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OECD 2008
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FOREWORD 3
Foreword
In many OECD countries, large portions of populations do not have the skills needed to function fully and effectively in daily life. Adult foundation skill learning for those with low language, literacy and numeracy skills has therefore become an increasingly urgent policy issue. However, it is less certain that this issue is receiving the attention and priority it merits. Large-scale surveys, such as the International Adult Literacy (1994-1998), the Adult Literacy and Life Skills surveys (OECD and Statistics Canada, 2005), and the new Programme for International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) provide vital data on adult skills in populations and the dimensions of the challenge. OECD publications such as Beyond Rhetoric (2003) and Promoting Adult Learning (2005) have provided analyses of how systems can make more effective investments and promote access to learning opportunities. This study complements these macro-level analyses, bringing a muchneeded focus to effective teaching, learning and assessment within classrooms. With a better understanding of the factors that contribute to the quality of provision and outcomes, policy makers can provide more effective leadership and support. The study is part of the What Works in Innovation in Education series of the OECDs Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI). The series was initiated in 1993 to examine innovations related to common policy concerns across a small number of countries (between six and ten). The reports are aimed at a broad audience of educational policy makers, practitioners and researchers. As with the previous What Works study (Formative Assessment: Improving Learning in Secondary Classrooms, CERI/OECD, 2005), this study includes reviews of research from different linguistic traditions. The reviews provide insight into different conceptual approaches to common challenges, and make accessible a broader range of empirical research. This approach has been particularly important for the understudied area of adult foundation skill learning. The combined reviews provide a clearer picture of
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
4 FOREWORD
the state of the art in this sector, and directions for future research and development. Seven countries identified case studies of exemplary classroom practice: Belgium (Flemish Community), Denmark, England, France, Norway, Scotland and the United States. Nine countries contributed background reports detailing the challenges and policy responses for adult foundation skill learners. They include Australia, Belgium (Flemish Community), Denmark, England, Norway, New Zealand, Scotland, Spain and the United States. For the first time, the international case studies and reviews of literature prepared for this report are available in their entirety on the Internet (see list of annexes in the Table of Contents). Within the CERI Secretariat, the report was prepared by Janet Looney. Delphine Grandrieux and Jennifer Gouby prepared and edited the text for publication. Barbara Ischinger Director, Directorate for Education
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report would not have been possible without the support of countries and individuals who contributed to its development. We would like first, to thank the numerous individuals at the case study sites featured in this report who so generously offered their time and shared insights gained through many years of experience and reflection. We would also like to extend thanks to country-based experts who contributed to the development of country background reports and case studies. Australia: Josie Misko, National Centre for Vocational Education Research; Belgium (Flemish Community): Inge De Meyer, University of Ghent; Denmark: Michael Andersen, Danish Evaluation Institute/EVA, and Kirsten Baltzer, Danish University of Education; England: John Vorhaus, National Research and Development Centre for adult literacy and numeracy; France: Elie Maroun, Agence nationale de lutte contre lilletrisme; New Zealand: John Benseman and Alison Sutton, independent consultants; Norway: Anne Husby, Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training and Tove-Dina Rynestad, Vox/Norwegian Institute for Adult Education; Scotland: John Leavey, Scottish Government, Learning Connections and Lynn Tett, Moray House School of Education; Spain: Jordi Planas and Maria Montoriol, Autonomous University of Barcelona; the United States: Sandra Baxter, National Institute for Literacy. In addition, Ursula Howard of the National Research and Development Centre for adult literacy and numeracy, and Jean-Pierre Jeantheau of the Agence nationale de lutte contre lilletrisme provided valuable guidance on the design and implementation of the study. This report draws extensively upon reviews of the international literature developed for this study. For the review of the English-language literature, we thank Jay Derrick, independent consultant, and Kathryn Ecclestone, Westminster Institute of Education, Oxford Brookes University. For the review of the French-language literature, we thank Stphane Daniau and Paul Blanger, University of Qubec at Montral. Anke Grotlschen and Franziska Bonna of the University of Bremen contributed to the German-language review of literature. Florentino Sanz of the National
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6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
University of Distance Education contributed to the review of literature in Spain. The OECD also drew upon the expertise of its consultant team, who carried out country visits and wrote the case study reports together with the country experts. They are: John Benseman, independent consultant; Danielle Colardyn, independent consultant; John Comings, National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy; Benot Michel, independent consultant; David Rosen, independent consultant; and Anne Sliwka, University of Trier.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
TABLE OF CONTENTS 7
Table of Contents
