / kg of fuel + mass of fuel (1kg) = 32.62 + 1.0 = 33.62 kg / kg of oil. Cp = Specific heat of flue gas = 0.24 kCal/kg/oC T = Temperature difference Heat loss = 33.62 x 0.24 x (750 40) = 5729 kCal / kg of oil % Loss = 5729 = 57.29% 10000 % Heat gain by combustion air = 32.62 x 0.24 x (190 40) ----------------------------------- x 100 10000 = 11.74 % = (57.29 11.74) % = 45.55%
Net % sensible heat loss in flue gas
2. Loss Due to Evaporation of Moisture Present in Fuel % Loss Where, M Tfg Tamb GCV
= M {584 + 0.45 (Tfg-Tamb)} x100 GCV of Fuel
% Loss
% Moisture of in 1 kg of fuel oil (0.15 kg/kg of fuel oil) Flue Gas Temperature Ambient temperature Gross Calorific Value of Fuel 0.15 {584 +0.45 (750-40)} = -----------------------------x 100 10000 = 1.36 %
3. Loss Due to Evaporation of Water Formed due to Hydrogen in Fuel % Loss = 9 x H2 {584 + 0.45 (Tfg-Tamb)} ---------------------------------------- x 100 GCV of Fuel
Where, H2 % of H2 in 1 kg of fuel oil (0.1123 kg/kg of fuel oil) = = 9 x 0.1123 {584 + 0.45 (750-40)} ------------------------------------x 100 10000 9.13 %
Graph for Determining Black Body Radiation at a Particular Temperature
Factor for Determining the Equivalent of Heat Release from Openings to the Quality of Heat Release from Perfect Black Body
The reheating furnace in example has 460mm thick wall (X) on the billet extraction outlet side, which is 1m high (D) and 1m wide. With furnace temperature of 1340 0C, the quantity (Q) of radiation heat loss from the opening is calculated as follows: The shape of the opening is square and D/X
The factor of radiation (Refer Figure 2.5) Black body radiation corresponding to 1340oC (Refer Figure 2.4 On black body radiation) Area of opening Emissivity
= 1/0.46 = 2.17
= 0.71 = 36.00 kCal/cm2/hr = 100 cm x 100 cm = 10000 cm2 = 0.8
Total heat loss = Black body radiation x area of opening x factor of radiation x emissivity =36 x 10000 x 0.71 x 0.8 = 204480 kCal/hr Equivalent Oil loss % of heat loss = 204480/10,000 = 20.45 kg/hr = 20.45 /368 x 100 = 5.56 %
Quantity of Heat Release at Various Temperatures
5a). Heat loss through roof and sidewalls: Total average surface temperature Heat loss at 122 oC Total area of heating + soaking zone Heat loss Equivalent oil loss (a) = 122oC = 1252 kCal / m2 / hr = 70.18 m2 = 1252 kCal / m2 / hr x 70.18 m2 = 87865 kCal/hr = 8.78 kg / hr
6. Unaccounted Loss
These losses comprises of heat storage loss, loss of furnace gases around charging door and opening, heat loss by incomplete combustion, loss of heat by conduction through hearth, loss due to formation of scales.
Furnace Efficiency (Indirect Method) 1. Sensible heat loss in flue gas 2. Loss due to evaporation of moisture in fuel 3. Loss due to evaporation of water formed from H2 in fuel 4. Heat loss due to openings 5. Heat loss through skin 6. Unaccounted losses = 45.55% = 1.36 % = 9.13 % = 5.56 % = 2.64% = 10.76%
(Assessed by subtracting summation of losses 1 to 5 from the losses worked out by direct method i.e. [75 (45.55+1.36+9.13+5.56+2.64) ] ) Total losses Furnace Efficiency = 75% = 100 75 = 25 % = 400 litre /hour (fuel consumption) 6Tonnes/hour (Wt of stock) = 66.6 Litre of fuel /tonne of Material (stock)
Specific Energy Consumption
Theoretical Heat
Example of melting one tonne of steel from an ambient temperature of 20oC . Specific heat of steel = 0.186 Wh/kg/0C, latent heat for melting of steel = 40 Wh/kg/0C. Melting point of steel = 1600 oC.
Theoretical Total heat = Sensible heat + Latent heat Sensible Heat = 1000 kg x 0.186 Wh /kg oC x (1600-20)oC = 294 kWh Latent heat = 40 Wh/ kg x 1000 kg Total Heat = 294 + 40 = 334 kWh. = 40 kWh
So the theoretical energy needed to melt one tonne of steel from 20o C = 334 kWh.
Actual Energy used to melt to 1600o C is 700 kWh
Efficiency = 334 kWh x 100 = 48% 700 kwh
Factors Affecting Furnace Performance

The important factors, which affect the efficiency, are listed below for critical analysis. Under loading due to poor hearth loading and improper production scheduling Improper Design Use of inefficient burner Insufficient draft/chimney Absence of Waste heat recovery Absence of Instruments/Controls Improper operation/Maintenance High stack loss, waste heat recovery device Improper insulation /Refractories
Steam turbine analysis

h1
h11
Boiler Extraction cum condensing Turbine

h11 h2 1st Extraction
Power output kW
Boiler
H1
h3 H2 h4 Extraction
2st
H3
Condenser
Figure 3.1 Process Flow Diagram for Cogeneration Plant
Actual heat extraction

Calculate the actual heat extraction in turbine at each stage, Steam Enthalpy at turbine inlet Steam Enthalpy at 1st extraction Steam Enthalpy at 2nd extraction Steam Enthalpy at Condenser : : : : h1 kCal / kg h2 kCal / kg h3 kCal / kg h4* kCal / kg
* Due to wetness of steam in the condensing stage, the enthalpy of steam cannot be considered as equivalent to saturated steam. Typical dryness value is 0.88 0.92. This dryness value can be used as first approximation to estimate heat drop in the last stage. However it is suggested to calculate the last stage efficiency from the overall turbine efficiency and other stage efficiencies.
Calculate enthalpy drop

Heat extraction from inlet to stage 1 extraction (h5) : h1 h2 kCal / kg
Heat extraction from 1st 2nd extraction (h6) Heat extraction from 2nd Extraction condenser (h7)
h2-h3 kCal / kg h3-h4 kCal / kg
Calculate theoretical enthalpy drops

From Mollier diagram (H- Diagram) estimate the theoretical heat extraction for the conditions mentioned in Step 1. Towards this: a) Plot the turbine inlet condition point in the Mollier chart corresponding to steam pressure and temperature b) Since expansion in turbine is an adiabatic process, the entropy is constant. Hence draw a vertical line from inlet point (parallel to y-axis) upto the condensing conditions. c) Read the enthalpy at points where the extraction and condensing pressure lines meet the vertical line drawn. d) Compute the theoretical heat drop for different stages of expansion
Theoretical enthalpy drop

Theoretical Enthalpy after 1st extraction Theoretical Enthalpy after 2nd extraction Theoretical Enthalpy at condenser conditions : H1 : H2 : H3
Theoretical heat extraction from inlet to stage 1 extraction, h8
: h1 H1
Theoretical heat extraction from 1st 2nd extraction, h9
: H1-H2
Theoretical heat extraction from 2nd extraction condensation, h10
: H2-H3
Compute turbine cylinder efficiency
Efficiency of 1st stage
: h5 Heat extraction-actual h8 Heat extraction theoretical : h6 Heat extraction-actual h9 Heat extraction theoretical : h7 h10
h1- h2 h1 H1 h2- h3 H1 H 2
Efficiency of 2nd stage
Efficiency of condensing stage
Calculate plant heat rate

M x (h1 h11) Heat rate, kCal / kWh = P M Mass flow rate of steam in kg/hr h1 - Enthalpy of inlet steam in kCal/kg h11 - Enthalpy of feed water in kCal/kg P - Average Power generated in kW *Alternatively the following guiding parameter can be utilised Plant heat consumption = fuel consumed for power generation, kg/hr Power generated, kW
Example: Small Cogeneration Plant

A distillery plant having an average production of 40 kilolitres of ethanol is having a cogeneration system with a backpressure turbine. The plant steam and electrical demand are 5.1 Tons/hr and 100 kW. The process flow diagram is shown in figure 3.2.Gross calorific value of Indian coal is 4000kCal/kg
Steam to turbine Q 5100 kg/hr P 15 kg/cm2g T 250oC
Coal 1550 kg/hr
Boiler
Back Pressure Turbine
Power output 100kW
Process Steam Q 5100 kg/hr P 2 kg/cm2g T 130oC
Figure 3.2 Process Flow Diagram for Small Cogeneration Plant
Calculation steps
Step 1 : Total heat of steam at turbine inlet conditions at 15kg / cm2 and 250oC, h1 =698kCal/kg Step 2 : Total heat of steam at turbine outlet conditions at 2 kg/cm2 and 130oC, h2 = 648 kCal/kg Step 3 : Heat energy input to turbine per kg of inlet steam (h1- h2) Step 4 : Total steam flow rate, Q1 Power generation Equivalent thermal energy Step 5 : Energy input to the turbine = 5100 x 50 = 2,55,000 kCal/hr. = 5100 kg/hr = 100 kW = 100 x 860 = 86,000 kCal /hr = (698-648) = 50 kCal/kg
Step 6 :
Energy output Power generation efficiency of the turbo alternator = --------------------- x 100 Energy Input 86,000 ------------- x 100 = 34% 2,55,000
=
Step 7 : Efficiency of the turbo alternator Efficiency of Alternator Efficiency of gear transmission
= 34% = 92 % = 98 %
Efficiency ofTurbine =
Power generation efficiency of turbo alternator Efficiency of gear transmissi on * Efficiency of Alternator
0.34 = 0.38 0.98 * 0.92
Step 8 : Quantity of steam bypassing the turbine Step 9 : Coal consumption of the boiler Step 10: Overall plant heat rate, kCal/kWh
= Mass flow rate of steam x ((Enthalpy of steam, kCal/kg Enthalpy of feed water,kCal/kg)
= Nil
= 1550 kg/hr.
Power output, kW
= 5100 x (698 30) 100 = 34068 kCal/kWh* *Note: The plant heat rate is in the order of 34000 kCal/kWh because of the use of backpressure turbine. This value will be around 3000 kcal/kWh while operating on fully condensing mode. However with backpressure turbine, the energy in the steam is not wasted, as it is utilised in the process. Overall plant fuel rate including boiler = 1550/100 = 15.5 kg coal / kW
Gas turbine and Waste heat recovery steam generator

