1. Denial Denial is the refusal to accept reality or fact, acting as if a painful event, thought or feeling did not exist.

It is considered one of the most primitive of the defense mechanisms because it is characteristic of early childhood development. Many people use denial in their everyday lives to avoid dealing with painful feelings or areas of their life they dont wish to admit. For instance, a person who is a functioning alcoholic will often simply deny they have a drinking problem, pointing to how well they function in their job and relationships. 2. Regression Regression is the reversion to an earlier stage of development in the face of unacceptable thoughts or impulses. For an example an adolescent who is overwhelmed with fear, anger and growing sexual impulses might become clingy and start exhibiting earlier childhood behaviors he has long since overcome, such as bedwetting. An adult may regress when under a great deal of stress, refusing to leave their bed and engage in normal, everyday activities. 3. Acting Out Acting Out is performing an extreme behavior in order to express thoughts or feelings the person feels incapable of otherwise expressing. Instead of saying, Im angry with you, a person who acts out may instead throw a book at the person, or punch a hole through a wall. When a person acts out, it can act as a pressure release, and often helps the individual feel calmer and peaceful once again. For instance, a childs temper tantrum is a form of acting out when he or she doesnt get his or her way with a parent. Self-injury may also be a form of acting-out, expressing in physical pain what one cannot stand to feel emotionally. 4. Dissociation Dissociation is when a person loses track of time and/or person, and instead finds another representation of their self in order to continue in the moment. A person who dissociates often loses track of time or themselves and their usual thought processes and memories. People who have a history of any kind of childhood abuse often suffer

from some form of dissociation. In extreme cases, dissociation can lead to a person believing they have multiple selves (multiple personalitydisorder). People who use dissociation often have a disconnected view of themselves in their world. Time and their own self-image may not flow continuously, as it does for most people. In this manner, a person who dissociates can disconnect from the real world for a time, and live in a different world that is not cluttered with thoughts, feelings or memories that are unbearable. 5. Compartmentalization Compartmentalization is a lesser form of dissociation, wherein parts of oneself are separated from awareness of other parts and behaving as if one had separate sets of values. An example might be an honest person who cheats on their income tax return and keeps their two value systems distinct and un-integrated while remaining unconscious of the cognitive dissonance. 6. Projection Projection is the misattribution of a persons undesired thoughts, feelings or impulses onto another person who does not have those thoughts, feelings or impulses. Projection is used especially when the thoughts are considered unacceptable for the person to express, or they feel completely ill at ease with having them. For example, a spouse may be angry at their significant other for not listening, when in fact it is the angry spouse who does not listen. Projection is often the result of a lack of insight and acknowledgement of ones own motivations and feelings. 7. Reaction Formation Reaction Formation is the converting of unwanted or dangerous thoughts, feelings or impulses into their opposites. For instance, a woman who is very angry with her boss and would like to quit her job may instead be overly kind and generous toward her boss and express a desire to keep working there forever. She is incapable of expressing the negative emotions of anger and unhappiness with her job, and instead becomes overly kind to publicly demonstrate her lack of anger and unhappiness.

Psychosocial Stages The Eight Stages of Human Development The theory of psychosocial development created by Erik Erikson is perhaps one of the best known personality theories. The theory differs from many others in that it addresses development across the entire lifespan, from birth through death. At each stage, the individual deals with a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. When the conflict is resolved successfully, the person is able to develop the psychosocial quality associated with that particular stage of development. Learn more about each of the psychosocial stages, including the conflict confronted at each stage and the major events that occur during each point of development. 1. Stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust Trust versus mistrust is the earliest psychosocial stage that occurs during the first year or so of a child's life. During this critical phase of development, an infant is utterly dependent upon his or her caregivers. When parents or caregivers respond a child's needs in a consistent and caring manner, the child then learns to trust the world and people around him. Learn more about the trust versus mistrust stage. 2. Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt The second psychosocial stage involves the conflict between autonomy and shame or doubt. As the child enters the toddler years, gaining a greater sense of personal control becomes increasingly important. Tasks such as learning how to use the toilet, selecting foods and choosing toys are ways that children gain a greater sense of independence. Learn more about the autonomy versus shame and doubt stage. 3. Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt The third psychosocial stage occurs between the ages of about three and five and is centered on developing a sense of self-initiative. Children who are allowed and encouraged to engage in self-directed play emerge with a