Executive summary........................................................................................................ 11 Section I The Context and Conditions of Adult Foundation Skill Learning Chapter 1. Inside the Black Box: Language, Literacy and Numeracy Classrooms ... 21 The scale of the challenge ................................................................................................ 21 Inside the black box: teaching, learning and assessment ................................................. 22 The approach of the study................................................................................................ 27 References........................................................................................................................ 32 Chapter 2. Who are the Learners? Data from International and National Surveys on Adult Foundation Skill Learners ............................................................................ 35 The prevalence of low foundation skills: who is over-represented.................................. 35 Further international research .......................................................................................... 42 The impact of low foundation skills ................................................................................ 44 Patterns of participation ................................................................................................... 48 Concluding remarks ......................................................................................................... 49 References........................................................................................................................ 50 Chapter 3. Aligning Policy and Practice ...................................................................... 55 The context of adult LLN provision ................................................................................ 55 Balancing content and accountability requirements with learner-centred provision ....... 56 Policies setting out principles for learner-centred provision and establishing it as a priority ................................................................................................................... 57 Programme performance for accountability .................................................................... 68 Key issues and conclusions.............................................................................................. 72 References........................................................................................................................ 74
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8 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 4. The Educational Workforce for Adult LLN Provision: Instructors, Support Staff, Volunteers.............................................................................................. 77 Generally precarious conditions of employment ............................................................. 78 Fostering professionalism ................................................................................................ 79 Programme support staff and volunteers ......................................................................... 82 Key issues and conclusions.............................................................................................. 84 References........................................................................................................................ 86 Section II The Steps of the Learning Process Chapter 5. The Case Studies Innovations for LLN Adults ..................................... 95 The innovative cases in brief ........................................................................................... 96 Concluding remarks ....................................................................................................... 102 References...................................................................................................................... 103 Chapter 6. First Steps: Diagnosing Learning Needs and Setting Goals.................. 105 Diagnosing learning needs ............................................................................................. 106 Developing the individual learning plan (ILP) or contract ............................................ 111 Key issues and conclusions............................................................................................ 114 References...................................................................................................................... 116 Chapter 7. Relationships within the Classroom: Dialogue and Peer Assessment .. 119 Dialogue......................................................................................................................... 119 Peer assessment and peer mentoring.............................................................................. 131 Key issues and conclusions............................................................................................ 136 References...................................................................................................................... 138 Chapter 8. Techniques: Feedback, Questioning, and Scaffolding ........................... 143 Feedback ........................................................................................................................ 144 Questioning .................................................................................................................... 148 Scaffolding..................................................................................................................... 153 Key issues and conclusions............................................................................................ 159 References...................................................................................................................... 161
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 9
Chapter 9. Developing Learner Autonomy ............................................................... 165 Building autonomy and skills for learning-to-learn through learner self-assessment .... 165 ICT and independent learning........................................................................................ 171 Key issues and conclusions............................................................................................ 172 References...................................................................................................................... 174 Chapter 10. Recognising Learner Progress ............................................................... 179 Theories of adult learner progression ............................................................................ 180 Using tools to track learner progress ............................................................................. 181 Summative assessment and certification ....................................................................... 187 Key issues and conclusions............................................................................................ 191 References...................................................................................................................... 193 Section III Conclusions Chapter 11. Supporting Effective Practice Implications for Policy and Directions for Research ............................................................................................... 