T h e o re tic a l te m p e ra tu re ris e a c ro s s th e c o m p re s s o r, o C A ir C o m p re s s o r e ffic ie n c y, % = A c tu a l te m p e ra tu re ris e , o C
Overall Gas turbine efficiency (Compressor + Gas turbine), % =
Power output, kW x 860 Fuel input for Gas turbine, kg/hr x GCV of fuel, kCal/kg
Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) Performance

Heat Recovery Steam Generator efficiency, %
steam generated, kg/hr x (hs, kCal/kg - hw,kCal/kg) [Mass flow of flue gas, kg/hr x Cp x ( tin - tout)] + [ auxiliary fuel consumption, kg/hr x GCV of fuel, kCal/hr ]
where, hs = Enthalpy of steam hw = Enthalpy of feed water tin = inlet temperature of flue gas tout = outlet temperature of flue gas
Energy Performance Assessment of Heat Exchangers
Purpose of the Performance Test

To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient for assessing the performance of the heat exchanger. Any deviation from the design heat transfer coefficient will indicate occurrence of fouling.
Overall heat transfer coefficient, U

Heat exchanger performance is normally evaluated by the overall heat transfer coefficient U that is defined by the equation
Q=UxAx LMTD
Where Q = Heat transferred in kCal/hr A = Heat transfer surface area in m2 LMTD = Log Mean Temperature Difference in 0C U = Overall heat transfer Coefficient kCal/hr/m2/0C
Nomenclature
Cold fluid in w, ti Shell Hot fluid out W, To
Baffles
Cold fluid out w, to
Hot fluid in W, Ti
Heat Duty
Heat duty of the exchanger can be calculated either on the hot side fluid or cold side fluid as given below. Heat Duty for Hot fluid, Qh = Wx Cph x (Ti-To) Heat Duty for Cold fluid, Qc = Wx Cpc x ( to-ti) ..Eqn-1, ...Eqn-2
If the operating heat duty is less than design heat duty, it may be due to heat losses, fouling in tubes, reduced flow rate (hot or cold) etc. Hence, for simple performance monitoring of exchanger, efficiency may be considered as factor of performance irrespective of other parameter. However, in industrial practice, fouling factor method is more predominantly used.
Methodology of Heat Exchanger Performance Assessment

Procedure for determination of Overall heat transfer Coefficient, U at field This is a fairly rigorous method of monitoring the heat exchanger performance by calculating the overall heat transfer coefficient periodically. Technical records are to be maintained for all the exchangers, so that problems associated with reduced efficiency and heat transfer can be identified easily. The record should basically contain historical heat transfer coefficient data versus time / date of observation. A plot of heat transfer coefficient versus time permits rational planning of an exchanger-cleaning program.
Step A
Monitoring and reading of steady state parameters of the heat exchanger under evaluation are tabulated as below:
Parameters Hot fluid flow,W Cold fluid flow,w Hot fluid Temp, T Cold fluid Temp,t Hot fluid Pressure,P Cold fluid Pressure, p
Units kg/h kg/h O C O C bar g bar g
Inlet
Outlet
Step B
With the monitored test data, the physical properties of the stream can be tabulated as required for the evaluation of the thermal data
Parameters Hot fluid density, h Cold fluid density, c Hot fluid Viscosity, h Cold fluid Viscosity, c Hot fluid Thermal Conductivity, kh Cold fluid Thermal Conductivity, kc Hot fluid specific heat Capacity, Cph Cold fluid specific heat Capacity, Cpc
* MpaS Mega Pascal Second
Units kg/m3 kg/m3 MpaS* MPaS kW/(m. K) kW/(m. K) kJ/(kg. K) kJ/(kg. K)
Inlet
Outlet
Density and viscosity can be determined by analysis of the samples taken from the flow stream at the recorded temperature in the plant laboratory. Thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity if not determined from the samples can be collected from handbooks.
Step C
Calculate the thermal parameters of heat exchanger and compare with the design data
Parameters Heat Duty, Q Hot fluid side pressure drop, Ph Cold fluid side pressure drop, Pc Temperature Range hot fluid , T Temperature Range cold fluid , t Capacity ratio, R Effectiveness, S Corrected LMTD, MTD Heat Transfer Coefficient, U
Units kW bar bar O C O C --------O C kW/(m2. K)
Test Data * *
Design Data
* - The pressure drop for the design flow can be rated with the relation , Pressure drop is proportional to (Flow)1.75
Examples Liquid Liquid Exchanger

A shell and tube exchanger of following configuration is considered being used for oil cooler with oil at the shell side and cooling water at the tube side. Tube Side
460 Nos x 25.4mmOD x 2.11mm thick x 7211mm long Pitch 31.75mm 30o triangular 2 Pass
Shell Side
787 mm ID Baffle space 787 mm 1 Pass
The monitored parameters are as below:
Parameters Hot fluid flow, W Cold fluid flow, w Hot fluid Temp, T Cold fluid Temp, t Hot fluid Pressure, P Cold fluid Pressure, p
Units kg/h kg/h O C O C bar g bar g
Inlet 719800 881150 145 25.5 4.1 6.2
Outlet 719800 881150 102 49 2.8 5.1
Calculation of Thermal data

Heat Transfer Area = 264.55 m2
1.Heat Duty: Q = qs = ql Hot fluid, Q = 719800 x 2.847 x (145 102) = 24477.4 kW Cold Fluid, Q = 881150 x 4.187 x (49 25.5) = 24083.4 kW 2. Hot Fluid Pressure Drop Pressure Drop = Pi Po = 4.1 2.8 = 1.3 bar g. 3. Cold Fluid Pressure Drop Pressure Drop = pi po = 6.2 5.1 = 1.1 bar g. 4. Temperature range hot fluid Temperature Range T = Ti To = 145 102 = 43 o C. 5. Temperature Range Cold Fluid Temperature Range t = ti to = 49 25.5 = 23.5 0C.
6. 7. 8.
Capacity Ratio Capacity ratio, R = 23.5/43 = 0.547. Effectiveness Effectiveness, S = (to ti) / (Ti ti) =(49 25.5)/(145-25.5) =23.5/119.5 = 0.20. LMTD a). LMTD, Counter Flow = (96 76.5)/ ln (96/76.5) = 85.9 0C. b). Correction Factor to account for Cross flow (R + 1)1/2 x ln ((1- SR)/ (1- S ) F = (R + 1)1/2 x ln ((1- SR)/ (1- S ) ( 1 R) x ln 2- S ( R + 1 (R2 +1)1/2) 2- S ( R + 1 + (R2 +1)1/2) F = 0.977.
9. 10.
Corrected LMTD = F x LMTD = 0.977 x 85.9 = 83.9 oC. Overall Heat Transfer Co-efficient U = Q/ A T = 24477.4/ (264.55 x 83.9) = 1.104 kW/m2. K
Comparison of Calculated data with Design Data

Parameters Duty, Q Hot fluid side pressure drop, Ph Cold fluid side pressure drop, Pc Temperature Range hot fluid, T Temperature Range cold fluid, t Capacity ratio, R Effectiveness, S Corrected LMTD, MTD Heat Transfer Coefficient, U Units kW Bar Bar
O O
Test Data 24477.4 1.3 1.1
Design Data 25623 1.34 0.95
43 23.5 0.547 0.20 83.8 1.104
45 25 0.556 0.375 82.2 1.178
C --------O C kW/(m2. K)
Inferences
Heat Duty: Actual duty differences will be practically negligible as these duty differences could be because of the specific heat capacity deviation with the temperature. Also, there could be some heat loss due to radiation from the hot shell side. Pressure drop: Also, the pressure drop in the shell side of the hot fluid is reported normal (only slightly less than the design figure). This is attributed with the increased average bulk temperature of the hot side due to decreased performance of the exchanger. Temperature range: As seen from the data the deviation in the temperature ranges could be due to the increased fouling in the tubes (cold stream), since a higher pressure drop is noticed. Heat Transfer coefficient: The estimated value has decreased to increased fouling that has resulted in minimized active area of heat transfer. Physical properties: If available from the data or Lab analysis can be used for verification with the design data sheet as a cross check towards design considerations. Troubleshooting: Fouled exchanger needs cleaning.
ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF MOTORS / VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES
Motor efficiency vs loading

Efficiency :
The efficiency of the motor is given by
P loss P out = = 1 P in P in
Where Pout Output power of the motor Pin Input power of the motor
PLoss Losses occurring in motor
Motor Loading :
Motor Loading % = Actual operating load of the motor Rated capacity of the motor
Field Tests for Determining Efficiency
No Load Test
The motor is run at rated voltage and frequency without any shaft load. Input power, current, frequency and voltage are noted. The no load P.F. is quite low and hence low PF watt meters are required. From the input power, stator I2R losses under no load are subtracted to give the sum of Friction and Windage (F&W) and core losses. To separate core and F & W losses, test is repeated at variable voltages. It is worthwhile plotting no-load input kW versus Voltage; the intercept is F & W kW loss component.
F&W and core losses = No load power (watts) (No load current)2 Stator resistance
Stator and Rotor
2 IR
Losses :
The stator winding resistance is directly measured by a bridge or volt amp method. The resistance must be corrected to the operating temperature. For modern motors, the operating temperature is likely to be in the range of 1000C to 1200C and necessary correction should be made. Correction to 750C may be inaccurate. The correction factor is given as follows :
R 2 235 + t 2 = R 1 235 + t 1
where, t1 = ambient temperature, oC & t2 =- operating temperature, oC. The rotor resistance can be determined from locked rotor test at reduced frequency, but rotor I2R losses are measured from measurement of rotor slip. Rotor I2R losses = Slip (Stator Input Stator I2R Losses Core Loss) Accurate measurement of slip is possible by stroboscope or non-contact type tachometer. Slip also must be corrected to operating temperature.
Stray Load Losses