sense of strong initiative, while those who are discouraged from these activities may begin to feel a sense of guilt over their self-initiated activities. Learn more about the initiative versus guilt stage. 4. Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority During middle childhood between the ages of about six and eleven, children enter the psychosocial stage known as industry versus inferiority. As children engage in social interaction with friends and academic activities at school, they begin to develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their work and abilities. Children who are praised and encouraged develop a sense of competence, while those who are discouraged are left with a sense of inferiority. Learn more about the industry versus inferiority stage. 5. Stage 5: Identity Versus Confusion In the fifth psychosocial stage, the formation of a personal identity becomes critical. During adolescence, teens explore different behaviors, roles and identities. Erikson believed that this stage was particularly critical and that forging a strong identity serves as a basis for finding future direction in life. Those who find a sense of identity feel secure, independent and ready to face the future, while those who remain confused may feel lost, insecure and unsure of their place in the world. Learn more about the identity versus confusion stage. 6. Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation The sixth psychosocial stage is centered on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people. Dating, marriage, family and friendships are important during the intimacy versus isolation stage, which lasts from approximately age 19 to 40. By successfully forming loving relationships with other people, individuals are able to experience love and enjoy intimacy. Those who fail to form lasting relationships may feel isolated and alone. Learn more about the intimacy versus isolation stage. 7. Stage 7: Generativity Versus Stagnation Once adults enter the stage that occurs during middle adulthood, the psychosocial conflict becomes centered on the need to create or nurture things that will outlast the individual. Raising a family, working and contributing to

the community are all ways that people develop a sense of purpose. Those who fail to find ways to contribute may feel disconnected and useless. Learn more about the generativity versus stagnation stage. 8. Stage 8: Integrity Versus Despair The final psychosocial stage begins around the age of 65 and lasts until death. During this period of time, the individual look back on his or her life. The major question during this stage is, "Did I live a meaningful life?" Those who have will feel a sense of peace, wisdom and fulfillment, even when facing death. For those who look back on life with bitterness and regret, feelings of despair may result. Learn more about theintegrity versus despair stage. Freuds Stages of Psychosexual Development Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is probably the most well known theorist when it comes to the development of personality. Freuds Stages of Psychosexual Development are, like other stage theories, completed in a predetermined sequence and can result in either successful completion or a healthy personality or can result in failure, leading to an unhealthy personality. This theory is probably the most well known as well as the most controversial, as Freud believed that we develop through stages based upon a particular erogenous zone. During each stage, an unsuccessful completion means that a child becomes fixated on that particular erogenous zone and either over or under-indulges once he or she becomes an adult. Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months). During the oral stage, the child if focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too much or too little gratification can result in an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is evidenced by a preoccupation with oral activities. This type of personality may have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, over eat, or bite his or her nails. Personality wise, these individuals may become overly dependent upon others, gullible, and perpetual followers. On the other hand, they may also fight these urges and develop pessimism and aggression toward others.

Anal Stage (18 months to three years). The childs focus of pleasure in this stage is on eliminating and retaining feces. Through societys pressure, mainly via parents, the child has to learn to control anal stimulation. In terms of personality, after effects of an anal fixation during this stage can result in an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control (anal retentive). On the opposite end of the spectrum, they may become messy and disorganized (anal expulsive). Phallic Stage (ages three to six). The pleasure zone switches to the genitals. Freud believed that during this stage boy develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother. Because of this, he becomes rivals with his father and sees him as competition for the mothers affection. During this time, boys also develop a fear that their father will punish them for these feelings, such as by castrating them. This group of feelings is known as Oedipus Complex ( after the Greek Mythology figure who accidentally killed his father and married his mother). Later it was added that girls go through a similar situation, developing unconscious sexual attraction to their father. Although Freud Strongly disagreed with this, it has been termed the Electra Complex by more recent psychoanalysts. According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of his father, boys eventually decide to identify with him rather than fight him. By identifying with his father, the boy develops masculine characteristics and identifies himself as a male, and represses his sexual feelings toward his mother. A fixation at this stage could result in sexual deviancies (both overindulging and avoidance) and weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts. Latency Stage (age six to puberty). Its during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed and children interact and play mostly with same sex peers. Genital Stage (puberty on). The final stage of psychosexual development begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. Through the lessons learned during the previous stages, adolescents direct their sexual urges onto opposite sex peers, with the primary focus of pleasure is the genitals.