199 1) Promote active debate on the nature of teaching, learning and assessment............... 200 2) Strengthen professionalism ....................................................................................... 201 3) Balance structure and flexibility: formative assessment as a framework .................. 202 4) Strengthen learner-centred approaches ...................................................................... 203 5) Diversify and deepen approaches to programme evaluation for accountability ........ 205 6) Devote the necessary resources people, time and money ....................................... 208 7) Strengthen the knowledge-base ................................................................................. 209 Concluding remarks ....................................................................................................... 211 ANNEXES Annex 1. International Surveys on LLN Learners ................................................... 213 Annex 2. Cases Studies (available on the Internet) Belgium (Flemish Community) by David J. Rosen and Inge De Meyer (http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/172017435434) Denmark by Danielle Colardyn and Kirsten Baltzer (http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/172034035238) England by John Comings and John Vorhaus
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/172137717827)
10 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Norway by Janet Looney, Anne Husby and Tove-Dina Rynestad
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/172200736572)
Annex 3. Reviews (available on the Internet) The English-language Literature by Jay Derrick and Kathryn Ecclestone
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/172251338713)
The French-language Literature on foundation training at work by Stphane Daniau and Paul Blanger
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/172252366268)
Annex 4. Overview of Policies and Programmes for Adult LLN Learners (available on the Internet)
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/172281885164)
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 11
Executive Summary
The challenge
Too many adults still fail to acquire even basic skills, with enormous effects on their individual lives and on their countries economic and social well-being. In the majority of the 23 countries participating in the International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS), between 14 and 23% of adults were able to meet only the lowest standards of literacy and numeracy proficiency (Level 1). Among the countries participating in this study, the percentage of adults not meeting this standard ranges from a low of 8% to a high of 43% (OECD and Statistics Canada, 1997). The more recent Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey (ALL) (OECD and Statistics Canada, 20051), which included six countries and regions, found that between onethird and two-thirds of adult populations do not attain Level 3, considered by many as the suitable minimum for meeting the demands of daily and work life (see Annex 1 for an explanation of proficiency levels in these international surveys). The consequences of low foundation skills2 span the economic, health and social well-being of individuals, families and communities. Communities as well as individuals with foundation skill needs are thus likely to realise significant economic and social benefits in addressing these challenges. In the last decade, countries have developed new pathways for progression, defined key competencies, and developed new curricula. But for the most part, policies to shape classroom teaching and learning are
OECD and Statistics Canada (1997), Literacy Skills for the Knowledge Society: Further Results from the International Adult Literacy Survey, OECD, Paris. OECD and Statistics Canada (2005), Learning a Living: First Results of the Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey, OECD, Paris. The term foundation skills is used interchangeably with language, literacy and numeracy skills in this report.
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12 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
limited to blunt instruments. The classroom is thus seen as a black box because so much of the activity and interface of teaching, learning and assessment is literally hidden from wider view beyond the classroom door. This study aims to get inside the black box of adult language, literacy and numeracy (LLN) provision. The main report includes three sections:
Section I presents the context and conditions of adult LLN provision. It draws upon country background reports from nine countries, including Australia, Belgium (Flemish Community), Denmark, England, New Zealand, Norway, Scotland, Spain and the United States. International surveys, including the IALS and the more recent Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey (OECD and Statistics Canada, 2005), also help to set out the scale of the challenge across countries. Section II delves directly into the black box of teaching, learning and assessment. It draws upon case studies of exemplary practice and literature reviews from four linguistic traditions (English, French, German and Spanish). Seven countries contributed cases studies, including Belgium (Flemish Community), Denmark, England, France, Norway, Scotland and the United States. Section III offers a broad framework for strengthening policy and practice across the sector and for building the evidence base. It also suggests ways in which policy might support the effective practices identified in this study across the adult LLN sector.
The full-length country background reports, case studies and literature reviews are available on the OECD website (see list of annexes in the Table of Contents).
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 13
Strengthening professionalism
Chapter 4 explores the conditions of employment, training and wider staff support. Instructors need strong subject-matter and pedagogical expertise and skills in assessment, as well as softer skills, such as humour, patience, flexibility, and empathy. Building an instructional workforce that can meet such high expectations is particularly challenging, given:
Constrained financial resources in this sector. Precarious employment situations for many instructors, leading to high turnover. The relative lack of instructors holding specialist qualifications for teaching adult LLN learners (although some countries and regions have recently introduced new qualification requirements).
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14 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
A heavy dependence on volunteer staff. The part-time status of many instructors, making it difficult for staff to find time to discuss innovation or to reflect on practice.