These losses are difficult to measure with any accuracy. IEEE Standard 112 gives a complicated method, which is rarely used on shop floor. IS and IEC standards take a fixed value as 0.5 % of output. It must be remarked that actual value of stray losses is likely to be more. IEEE 112 specifies values from 0.9 % to 1.8 %.
Motor Rating 1 125 HP 125 500 HP 501 2499 HP 2500 and above Stray Losses 1.8 % 1.5 % 1.2 % 0.9 %
Points for Users

It must be clear that accurate determination of efficiency is very difficult. The same motor tested by different methods and by same methods by different manufacturers can give a difference of 2 %.
Estimation of efficiency in the field can be summarized as follows:
1. 2. 3.
Measure stator resistance and correct to operating temperature. From rated current value, I2R losses are calculated. From rated speed and output, rotor I2R losses are calculated From no load test, core and F & W losses are determined for stray loss
Example
Motor Specifications
Rated power Voltage Current Speed Insulation class Frame Connection
= = = = = = =
34 kW/45 HP 415 Volt 57 Amps 1475 rpm F LD 200 L Delta
No load test Data

Voltage, V Current, I Frequency, F Stator phase resistance at 300C No load power, Pnl = = = = = 415 Volts 16.1 Amps 50 Hz 0.264 Ohms 1063.74 Watts
Try to calculate the following

Calculate iron plus friction and windage losses Calculate stator resistance at 1200C R2 = R1
235 + t 2 235 + t 1
Calculate stator copper losses at operating temperature of resistance at 1200C Calculate full load slip(s) and rotor input assuming rotor losses are slip times rotor input. Determine the motor input assuming that stray losses are 0.5 % of the motor rated power Calculate motor full load efficiency and full load power factor
Solution
Let Iron plus friction and windage loss, Pi + fw No load power, Pnl = 1063.74 Watts Stator Copper loss, P st-300C (Pst.cu) = 3 (16.1 / 3)2 0.264 = 68.43 Watts Pi + fw = Pnl Pst.cu = 1063.74 68.43 = 995.3 W
Stator Resistance at 120 C, R120

0
120 + 235 C = 0.264 30 + 235
= 0.354 ohms per phase
Stator copper losses at full load, Pst.cu 120 C = 3 (57 / 3)2 0.354 = 1150.1 Watts
Full load slip S = (1500 1475) / 1500 = 0.0167 Rotor input, Pr = Poutput/ (1-S) = 34000 / (1-0.0167) = 34577.4 Watts
Motor full load input power, P input = Pr + Pst.cu 1200C + (Pi + fw) + Pstray = 34577.4 + 1150.1 + 995.3 + (0.005* 34000) = 36892.8 Watts
*
where, stray losses = 0.5% of rated output (assumed)
Motor efficiency at full load Efficiency =
Poutput Pinput
100
34000 100 36892.8
= 92.2 % Full Load PF = Pinput 3 V I fl

36892.8 3 415 57
= 0.90
Comments
The measurement of stray load losses is very difficult and not practical even on test beds. The actual value of stray loss of motors up to 200 HP is likely to be 1 % to 3 % compared to 0.5 % assumed by standards. The value of full load slip taken from the nameplate data is not accurate. Actual measurement under full load conditions will give better results. The friction and windage losses really are part of the shaft output; however, in the above calculation, it is not added to the rated shaft output, before calculating the rotor input power. The error however is minor. When a motor is rewound, there is a fair chance that the resistance per phase would increase due to winding material quality and the losses would be higher. It would be interesting to assess the effect of a nominal 10 % increase in resistance per phase.
Determining Motor Loading

By Input Power Measurements
First measure input power Pi with a hand held or in-line power meter Pi = Three-phase power in kW Note the rated kW and efficiency from the motor name plate The figures of kW mentioned in the name plate is for output conditions. So corresponding input power at full-rated load
fl = Efficiency at full-rated load Pir = Input power at full-rated power in kW The percentage loading can now be calculated as follows
Example
The nameplate details of a motor are given as power = 15 kW, efficiency = 0.9. Using a power meter the actual three phase power drawn is found to be 8 kW. Find out the loading of the motor. Input power at full-rated power in kW, Pir = 15 /0.9 = 16.7 kW Percentage loading = 8/16.7 = 48 %
By Line Current Measurements

The line current load estimation method is used when input power cannot be measured and only amperage measurements are possible. The amperage draw of a motor varies approximately linearly with respect to load, down to about 75% of full load. Below the 75% load point, power factor degrades and the amperage curve becomes increasingly non-linear. In the low load region, current measurements are not a useful indicator of load. However, this method may be used only as a preliminary method just for the purpose of identification of oversized motors.
% Load = Input load current * 100 (Valid up to 75% loading) Input rated current
Slip Method
In the absence of a power meter, the slip method can be used which requires a tachometer. This method also does not give the exact loading on the motors. Slip Load = *100% Ss Sr
Where: Load = Output power as a % of rated power Slip = Synchronous speed - Measured speed in rpm Ss = Synchronous speed in rpm at the operating frequency Sr = Nameplate full-load speed
Example: Slip Load Calculation
Given: Synchronous speed in rpm = 1500 at 50 HZ operating frequency. ( Synchronous speed = 120f/P) f: frequency, P: Number of poles Nameplate full load speed = 1450 Measured speed in rpm = 1480 Nameplate rated power = 7.5 kW Determine actual output power. 1500 1480 *100% = 40% 1500 1450 From the above equation, actual output power would be 40% x 7.5 kW = 3 kW
Load =
The speed/slip method of determining motor part-load is often favored due to its simplicity and safety advantages. Most motors are constructed such that the shaft is accessible to a tachometer or a strobe light.
The accuracy of the slip method, however, is limited

The largest uncertainty relates to the accuracy with which manufacturers report the nameplate full-load speed. Manufacturers generally round their reported full-load speed values to some multiple of 5 rpm. While 5 rpm is but a small percent of the full-load speed and may be considered as insignificant, the slip method relies on the difference between full-load nameplate and synchronous speeds. Given a 40 rpm correct slip, a seemingly minor 5 rpm disparity causes a 12% change in calculated load. Slip also varies inversely with respect to the motor terminal voltage squared. A voltage correction factor can, also, be inserted into the slip load equation. The voltage compensated load can be calculated as shown
Where: Load = Output power as a % of rated power Slip = Synchronous speed - Measured speed in rpm Ss = Synchronous speed in rpm Sr = Nameplate full-load speed V = RMS voltage, mean line to line of 3 phases Vr = Nameplate rated voltage
Performance Evaluation of Rewound Motors

Ideally, a comparison should be made of the efficiency before and after a rewinding. A relatively simple procedure for evaluating rewind quality is to keep a log of no-load input current for each motor in the population. This figure increases with poor quality rewinds. A review of the rewind shops procedure should also provide some indication of the quality of work. When rewinding a motor, if smaller diameter wire is used, the resistance and the I2R losses will increase.
Application of Variable Speed Drives (VSD)

Concept of Variable Frequency Drive The speed of an induction motor is proportional to the frequency of the AC voltage applied to it, as well as the number of poles in the motor stator. This is expressed by the equation: RPM = (f x 120) / p Where f is the frequency in Hz, and p is the number of poles in any multiple of 2. Therefore, if the frequency applied to the motor is changed, the motor speed changes in direct proportion to the frequency change. The control of frequency applied to the motor is the job given to the VSD. The VSD's basic principle of operation is to convert the electrical system frequency and voltage to the frequency and voltage required to drive a motor at a speed other than its rated speed. The two most basic functions of a VSD are to provide power conversion from one frequency to another, and to enable control of the output frequency
VSD Power Conversion
There are two basic components, a rectifier and an inverter, to accomplish power conversion. The rectifier receives the 50-Hz AC voltage and converts it to direct current (DC) voltage. A DC bus inside the VSD functions as a "parking lot" for the DC voltage. The DC bus energizes the inverter, which converts it back to AC voltage again. The inverter can be controlled to produce an output frequency of the proper value for the desired motor shaft speed.
Factors for Successful Implementation of Variable Speed Drives

Load Type for Variable Frequency Drives
The main consideration is whether the variable frequency drive application require a variable torque or constant torque drive. If the equipment being driven is centrifugal, such as a fan or pump, then a variable torque drive will be more appropriate. Energy savings are usually the primary motivation for installing variable torque drives for centrifugal applications. For example, a fan needs less torque when running at 50% speed than it does when running at full speed. Variable torque operation allows the motor to apply only the torque needed, which results in reduced energy consumption. Conveyors, positive displacement pumps, punch presses, extruders, and other similar type applications require constant level of torque at all speeds. In which case, constant torque variable frequency drives would be more appropriate for the job. A constant torque drive should have an overload current capacity of 150% or more for one minute. Variable torque variable frequency drives need only an overload current capacity of 120% for one minute since centrifugal applications rarely exceed the rated current. If tight process control is needed, then you may need to utilize a sensor less vector, or flux vector variable frequency drive, which allow a high level of accuracy in controlling speed, torque, and positioning.
Motor Information
Full Load Amperage Rating. Using a motor's horsepower is an inaccurate way to size variable frequency drives. Speed Range. Generally, a motor should not be run at any speed less than 20% of its specified maximum speed allowed. If it is run at a speed less than this without auxiliary motor cooling, the motor will overheat. Auxiliary motor cooling should be used if the motor must be operated at very slow speeds. Multiple Motors. To size a variable frequency drive that will control more than one motor, add together the fullload amp ratings of each of the motors. All motors controlled by a single drive must have an equal voltage rating.
Efficiency and Power Factor