Diagnosis of learning needs, and establishment of learners motivations and goals. The development of strong relationships within the classroom, through dialogue and peer assessment. The use of assessment to provide information on learning, and to be used as feedback by learners and instructors to modify teaching and learning activities. Instructors develop effective questioning techniques, and set tasks and challenges at the right level to help learners address gaps. A focus on building learner autonomy, including skills for selfassessment and for addressing the literacy and numeracy tasks of daily life independently. Tracking of learner progress toward goals and recognition of achievement.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 15
Together, the five elements help to ensure that dialogue enriches the learning process.
16 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 17
5. 6. 7.
Diversify and deepen approaches to assessment and programme evaluation for accountability. Devote the necessary resources: people, time and money. Strengthen the knowledge-base.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Chapter 1 Inside the Black Box Language, Literacy and Numeracy Classrooms
This chapter introduces the motivation and methods for the study. The study brings an important focus to effective teaching, learning and assessment processes. With a better understanding of the factors that contribute to the quality of provision and outcomes, policy makers can provide more effective leadership and support. The chapter also describes the overall approach of the study.
The use of the term black box in reference to classroom practice has also been popularised by formative assessment researchers Paul Black and Dylan Wiliam. Their Inside the Black Box publications have been enormously influential with compulsory level teachers and policy makers in school education in the United Kingdom.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
A similar definition is proposed within the francophone literature, which considers as formative: all assessment practices which contribute to adjustment of teaching, no matter the setting or the specific approach to individualisation... (Perrenoud, 1988) The OECD (2005) further distinguishes the importance of systematic practice, where formative assessment is an integrated feature of teaching and learning. The interest in formative assessment for adult LLN learners follows on very positive results in the compulsory sector. The precursor to the current study, Formative Assessment: Improving Learning in Secondary Classrooms, found that, when practiced systematically, formative assessment promotes greater equity of student outcomes, and builds skills for learning to learn (OECD, 2005). In their 1998 review of the Englishlanguage literature, Black and Wiliam described the achievement gains associated with formative assessment as among the largest ever reported for educational interventions (Black and Wiliam, 1998). Other reviews confirm the consistency of effects across ages (school-age and university learners), subjects and countries (see also Brookhart, 2001; Crooks, 1988; and Gibbs and Simpson, 2003 for research on formative assessment in higher education). Yet there have been few efforts, to date, to study the impact or implementation of specific formative assessment approaches and techniques in adult LLN learning contexts (see also Derrick and Ecclestone, Annex 3 on the Internet).2 The research on school-age and university learners of course holds lessons for adult LLN learners. But it is also important to pay attention to the context of adult learning, including differences in adult learners motivations, and the impact of prior learning experiences. Indeed, one of the conclusions of prior research on formative assessment is that it should be used as a tool to identify the needs of the individual, and tailor learning.
There are efforts to correct the gap in research on formative assessment for adult LLN learners. See, for example, Ecclestone et al. (forthcoming) for a description of a two-year project exploring different learning cultures of formative assessment. The project is led by Kathryn Ecclestone, and funded by the National Research and Development Centre, the Nuffield Foundation and the Quality Improvement Agency in the United Kingdom.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
The underlying assumption of formative assessment is that each learner can succeed. Assessment is a means to identify individual needs and tailor teaching. This is a profound change from approaches where assessment is used as a means to identify and promote the most able learners. In classrooms featuring formative assessment, the instructors primary role is to facilitate the learning process. This implies that instructors have developed skills for uncovering learning gaps, correctly identifying the source of misconceptions, and offering useful learning tasks and challenges to promote learning. Instructors need strong subject-matter and pedagogical expertise, as well as softer skills, such as empathy. Learners are actively engaged in the learning and assessment process, and developing skills for self- and peer-assessment. They may also negotiate teaching goals and methods. The focus is on the process of learning as well as on outcomes.