The variable frequency drive should have an efficiency rating of 95% or better at full load. Variable frequency drives should also offer a true system power factor of 0.95 or better across the operational speed range, to save on demand charges, and to protect the equipment (especially motors).
Protection and Power Quality

Motor overload Protection for instantaneous trip and motor over current. Additional Protection: Over and under voltage, over temperature, ground fault, control or microprocessor fault. These protective circuits should provide an orderly shutdown of the VFD, provide indication of the fault condition, and require a manual reset (except under voltage) before restart. Under voltage from a power loss shall be set to automatically restart after return to normal. The history of the previous three faults shall remain in memory for future review. If a built-up system is required, there should also be externallyoperated short circuit protection, door-interlocked fused disconnect and circuit breaker or motor circuit protector (MCP)
To determine if the equipment under consideration is the right choice for a variable speed drive
The load patterns should be thoroughly studied before exercising the option of VSD. In effect the load should be of a varying nature to demand a VSD
Figure 5.3 Example of an excellent variable speed drive candidate
Figure 5.4 Example of a poor variable speed drive candidate
Information needed to Evaluate Energy Savings for Variable Speed Application

Method of flow control to which adjustable speed is compared: o output throttling (pump) or dampers (fan) o recirculation (pump) or unrestrained flow (fan) o adjustable-speed coupling (eddy current coupling) o inlet guide vanes or inlet dampers (fan only) o two-speed motor. Pump or fan data: o head v's flow curve for every different type of liquid (pump) or gas (fan) that is handled o Pump efficiency curves. Process information: o specific gravity (for pumps) or specific density of products (for fans) o system resistance head/flow curve o equipment duty cycle, i.e. flow levels and time duration. Efficiency information on all relevant electrical system apparatus: o motors, constant and variable speed o variable speed drives o gears o transformers. If we do not have precise information for all of the above, we can make reasonable assumptions for points 2 and 4.
ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF FANS AND BLOWERS

The purposes of such a test are to determine, under actual operating conditions, the volume flow rate, the power input and the total pressure rise across the fan. These test results will provide actual value for the flow resistance of the air duct system, which can be compared with the value specified by supplier.

Static Pressure: The absolute pressure at a point minus the reference atmospheric pressure. Dynamic Pressure: The rise in static pressure which occurs when air moving with specified velocity at a point is bought to rest without loss of mechanical energy. It is also known as velocity pressure. Total Pressure: The sum of static pressures and dynamic pressures at a point. Fan Shaft Power: The mechanical power supplied to the fan shaft Motor Input Power: The electrical power supplied to the terminals of an electric motor drive.
Fan Efficiency: The air power static divided by impeller power Static Fan Efficiency % = Volume in m3 / Sec x total pressure in mmwc 102 x Power input to the shaft in (kW)
Pressures in a duct
Pitot tube
Traverse readings
Example
The following is a typical report on measurements taken and calculations made for a double inlet fan in a palletizing plant. (a) Design Parameters: Volume Static Pressure = = 292 m3/sec. 609.6 mmwc
(b) Measurements: Temperature Speed = = 32oC 740 RPM
Inlet Damper Position % 80%
Suction Pressure (-) mmwc ONE SIDE 25, 22, 20 Average=22.33
Outlet Pressure (+) mmwc 455, 462, 480,478 Avg.=468.75
Measured Velocity Pressure (U p), mmwc Average = 70
Volume M3/Sec.
Amps (I)
Power Consumption (kW)
ANOTHER SIDE 15, 18, 23, 21 Average=19.25 459, 464, 473 479, 480, 470 Avg.=470.83
166.6
220
2127 KW
Average = 70
Instruments used a) Suction pressure, outlet pressure b) For differential pressure c) For temperature d) Fan speed e) Line current
= U tube manometer = Inclined tube manometer = Mercury in glass thermometer = Tachometer = Tong tester
c) (P1) = Power input to the motor (kW)
3 x V x I x Cos 1000 = 3 x 6600 x 220 x 0.9 1000 = 2263 kW
d) P = Power input to the fan shaft = Power input to the motor (kW) x Efficiency of motor (%) at the operating load x transmission efficiency Motor efficiency = 0.94
P = 2263 x 0.94 x 1 (as motor was direct coupled) = 2127 kW
e)
Fan Efficiency % = Volume in m3 / Sec x total pressure in mmwc (a) x Power input to the shaft in (kW) Where 102 is a conversion constant
For double inlet fan, The total Volume of air,m3 / Sec = 166.6 x 2 = 333.2 Total static pressure, mmwc (U p Static ,across the fan) Fan Efficiency = 468.75- (-22.33) = 491
= 333.2 x 491 x 100 102 x 2127 = 75%
Static Fan Efficiency
Performance calculations
a) Gas Density = 273 x 1.293 (Corrected to NTP) 273 + ToC (at site condition) = 273 x 1.293 273 + 32oC (at site condition) = 1.15 kg/m3 b) Volume Cp A p = Cp x A 2 x 9.81 x U p x 1.15 = Pitot tube constant, 0.85 = = Area of rectangular duct in m2, 1.029 x 5.502 Average velocity pressure measured by pitot tube by taking measurement at number of points over the entire cross section of the duct.(see Table) Density at test condition, 1.15 kg/m3 0.85 x 1.029 x 5.502 2 x 9.81 x 70 x 1.15 1.15 v = 166.6 m / Sec
3
Flow (v)
= =
ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF WATER PUMPS

Determination of the pump efficiency during the operating condition Determination of system resistance and the operating duty point of the pump and compare the same with design.

Pump Capacity, Q = Volume of liquid delivered by pump per unit time,m3/hr or m3/sec Q is proportional to N, where N- rotational speed of the pump Total developed head, H= The sum of suction and discharge pressures The pump head represents the net work done on unit weights of a liquid in passing from inlet of the pump to the discharge of the pump. There are three heads in common use in pumps namely 1.0. Static head 2.0. Velocity head 3.0. Friction head. The frictional head in a system of pipes, valves and fittings varies as a function (roughly as the square) of the capacity flow through the system. System resistance: The sum of frictional head in resistance & total static head. .
Pump Efficiency
Pump efficiency = Hydraulic power, Ph x 100 Power input to the pump shaft Where, Hydraulic power Ph(kW) = Q (m3/s) x Total head,(hd - hs) (m) x r(kg/m3) x g (m/s2) / 1000 Q = Volume flow rate, r = density of the fluid, g = acceleration due to gravity
Field Testing for Determination of Pump Efficiency

To determine the pump efficiency, three key parameters are required: Flow, Head and Power. Of these, flow measurement is the most crucial parameter as normally online flow meters are hardly available, in a majority of pumping system. The following methods outlined below can be adopted to measure the flow depending on the availability and site conditions.
Flow Measurement, Q
Tracer method BS5857 Ultrasonic flow measurement Tank filling method Installation of an on-line flowmeter
Tracer Method
The Tracer method is particularly suitable for cooling water flow measurement because of their sensitivity and accuracy. This method is based on injecting a tracer into the cooling water for a few minutes at an accurately measured constant rate. A series of samples is extracted from the system at a point where the tracer has become completely mixed with the cooling water. The mass flow rate is calculated from: qcw where qcw q1 C1 C2 = q1 x C1/C2
= cooling water mass flow rate, kg/s = mass flow rate of injected tracer, kg/s = concentration of injected tracer, kg/kg = concentration of tracer at downstream position during the plateau period of constant concentration, kg/kg
The tracer normally used is sodium chloride.
Ultrasonic Flow meter

Operating under Doppler effect principle these meters are non-invasive, meaning measurements can be taken without disturbing the system. Scales and rust in the pipes are likely to impact the accuracy.
Ensure measurements are taken in a sufficiently long length of pipe free from flow disturbance due to bends, tees and other fittings. The pipe section where measurement is to be taken should be hammered gently to enable scales and rusts to fall out. For better accuracy, a section of the pipe can be replaced with new pipe for flow measurements.
Tank filing method
In open flow systems such as water getting pumped to an overhead tank or a sump, the flow can be measured by noting the difference in tank levels for a specified period during which the outlet flow from the tank is stopped. The internal tank dimensions should be preferable taken from the design drawings, in the absence of which direct measurements may be resorted to.
Installation of an on-line flowmeter

If the application to be measured is going to be critical and periodic then the best option would be to install an on-line flowmeter which can rid of the major problems encountered with other types.
Determination of total head, H

Suction head (hs) This is taken from the pump inlet pressure gauge readings and the value to be converted in to meters (1kg/cm2 = 10. m). If not the level difference between sump water level to the centerline of the pump is to be measured. This gives the suction head in meters. Discharge head (hd) This is taken from the pump discharge side pressure gauge. Installation of the pressure gauge in the discharge side is a must, if not already available.
Pump efficiency example

Example of pump efficiency calculation
Illustration of calculation method outlined A chemical plant operates a cooling water pump for process cooling and refrigeration applications. During the performance testing the following operating parameters were measured; Measured Data Pump flow, Q Power absorbed, P Suction head (Tower basin level), h1 Delivery head, h2 Height of cooling tower Motor efficiency Type of drive Density of water 0.40 m3/ s 325 kW +1 M 55 M 5M 88 % Direct coupled 996 kg/ m3
Pump efficiency
Flow delivered by the pump Total head, h2 -(+h1) Hydraulic power Actual power consumption Overall system efficiency Pump efficiency
0.40 m3/s 54 M 0.40 x 54 x 996 x 9.81/1000 = 211 kW 325 kW 211/325 = 65 % 65/0.88 = 74 %
ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF COMPRESSORS