The focus on the individual learner, the shaping of the educational process to draw on the information about how well learners are progressing, and the engagement of learners in the learning process go well beyond techniques of traditional student assessment: it is about the whole approach to shaping teaching and learning. In short, formative assessment represents a fundamental shift in classroom relationships, and how instructors and learners work toward successful outcomes. But what do we know about the impact of different teaching, learning and assessment practices for adult learners? How are innovative programmes addressing the very diverse needs and goals of adults with low foundation skills in language, literacy and numeracy? What can we learn from exemplary practices, and how can we get effective practices to happen on a wider basis? How do policies support or hinder effective practice? This study aims to address these questions by looking more closely into exemplary classroom practices, international research, and the broader policy environment. Figure 1.1 illustrates our conceptualisation of the classroom as black box. The arrows pointing toward the black box indicate the mix of policies and individual, social and economic factors that shape teaching, learning and assessment within the classroom.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Figure 1.1. Inside the black box: teaching, learning and assessment
Source: Authors. The following are among the key policy inputs shaping adult LLN provision in classrooms.
Principles for provision, such as for social justice and learner selfdetermination, set the tone and direction. Official curricula, key competency definitions, and pathways for progression are intended to shape the content and progression of learning.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
These policies are intended to improve the quality of provision and outcomes. However, the different inputs may receive uneven emphasis, or may not be well aligned. Measures for programme accountability may focus on a narrow range of acceptable outcomes, weakening principles of learner self-determination. Similarly, official curricula or key competency definitions may focus on limited objectives, ignoring goals for learner autonomy, and the development of higher-level skills. Instructors may face challenges in balancing more standardised approaches to teaching and assessment with formative assessment and tailoring of provision to meet individual learner needs and goals. Policies that build on a firm understanding of effective teaching, learning and assessment can better anticipate the kinds of challenges and complexities instructors regularly address. Policy makers can make more effective investments in professional development, in the development of valid and reliable guidelines and tools for assessment (diagnostic, summative and formative), on research to build the evidence-base, and in opportunities for innovation. They can also ensure that specific objectives for learning are effectively aligned with overall objectives for learner progression and autonomy. The five steps at the centre of Figure 1.1 delineate the process of teaching, learning and assessment identified in the case studies of exemplary practice and reviews of literature developed for this study. The steps are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Diagnosing learning needs and setting goals. Developing relationships within the classroom through dialogue and peer assessment. Using specific formative assessment techniques to uncover and address learning needs including feedback, questioning and scaffolding. Developing greater learner autonomy. Recognising learner progress.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
These five steps are also at the centre of our study, and explored in depth in Section II of the report.
International research. Innovative cases in a range of adult LLN learning settings, where teaching, learning and assessment have been adapted to meet the needs of this population. Policies that support or inhibit effective practice.
Guidelines and principles for teaching and learning based on practitioner wisdom and experience. Debates on how values and goals for adult LLN learning such as learner self-determination and autonomy, or democratic learning environments should shape classroom relationships and approaches. Interviews and surveys reflecting learner and instructor views on effective teaching and learning. Case studies and classroom observations. Evaluations and monitoring of specific assessment tools, including portfolios, recognition of prior learning, ICT programmes.
It is important to note that the existing research in this sector does not include a significant number of controlled studies measuring the impact of specific formative approaches on adult LLN learning. In the compulsory sector, studies demonstrating the impact of formative assessment on achievement have been vital for garnering the support of policy officials as
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
The compensatory mission of adult LLN education, which is seen as being incompatible with the selection process associated with assessment at the end of the learning process. Researchers pay little attention to the impact of assessment, including alternative forms of assessment (Derrick and Ecclestone, Annex 3 on the Internet; Grotlschen and Bonna, Annex 3 on the Internet). Awareness of the fear and frustration experienced by many low achievers, leading to a certain over-protectiveness, and hesitation in regard to testing and validating innovative methods (Grotlschen and Bonna, Annex 3 on the Internet). The assumption that research from compulsory settings on issues such as motivation and feedback can be easily transferred to the adult LLN setting (Grotlschen and Bonna, Annex 3 on the Internet). This wholesale adoption of school models developed for school-age learners, our reviewers counter, has stifled research as well as the development of interactive models of teaching and learning for adult LLN learners (Sanz, Annex 3 on the Internet). A focus on advocacy. Funding and institutional instability in the adult LLN sector have meant that much of the literature has focused on advocacy, and arguing for the benefits of adult learning (including equity, access, and so on) rather than pedagogy (Derrick and Ecclestone, Annex 3 on the Internet). Limited research on specific pedagogies for adult LLN education within the workplace as well. Instead, this literature has tended to focus on issues such as learners attitudes, motivation to participate, competencies for work, professional development for instructors, or resistance within the workplace to the development of foundation level training (Daniau and Blanger, Annex 3 on the Internet).