Actual Free Air Delivery (FAD) of the compressor Isothermal power required Volumetric efficiency Specific power requirement

Compression ratio Isothermal Power Isothermal Efficiency Volumetric efficiency : Absolute discharge pressure of last stage Absolute intake pressure : It is the least power required to compress the air assuming isothermal conditions. : The ratio of Isothermal power to shaft power : The ratio of Free air delivered to compressor swept volume
Specific power requirement: The ratio of power consumption (in kW ) to the volume delivered at ambient conditions.
Measurement of Free Air Delivery (FAD) by Nozzle method

Principle: If specially shaped nozzle discharge air to the atmosphere from a receiver getting its supply from a compressor, sonic flow conditions sets in at the nozzle throat for a particular ratio of upstream pressure (receiver) to the downstream pressure (atmospheric) i.e. Mach number equals one. When the pressure in the receiver is kept constant for a reasonable intervals of time, the airflow output of the compressor is equal to that of the nozzle and can be calculated from the known characteristic of the nozzle.
Arrangement of test equipment
Test nozzle sizes

Nozzle size 6 10 16 22 33 50 80 125 165 Capacity (m3/hr) 39 9 30 27 90 60 170 130 375 300 450 750 2000 1800 5500 3500 - 10000
Measurements and duration of the test

The compressor is started with the air from the receiver discharging to the atmosphere through the flow nozzle. It should be ensured that the pressure drop through the throttle valve should be equal to or twice the pressure beyond the throttle. After the system is stabilized the following measurements are carried out:
Receiver pressure Pressure and temperature before the nozzle Pressure drop across the nozzle Speed of the compressor kW, kWh and amps drawn by the compressor
The above readings are taken for the 40%, 60%, 100% and 110% of discharge pressure values.
Calculation Procedure for Nozzle Method

I. Free Air delivered Qf = k x x d2 x T1 x 2 (P3-P4) (P3 x Ra) 4 P1 T3 in m3/sec k T1 P1 P3 T3 Ra P3-P4 II. : :
:
: : : :
Flow coefficient as per IS d : Nozzle diameter M Absolute inlet temperature oK Absolute inlet pressure kg/cm2 Absolute Pressure before nozzle kg/cm2 Absolute temperature before nozzle oK Gas constant for air 287.1 J/kg k Differential pressure across the nozzle kg/cm2 = Isothermal power/Input power
Isothermal Efficiency Isothermal power(kW) = P1 Qf r = = =
P1 x Qf x loger 36.7 Absolute intake pressure kg/ cm2 Free air delivered m3/hr. Pressure ratio P2/P1 Power consumption ,kW Free Air Delivered, m3/hr
III.
Specific power consumption = at rated discharge pressure
Volumetric efficiency
IV. Volumetric efficiency = Free air delivered m3/min x 100 Compressor displacement, m3/min x D2 x L x S x x n 4 Cylinder bore, metre Cylinder stroke, metre Compressor speed rpm 1 for single acting and 2 for double acting cylinders No. of cylinders
Compressor Displacement D L S n
= = = = = =
Example
Calculation of Isothermal Efficiency for a Reciprocating Air Compressor. Step 1 : Calculate Volumetric Flow Rate k d P2 P1 T1 P3 T3 P3 P4 Ra : : : : : : : : : Flow coefficient (Assumed as 1) Nozzle diameter : 0.08 metre Receiver Pressure - 3.5 kg / cm2 (a) Inlet Pressure - 1.04 kg / cm2(a) Inlet air temperature 30oC or 303oK Pressure before nozzle 1.08 kg / cm2 Temperature before the nozzle 40oC or 313oK Pressure drop across the nozzle = 0.036 kg / cm2 Gas constant : 287 Joules / kg K
Free Air Delivered Qf = k x x d2 x T1 x 2 (P3-P4) (P3 x Ra) 4 P1 T3 = 1 x ?x (0.08)2 x 303 x 4 1.04 3 = 0.391 m /sec = 1407.6 m3 / h. 2 x 0.036 x 1.08 x 287 313
Step 2 : Calculate Isothermal Power Requirement Isothermal Power (kW) P1 - Absolute intake pressure Qf -Free Air Delivered Compression ratio Isothermal Power = P1 x Qf x loger 36.7 = 1.04 kg / cm2 (a) = 1407.6 m3 / h. r = 3.5 1.04 = 3.36
= 1.04 x 1407.6 x loge3.36 = 48.34 kW 36.7
Step 3 : Calculate Isothermal Efficiency Motor input power Motor and drive efficiency Compressor input power Isothermal efficiency = 100 kW = 86 % = 86 kW = Isothermal Power x 100 Compressor input Power = 48.34 x 100 = 56% 86.0
Assessment of Specific Power requirement

Specific power consumption = Actual power consumed by the compressor Measured Free Air Delivery In the above example the measured flow is 1407.6 m3/hr and actual power consumption is 100 kW. Specific power requirement = 100 1407.6
= 0.071 kW/m3/hr
Measurement of FAD by Pump Up Method:Example

An instrument air compressor capacity test gave the following results (assume the final compressed air temperature is same as the ambient temperature) Comment? Piston displacement Theoretical compressor capacity Compressor rated rpm 750 Receiver Volume Additional hold up volume, i.e., pipe / water cooler, etc., is Total volume Initial pressure P1 Final pressure P2 Atmospheric pressure P0 Compressor output m3/minute : : : : : : : : : : : 16.88 m3/minute 14.75 m3/minute @ 7 kg/cm2 Motor rated rpm : 1445 7.79 m3 0.4974 m3 8.322 m3 0.5 kg/cm2 7.03 kg/cm2 1.026 kg/cm2,a (P2 P1 ) Total Volume Atm. Pressure Pumpup time
(7.03 0.5) 8.322

3
1.026 4.021 Capacity shortfall with respect to 14.75 m /minute rating is 1.577 m3/minute i.e., 10.69 %, which indicates compressor performance needs to be investigated further.
= 13.17 m3/minute
ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF HVAC SYSTEMS

The purpose of performance assessment is to verify the performance of a refrigeration system by using field measurements. The test will measure net cooling capacity (tons of refrigeration) and energy requirements, at the actual operating conditions. The objective of the test is to estimate the energy consumption at actual load vis--vis design conditions
Performance Terms and Definition

Tons of refrigeration (TR): One ton of refrigeration is the amount of cooling obtained by one ton of ice melting in one day: 3024 kCal/h, 12,000 Btu/h or 3.516 thermal kW. Net Refrigerating Capacity. A quantity defined as the mass flow rate of the evaporator water multiplied by the difference in enthalpy of water entering and leaving the cooler, expressed in kCal/h, tons of Refrigeration. kW/ton rating: Commonly referred to as efficiency, but actually power input to compressor motor divided by tons of cooling produced, or kilowatts per ton (kW/ton). Lower kW/ton indicates higher efficiency. Coefficient of Performance (COP): Chiller efficiency measured in Btu output (cooling) divided by Btu input (electric power). Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER): Performance of smaller chillers and rooftop units is frequently measured in EER rather than kW/ton. EER is calculated by dividing a chiller's cooling capacity (in Btu/h) by its power input (in watts) at full-load conditions. The higher the EER, the more efficient the unit.
To determine the net refrigeration capacity

The net refrigeration capacity in tons shall be obtained by the following equation: Net refrigeration Capacity (TR) = m x cp x (tin tout) 3024 Where m mass flow rate of chilled water, m3/hr cp - Specific heat, kcal/kg oC tin Chilled water temperature at evaporator inlet oC tout- Chilled water temperature at evaporator outlet oC
a. Water flow rate b. Temperature difference between entering and leaving water
Methods of measuring the flow

In the absence of an on-line flow meter the chilled water flow can be measured by the following methods
In case where hot well and cold well are available, the flow can be measured from the tank level dip or rise by switching off the secondary pump. Non invasive method would require a well calibrated ultrasonic flow meter using which the flow can be measured without disturbing the system If the waterside pressure drops are close to the design values, it can be assumed that the water flow of pump is same as the design rated flow.
Measurement of compressor power
The compressor power can be measured by a portable power analyser which would give reading directly in kW. If not, the ampere has to be measured by the available on-line ammeter or by using a tong tester. The power can then be calculated by assuming a power factor of 0.9 kW = 3 x V x I
The energy efficiency of a chiller is commonly expressed in one of the three following ratios: 1.Coefficient of performance COP 2. Energy efficiency ratio EER 3. Power per Ton kW/Ton = kW input Tons refrigeration effect
kW refrigeration effect kW input Btu/h refrigeration effect Watt input
First calculate the kW/ton rating from the measured parameters. a) kW/ton rating = Measured compressor power, kW Net refrigeration Capacity (TR)
Use this data to calculate other energy efficiency parameters with the following relations COP = 0.293 EER kW/Ton = 12 / EER kW/Ton = 3.516 / COP * Source : American Refrigeration Institute b) Coefficient of performance (COP) COP = 3.516 kW/ton rating 12 kW/ton rating EER = 3.413 COP EER = 12 / (kW/Ton) COP = 3.516 / (kW/Ton)
c) Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) =
Example
In a brewery chilling system, ethylene glycol is used a secondary refrigerant. The designed capacity is 40 TR. A test was conducted to find out the operating capacity and energy performance ratios. The flow was measured by switching off the secondary pump and measuring the tank level difference in hot well. measurements data:
Temperature of ethylene glycol entering evaporator = (-) 1oC Temperature of ethylene glycol leaving evaporator = (-) 4 oC Ethylene glycol flow rates = 13200 kg/hr Evaporator ethylene glycol pressure drop (inlet to outlet) = 0.7 kg/cm2 Power input to compressor electrical power, kW = 39.5 kW Specific heat capacity of ethylene glycol = 2.34 kCal/kgoC
Calculations Net refrigeration Capacity (TR) = m x cp x (tin tout) 3024 = 13200 x 2.34 x (-1 (-4)) 3024 = 30.65 TR kW/ton rating = Measured compressor power, kW Net refrigeration Capacity (TR) = 39.5 kW 30.65 TR = 1.29 kW/TR Coefficient of performance (COP) = 3.516 kW/ton rating = = Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) = = = 3.516 1.29 2.73 12 kW/ton rating 12 1.29 9.3
ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF LIGHTING SYSTEMS

The purpose of performance test is to calculate the installed efficacy in terms of lux/watt/m (existing or design) for general lighting installation. The calculated value can be compared with the norms for specific types of interior installations for assessing improvement options. The installed load efficacy of an existing (or design) lighting installation can be assessed by carrying out a survey.

Lumen is a unit of light flow or luminous flux. The lumen rating of a lamp is a measure of the total light output of the lamp. The most common measurement of light output (or luminous flux) is the lumen. Light sources are labeled with an output rating in lumens. Lux is the metric unit of measure for illuminance of a surface. One lux is equal to one lumen per square meter. Circuit Watts is the total power drawn by lamps and ballasts in a lighting circuit under assessment.
Installed Load Efficacy is the average maintained illuminance provided on a horizontal working plane per circuit watt with general lighting of an interior. Unit: lux per watt per square metre (lux/W/m) Lamp Circuit Efficacy is the amount of light (lumens) emitted by a lamp for each watt of power consumed by the lamp circuit, i.e. including control gear losses. This is a more meaningful measure for those lamps that require control gear. Unit: lumens per circuit watt (lm/W) Installed Power Density. The installed power density per 100 lux is the power needed per square metre of floor area to achieve 100 lux of average maintained illuminance on a horizontal working plane with general lighting of an interior. Unit: watts per square metre per 100 lux (W/m/100
Installed power density (W/m/100 lux) =

Installed Load Efficacy Ratio (ILER) = Actual Lux/W/m or Target Lux/W/m
100
Installed load efficacy (lux/W/m)
Target W/m/100lux Actual W/m/100lux
Average maintained illuminance is the average of lux levels measured at various points in a defined area.
Color Rendering Index (CRI) is a measure of the effect of light on the perceived color of objects. To determine the CRI of a lamp, the color appearances of a set of standard color chips are measured with special equipment under a reference light source with the same correlated color temperature as the lamp being evaluated. If the lamp renders the color of the chips identical to the reference light source, its CRI is 100. If the color rendering differs from the reference light source, the CRI is less than 100. A low CRI indicates that some colors may appear unnatural when illuminated by the lamp.
Preparation (before Measurements)

Before starting the measurements, the following care should be taken: All lamps should be operating and no luminaires should be dirty or stained. There should be no significant obstructions to the flow of light throughout the interior, especially at the measuring points. Accuracies of readings should be ensured by Using accurate illuminance meters for measurements Sufficient number and arrangement of measurement points within the interior Proper positioning of illuminance meter Ensuring that no obstructions /reflections from surfaces affect measurement
To Determine the Minimum Number and Positions of Measurement Points

Calculate the Room Index: RI = LxW Hm(L + W)
Where L = length of interior; W = width of interior; Hm = the mounting height, which is the height of the lighting fittings above the horizontal working plane. The working plane is usually assumed to be 0.75m above the floor in offices and at 0.85m above floor level in manufacturing areas.
It does not matter whether these dimensions are in metres, yards or feet as long as the same unit is used throughout. Ascertain the minimum number of measurement points from Table
For example, the dimensions of an interior are: Length = 9m, Width = 5m, Height of luminaires above working plane (Hm) = 2m Calculate RI = 9 x 5 = 1.93 2(9 + 5) From Table 10.1 the minimum number of measurement points is 16
As it is not possible to approximate a square array of 16 points within such a rectangle it is necessary to increase the number of points to say 18, i.e. 6 x 3. These should be spaced as shown below:
Therefore in this example the spacing between points along rows along the length of the interior = 9 6 = 1.5m and the distance of the 'end' points from the wall = 1.5 2 = 0.75m. Similarly the distance between points across the width of the interior = 5 3 = 1.67m with half this value, 0.83m, between the 'end' points and the walls. If the grid of the measurement points coincides with that of the lighting fittings, large errors are possible and the number of measurement points should be increased to avoid such an occurrence.
Calculation of the Installed Load Efficacy and Installed Load Efficacy Ratio of a General Lighting Installation in an Interior
STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 Measure the floor area of the interior: Area = -------------------- m Calculate the Room Index RI Determine the total circuit watts of the installation by a power meter if a separate feeder for lighting is available. If the actual value is not known a reasonable approximation can be obtained by totaling up the lamp wattages including the ballasts: Calculate Watts per square metre, Value of step 3 value of step 1 Ascertain the average maintained illuminance by using lux meter, Eav. Maintained Divide 5 by 4 to calculate lux per watt per square Metre Obtain target Lux/W/m lux for type of the type of interior/application and RI (2): Calculate Installed Load Efficacy Ratio ( 6 7 ). = --------------------
Total circuit watts = -------------
STEP 4 STEP 5 STEP 6 STEP 7 STEP 8
W/m =
------------
Eav.maint. = -----------Lux/W/m = ------------
Target Lux/W/m = ILER =
Example of ILER Calculation

STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 Measure the floor area of the interior:
Area = 45 m
Calculate the Room Index
RI
Determine the total circuit watts of the installation by a power meter if a separate feeder for lighting is available. If the actual value is not known a reasonable approximation can be obtained by totaling up the lamp wattages including the ballasts: Calculate Watts per square metre, 3 1 :
= 1.93
Total circuit watts = 990 W
STEP 4 STEP 5
W/m =
22
Ascertain the average maintained illuminance, Eav. Maintained (average lux levels measured Eav.maint. = 700 at 18 points) STEP 6 Divide 5 by 4 to calculate the actual lux per watt per square Metre Lux/W/m = 31.8 STEP 7 Obtain target Lux/W/m lux for type of the Target Lux/W/m = 46 type of interior/application and RI (2):(Refer Table 10.2) STEP 8 Calculate Installed Load Efficacy Ratio ( 6 7 ILER = 0.7 ). Referring to table 3, ILER of 0.7 means that there is scope for review of the lighting system. Annual energy wastage = (1 ILER) x watts x no. of operating hours = (1 0.7) x 990 x 8 hrs/day x 300 days = 712 kWh/annum
Table 10.4 IES Illuminance Categories and Values - For Generic Indoor Activities ACTIVITY Public spaces with dark surroundings Simple orientation for short temporary visits Working spaces where visual tasks are only occasionally performed Performance of visual tasks of high contrast or large size Performance of visual tasks of medium contrast or small size Performance of visual tasks of low contrast or very small size Performance of visual tasks of low contrast or very small size over a prolonged period Performance of very prolonged and exacting visual tasks Performance of very special visual tasks of extremely low contrast CATEGORY A B C D E F G H I LUX 20-30-50 50-75-100 100-150-200 200-300-500 500-750-1000 1000-1500-2000 2000-3000-5000 5000-7500-10000 10000-1500020000 FOOTCANDLES 2-3-5 5-7.5-10 10-15-20 20-30-50 50-75-100 100-150-200 200-300-500 500-750-1000 1000-1500-2000
A-C for illuminances over a large area (i.e. lobby space) D-F for localized tasks G-I for extremely difficult visual tasks
Areas for Improvement

Look for natural lighting opportunities through windows and other openings In the case of industrial lighting, explore the scope for introducing translucent sheets Assess scope for more energy efficient lamps and luminaries Assess the scope for rearrangement of lighting fixtures
PERFORMING FINANCIAL ANALYSIS

Introduction Planning an energy efficiency or energy management projec Energy auditor who advises the senior management of an organisation that capital should be invested in new PROJECTt. Inevitably, the management of the organisation would ask: How much will the proposal cost? How much money will be saved by the proposal?
What is Fixed and Variable Costs?

Example: The capital cost of the DG set is Rs.9,00,000, the annual output is 219 MWh, and the maintenance cost is Rs.30,000 per annum. The cost of producing each unit of electricity is 3.50 Rs./kWh. The total cost of a diesel generator operating over a 5-year period, taking into consideration both fixed and variable cost is
Item Capital cost of generator Annual maintenance Fuel cost Type of cost Fixed Fixed Variable Calculation 30,000 x 5 (years) 219,000 x 3.50 Total cost Cost 9,00,000 1,50,000 7,66,500 18,16,500
Interest Charges
SSimple interest: If simple interest is applied, then charges are calculated as a fixed percentage of the capital that is borrowed. A fixed interest percentage is applied to each year of the loan and repayments are calculated using the equation
Compound interest: Compound interest is usually calculated annually (although this is not necessarily the case). The interest charged is calculated as a percentage of the outstanding loan at the end of each time period. It is termed 'compound' because the outstanding loan is the sum of the unpaid capital and the interest charges up to that point. The value of the total repayment can be calculated using the equation.
Simple Payback Period

Example A new small cogeneration plant installation is expected to reduce a company's annual energy bill by Rs.4,86,000. If the capital cost of the new boiler installation is Rs.22,20,000 and the annual maintenance and operating costs are Rs. 42,000, the expected payback period for the project can be worked out as. Solution
PB = 22,20,000/ (4,86,000- 42,000)= 5.0 years
Net Present Value Method,NPV

The net present value method considers the fact that a cash saving (often referred to as a 'cash flow') of Rs.1000 in year 10 of a project will be worth less than a cash flow of Rs.1000 in year 2. The net present value method achieves this by quantifying the impact of time on any particular future cash flow. This is done by equating each future cash flow to its current value today, in other words determining the present value of any future cash flow. The present value (PV) is determined by using an assumed interest rate, usually referred to as a discount rate. Discounting is the opposite process to compounding. Compounding determines the future value of present cash flows, where" discounting determines the present value of future cash flows.
In order to understand the concept of present vale, consider the case described in Example 3. If instead of installing a new cogeneration system, the company invested Rs.22,20,000 in a bank at an annual interest rate of 8%, then:
The value of the sum at the end of year 2 = 23,97,600 + (0.08 x 23,97,600) = Rs.25,89,4 08
The value of the sum at the end of year 1 = 22,20,000 + (0.08 x 22,20,000) = Rs.23,97,6 00
The value of the investment would grow as compound interest is added, until after n years the value of the sum would be:
FV = D x (1 + IR/100)
Where FV is the future value of investment in Rs., and D is the value of initial deposit (or investment) in Rs., IR is Interest Rate and n is number of years.
The future value of the investment made at present, after 5 years will be:
FV = 22,20,000 x (1 + 8/100)5 = Rs. 32,61,908.4
Present value
The present value of an amount of money at any specified time in the future can be determined by the following equation. Where PV is the present value of S in n years time (Rs.), and S is the value of cash flow in n years time (Rs.).
PV = S x (1 + IR/100)
-n
The net present value method calculates the present value of all the yearly cash flows (i.e. capital costs and net savings) incurred or accrued throughout the life of a project, and summates them. Costs are represented as a negative value and savings as a positive value. The sum of all the present values is known as the net present value (NPV). The higher the net present value, the more attractive the proposed project.
Solution The annual cash flows should be multiplied by the annual discount factors for a rate of 8% to determine the annual present values, as shown in the Table below: Project 1 Project 2 Net Present Net Present savings (Rs.) value (Rs.) savings (Rs.) value (Rs.) (b) (a x b) (c) (a x c) 0 1.000 -30 000.00 -30 000.00 -30 000.00 -30 000.00 1 0.926 +6 000.00 +5 556.00 +6 600.00 +6 111.60 2 0.857 +6 000.00 +5 142.00 +6 600.00 +5 656.20 3 0.794 +6 000.00 +4 764.00 +6 300.00 +5 002.20 4 0.735 +6 000.00 +4 410.00 +6 300.00 +4 630.50 5 0.681 +6 000.00 +4 086.00 +6 000.00 +4 086.00 6 0.630 +6 000.00 +3 780.00 +6 000.00 +3 780.00 7 0.583 +6 000.00 +3 498.00 +5 700.00 +3323.10 8 0.540 +6 000.00 +3 240.00 +5 700.00 +3 078.00 9 0.500 +6 000.00 +3 000.00 +5 400.00 +2 700.00 10 0.463 +6 000.00 +2 778.00 +5 400.00 +2 500.20 NPV = +10 254.00 NPV = +10 867.80 It can be seen that over a 10 year life-span the net present value for Project 1 is Rs.10,254.00, while for Project 2 it is Rs.10,867.80. Therefore Project 2 is the preferential proposal. Year Discount Factor for 8% (a)
Internal rate of return method IRR

The discount rate which achieves a net present value of zero is known as the internal rate of return (IRR). The higher the internal rate of return, the more attractive the project.
Internal rate of return analysis

Example 6 A proposed project requires an initial capital investment of Rs.20 000. The cash flows generated by the project are shown in the table below:
Year 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Cash flow (Rs.) -20,000.00 +6000.00 +5500.00 +5000.00 +4500.00 +4000.00 +4000.00
Given the above cash flow data, let us find out the internal rate of return for the project.
Solution
Cash flow (Rs.) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 -20000 6000 5500 5000 4500 4000 4000 8% discount rate Discount factor 1.000 0.926 0.857 0.794 0.735 0.681 0.630 Present value (Rs.) -20000 5556 4713.5 3970 3307.5 2724 2520 12% discount rate Discount factor 1.000 0.893 0.797 0.712 0.636 0.567 0.507 Present value (Rs.) -20000 5358 4383.5 3560 3862 2268 2028 16% discount rate Discount factor 1.000 0.862 0.743 0.641 0.552 0.476 0.410 Present value (Rs.) -20000 5172 4086.5 3205 2484 1904 1640
NPV = 2791
NPV = 459.5
NPV = -1508.5
It can clearly be seen that the discount rate which results in the net present value being zero lies somewhere between 12% and 16%. For12% discount rate, NPV is positive; for 16% discount rate, NPV is negative. Thus for some discount rate between 12 and 16 percent, present value benefits are equated to present value costs. To find the value exactly, one can interpolate between the two rates as follows: 459.5 Internal rate of return = 0.12 + (0.16 - 0.12) x (459.5 - (-1508.5)) 459.5 Internal rate of return = 0.12 + (0.16 - 0.12) x = 12.93% (459.5 + 1508.5) Thus the internal rate of return for the project is 12.93 %.
APPLICATION OF NONCONVENTIONAL & RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
Various forms of renewable energy

Solar energy Wind energy Bio energy Hydro energy Geothermal energy Wave and tidal energy
Solar Energy
Solar energy available is equivalent to 15000 times worlds commercial energy consumption 5-7 kWh/m2 for 300-330 days in a year Applications are heating, lighting, cooking, drying etc. Solar thermal or solar electric (photovoltaic)
Solar Thermal Energy Applications

Low-Grade Heating Devices - up to the temperature of 100 C. Medium-Grade Heating Devices -up to the temperature of 100-300C High-Grade Heating Devices -above temperature of 300. C
Solar Collector
Flat rectangular box with transparent cover Small tubes carrying water or fluid attached to black absorber plate Hot water transferred to storage tank
Figure 12.1 Solar Flat plate collector
Solar Cooker
FRP shell lined with SS reflector foil or aluminized polyester film Cooking vessel at focal point Can generate 500 kg of steam enough to cook for 500 people 2 twice a day
Figure 12.2 Box Type solar collector
Solar Photo-voltaic generation

PV cells made of silicon which releases current when exposed to light Silicon cell covered with metal grid to direct current to a battery Group of cells connected together to from an array-1 cell can produce 1.5 W Modules are design to produce 12 V and rated by peak output at solar noon on a clear day Efficiency upto 15% Adds-on -Tracking system and backup system
Figure 12.6 Photovoltic water pumping
Wind Energy
Kinetic energy of wind to electrical energy Annual Energy Output = Power x Time Example: For a 100 kW turbine producing 20 kW at an average wind speed of 15 mph, the calculation would be: 100 kW x .20 (CF) = 20 kW x 8760 hours = 175,200 kWh Capacity factor is wind turbine's actual energy output for the year divided by the energy output if the machine operated at its rated power output for the entire year. Reasonable capacity factor would be 0.25 to 0.30. (0.40 will be good) Economic viability of wind power projects is extremely sensitive to the capacity factor and, there fore careful site selection is very important
Wind speed vs. power generation potential

Average Wind Speed km/h (mph) Up to 15 (9.5) 18 (11.25) 22 (13.75) 25 (15.5) 29 (18)
Suitability No good Poor Moderate Good Excellent
Biomass Energy
Carbonaceous waste from human and natural activities Byproducts from wood industry, human and animal waste, agricultural crops, forest Main advantage is use of same equipment for combustion as fossil fuel Biomass use does not add to GHG emissions Carbon dioxide
Direct Burning vs Biogas route
Biogas 60% methane and 40% carbon dioxide Safe for cooking and also produce high grade manure
Biomass Briquetting
Process of densifying loose agro-waste into a solidified biomass of high density for fuel Pollution free and eco-friendly Some agricultural and forestry wastes can be briquetted after suitable treatment Can replace conventional fuels JuteStick, Sawdust, Bagasse, CoffeeSpent, Tamarind, CoffeeHusk, AlmondShell, Groundnutshells, CoirPith, BagaseePith, Barleystraw, Tobaccodust, RiceHusk, Deoiled Bran etc
Biomass gasifers
Conversion of solid Biomass (wood waste, agricultural residues etc) into a combustible gas mixture normally called producer gas. Producer gas is basically CO2, NH4,H2 and Nitrogen gas with calorific value of aroudn 1200 kCal/kg Gasification Efficiency ~ 60% Suitable for IC engines for producing power Use of gasification instead of direct burring leads to 50% savings in fuel Used along with diesel in dual firing mode in DG set (70-80% substitution possible)
Bipower
Direct-fired Cofiring Gasification Anaerobic digestion Pyrolysis Small modular.
Energy potential by source

Solar Energy Wind Energy Small Hydro Ocean Thermal Power Sea Wave Power Tidal Power Bio energy Draught Animal Power Energy from MSW Biogas Plants Improved Wood Burning Stoves Bagasse-based cogeneration 20 MW / sq. km 20,000 MW 10,000 MW 50,000 MW 20,000 MW 10,000 MW 17,000 MW 30,000 MW 1,000 MW 12 Million Plants 120 Million Stoves 3500 MW
Waste Minimisation & Resource Conservation
What is Waste ?
Waste is a useful Material in wrong form in wrong place Waste can be in form of:
9
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Defective product Air Emissions Waste Water Discharges Solid Wastes Hazardous Wastes Production Loss Excess Energy Excess Water consumption Inefficient use of labour Inefficient use of raw materials Unusable/Discarded Chemical Residues
Cost of Waste ?
Cost is not only disposal cost, but includes; Disposal cost Inefficient energy use cost Purchase cost of wasted raw material Production cost for the waste material Management time spent on waste material Lost revenue for what could have been a waste Potential liabilities due to waste. product instead of
What Is Waste Minimisation ?

Systematically reducing waste at source . This means Prevention and/or reduction of waste generated Efficient use of raw materials and packaging Efficient use of fuel, electricity and water Improving the quality of waste generated to facilitate recycling and/or reduce hazard Encouraging re-use, recycling and recovery.
Waste Minimiation also means..

z Waste
reduction z Pollution prevention z Source reduction z Cleaner technology z Sustainable Production
Waste and Possible Resources
Wastes Fly ash from power plant Bagasse wastes from sugar manufature
Resources Raw material for cement or brick manufacture Fuel for boiler
CO2 release from ammonia Raw material for Urea plant manufacture
WASTE MINIMISATION TECHNIQUES

RECYCLING (ONSITE & OFFSITE)
SOURCE REDUCTION
PRODUCT CHANGES
- PRODUCT SUBSTITUTION - PRODUCT CONSERVATION - CHANGE IN PRODUCT COMPOSITION
SOURCE CONTROL -
USE AND REUSE
RECLAMATION
RETURN TO ORIGINAL PROCESS - RAW MATERIAL SUBSTITUTE FOR ANOTHER PROCESS
- PROCESSED FOR
RESOURCE RECOVERY - PROCESSED AS A BY PRODUCT
INPUT MATERIAL CHANGES

- MATERIAL PURIFICATION - MATERIAL SUBSTITUTION
TECHNOLOGY CHANGES
- PROCESS CHANGES
- EQUIPMENT, PIPING -OR LAYOUT CHANGES - ADDITIONAL AUTOMATION - CHANGES IN OPERATIONAL SETTINGS
GOOD OPERATING PRACTICE

- PROCEDURAL MEASURES
- LOSS PREVENTION - WASTE STREAM SEGREGATION - MANAGEMENT PRACTICES - MATERIAL HANDLING IMPROVEMENTS - PRODUCTION SCHEDULING
Source Reduction
Good Housekeeping z Preventing leakages and spillages through routine and preventive maintenance z Good working instructions z Good supervisions z Effective training of workforce Regular cleaning of cartridge filters, inspection of tank linings & piping & periodic lubrication and greasing of pumps & blowers
PROCESS CHANGES
Input Material Change z Substitution of input materials by eco-friendly (non-toxic or less toxic than existing and renewable) material preferably having longer service time.
z Mercury
and Cadmium free batteries
PROCESS CHANGES
Better Process Control z Modifications of the working procedures, machine-operating instructions and process record-keeping in order to run the processes at higher efficiency and with lower waste generation and emissions.
z Excess
control in boilers
PROCESS CHANGES
Equipment Modifications z Modification of existing production equipment and utilities, for instance by the addition of measuring and controlling devices, in order to run the processes at higher efficiency and lower waste and emission generation rates.
z Conversion
of existing boiler to FBC boiler
PROCESS CHANGES
Technology Change z Replacement of the technology, processing sequence and/or synthesis route in order to minimise waste and emission generation during production.
z Replacement
of mercury process to membrane process in caustic soda manufacture
Recycling
On-site Recovery and Reuse z Reuse of wasted materials in the same process or for another useful application within the industry
z Use
of bagasse from crushed sugar cane as fuel in boiler
Recycling
Production of Useful by-product Modification of the waste generation process in order to transform the wasted material into a material that can be reused or recycled for another application within or outside the company.
Examples
z Recover
Short fibre in pulp-making and use of etp sludge from paper board industry to make waste paper boards of press mud from sugar mill and treated spent wash from distillery to manufacture bio-compost of tanned leather pieces to make leather board or leather bags
z Use
z Use
Product Modification
Characteristics of the product can be modified to minimize the environmental impacts of its production or those of the product itself during or after its use (disposal) Jute bag instead of plastic bag Electricity or solar driven vehicles in place of petrol or diesel driven vehicles
MATERIAL PURIFICATION
z z z z z
Use of purer anodes Coal Beneficiation De-sulfurisation of fuel Un-leaded petrol Use of lime with less inerts
WASTE AUDIT
PHASE 1 PREASSESSMENT
AUDIT Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 PREPARATION Prepare and organise audit team and resources Divide process into unit operations Construct process flow diagrams linking unit operation
PROCESS INPUTS Step 4 Determine Inputs Step 5 Record water usage Step 6 Measure current levels of waste reuse/recycling
PROCESS OUTPUTS Step 7 Quantify products/by products Step 8 Account for waste water Step 9 Account for gaseous emissions Step 10 Account for off-site wastes
PHASE 2 MATERIAL BALANCE
DERIVE Step 11 Step 12 Step 13
A MATERIAL BALANCE Assemble input and output information Derive a preliminary material balance & 14 Evaluate and refine material balance
IDENTIFY WASTE REDUCTION OPTIONS Step 15 Identify obvious waste reduction measures Step 16 Target and characterise problem wastes Step 17 Investigate the possibility of waste segregation Step 18 Identify long-term waste reduction measures
PHASE 3 SYNTHESIS
EVALUATE WASTE REDUCTION OPTIONS Step 19 Undertake environmental and economic evaluation of waste reduction options List viable options WASTE REDUCTION ACTION PLAN Step 20 Design and implement a waste reduction action action plan to achieve improved process efficiency
TYPICAL COMPONENTS OF A MATERIAL BALANCE
RAW MATERIALS
GASEOUS EMISSIONS
CATALYST WATER/AIR POWER
PLANT PROCESS OR UNIT OPERATIONS
PRODUCT BY PRODUCTS INCLUDING WASTES FOR RECOVERY
WASTE WATER RECYCLE REUSABLE WASTE IN ANOTHER OPERATION LIQUID WASTES FOR STORAGE AND OR OFF-SITE DISPOSAL SOLID WASTES FOR STORAGE AND OR OFF-SITE DISPOSAL
TYPICAL COMPONENTS OF AN ENERGY BALANCE

COOLING WATER PRODUCTION LOSS
STEAM ENERGY IN RAW MATERIAL ELECTRICITY PROCESS OR UNIT OPERATIONS
ENERGY IN VAPOURS
ENERGY IN HOT PRODUCT
CONDENSATE
ENERGY IN HOT RESIDUE
ENERGY IN COOLING WATER
ASSIGN COST TO WASTE STREAMS

To Highlight the quantity of resources lost in waste streams along with their associated cost.
Cost of wastes include: Cost of raw materials in waste

Cost of product in waste Cost of waste treatment Cost of waste disposal Cost of waste transportation Environmental liability costs (future) Cost of maintaining required work environment Cost due to waste cess
REVIEW OF PROCESS TO IDENTIFY CAUSES FOR WASTE GENERATION

>
Carry out a Cause Analysis to locate & pin -point the causes of waste generation It could be as simple as poor house keeping practice to complex technological problems
>
TYPICAL CAUSES OF WASTE

TECHNICAL CAUSES
*
Poor housekeeping
*Operational and maintenance negligence *Poor raw material quality *Poor Process / equipment design *Poor Lay-out Bad Technology
MANAGERIAL CAUSES Inadequately trained personnel Employee De-motivation
BENEFITS OF WASTE MINIMISATION

DIRECT BENEFITS
REDUCTION IN
Raw Material Use
Energy Use Waste Quantity Capital Costs of new Pollution Control Systems Waste Treatment Cost Clean-up costs Rejects
IMPROVEMENTS IN
Working Conditions
Safety Aspects Environmental Performance
INDIRECT BENEFITS
Better public image Improved Staff Motivation Improved Customer Loyalty Improved Access to capital Reduced Risk & Liability

Energy Perf of Boilers

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ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF BOILERS

Performance Terms and Definitions

Quantity of Steam Generation Quantity of fuel Consumption

Direct Method Testing

Fuel Input 100% + Air

Heat addition to Steam x 100 Gross Heat in Fuel

Indirect Method Testing

7. Fly ash loss

Fuel Input, 100%

Flue gas sample

Efficiency = 100 (1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8)

(by Indirect Method)

Instruments used for Boiler Performance Assessment.

Manometer, differential pressure Conductivity

1.Technical specification of boiler

Fixed carbon Volatile matter Ash Moisture

Date of Test: ppm ppm

4. Format sheet for boiler efficiency testing

Ambient air Dry bulb Temp, o C Wet Bulb Temp, o C

Boiler Code No.

Feed water Flow rate, m3/hr T e m p

Steam Flo w rat e, m3 /hr

Flue gas analysis T e m p

Surface Temp of boiler, oC

Fuel firing rate Steam generation rate Steam pressure

= 8.63 = 31.6 = 41.65 = 2.0413 = 1.6 = 14.48 = 3501 kCal/kg

% Excess air supplied (EA)

2. % Heat loss due to formation of water from H2 in fuel (L2)

9 x H2 x {584 + Cp (Tf Ta )} x 100 GCV of fuel 9 x .02041 x {584 + 0.45(190-31)}

0.316 x {584 + 0.45 ( 190 31) } = 3501 L3 = 5.91 % x 100

5744 x GCV of fuel 100

6. Heat loss due to radiation and convection (L6)

= 49017.6 kCal = 49017.6 x 100 3501 x 5591.17 = 0.25 %

Boiler efficiency by indirect method

Factors Affecting Boiler Performance

ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF FURNACES

Pusher-Type 3-Zone Reheating Furnace

Performance Terms and Definitions

Heat in stock (material) Heat in Fuel /electricity

Specific Energy Consumption = Quantity of fuel or energy consumed

Direct Method Testing

Example: Energy Efficiency by Indirect Method

Furnace Efficiency (Direct Method)

Net % sensible heat loss in flue gas

Graph for Determining Black Body Radiation at a Particular Temperature

Quantity of Heat Release at Various Temperatures

Specific Energy Consumption

Actual Energy used to melt to 1600o C is 700 kWh

Efficiency = 334 kWh x 100 = 48% 700 kwh

Factors Affecting Furnace Performance

Steam turbine analysis

Boiler Extraction cum condensing Turbine

Figure 3.1 Process Flow Diagram for Cogeneration Plant

Actual heat extraction

Calculate enthalpy drop

h2-h3 kCal / kg h3-h4 kCal / kg

Calculate theoretical enthalpy drops

Theoretical enthalpy drop

Theoretical heat extraction from inlet to stage 1 extraction, h8

Theoretical heat extraction from 1st 2nd extraction, h9

Theoretical heat extraction from 2nd extraction condensation, h10

Compute turbine cylinder efficiency

Efficiency of 1st stage