While much of the research on adult LLN teaching, learning and assessment is descriptive, it is nevertheless important for clarifying concepts and concerns, and providing insights into the nature and quality of interactions in learning settings (something that studies conducted in controlled environments cannot necessarily achieve). It can provide a valuable foundation for future research examining impact of different approaches on learner progression and autonomy.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
The programmes were targeted to adults with foundation skill needs. The cases were drawn from a range of settings (e.g., community centres, work-based programmes, prison-based programmes, and initiatives aimed at non-traditional learners in further or higher education). Instructors used formative assessment as a deliberate strategy for identifying the needs of individual learners and tailoring teaching. The studies provided examples of interactive assessment of learner progress and understanding, and tailoring of teaching to meet the needs of diverse groups of learners. The programmes provided evidence of what works. Key informants shared insights, evidence and indicators of ways in which the formative assessment process has improved teaching and learning, including increased learner self-efficacy, and improved rates of persistence. Case study researchers gathered learner and instructor views on the impact of assessment methods on progress toward learning goals.
By focusing on what works (as opposed to what doesnt work also a valid approach), the case studies highlight how programme leaders and instructors have identified and addressed the challenges of introducing new practices. The exemplary case studies allow a close examination of effective teaching, learning and assessment, including how instructors respond to a variety of learner needs. The study also examines what conditions at programme and policy level have facilitated successful implementation. The exemplary cases also provide a glimpse into how research and innovation are disseminated within the adult LLN sector. There is a relative dearth of information in this field regarding effective programme and organisational management, networks for professionals, professional development programmes, the development of new training programmes, or tools and support for assessment and instruction.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
The nature and scale of challenges facing countries in regard to adult LLN education, including socio-demographic information, the percentage of individuals identified as having foundation skill needs, and known impact on social and economic development. Any major national or regional programmes or policies developed to meet the needs of adults with low foundation skills, the principles and goals shaping adult basic skills education, their scope and scale, and any ongoing debates. Profiles of instructors, including descriptions of instructors professional status, working conditions, as well as opportunities for training and professional development. Gaps in provision and take-up, identifying major gaps in provision and barriers to addressing identified needs. Assessment policies/structures, including information on formal assessment for adults with low foundation skills, qualification examinations, participation and performance targets, and so on. Formative assessment, including any information on studies, major programme evaluations and/or inspectorate findings regarding the state of the art in instruction and formative assessment in adult LLN education. The reports also surveyed promising innovations or research directly informing policy and practice in teaching and formative assessment for adults with foundation skill needs.
A note on terminology
The country background reports have also revealed debates on terminology within the field of adult learning, illustrating an evolution in thinking and approach. The field has moved away from use of the term basic skills because it is thought to focus only on technical skills of decoding letters, words and figures, without reference to context or values. Countries now refer to foundation skills, or adult language, literacy and numeracy (both terms are used in this report).
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
While there is some variation in how countries define literacy, generally it refers to the ability to read, write, use numbers, interpret information, make decisions, and solve problems in personal, work and community life. Several countries identify functional literacies, or competencies, in each of these areas. A social practices approach to literacy is based on similar premises, but also pays attention to the context of literacy practices, including the feelings and values that people have about those activities. These distinctions may well be blurred to some extent in practice, as both functional and social practice approaches pay careful attention to the learners prior knowledge and experience and literacy practices in daily life. In addition, the term learner is often preferred to student, programme to school, and instructor, or tutor to teacher, as terms associated with compulsory schooling may conjure up negative images. In Scotland and France, the term tutor is preferred to instructor. The latter is seen as implying a one-directional learning process (that is, the instructor imparting knowledge to the learner). The knowledge base supporting adult LLN provision is growing rapidly and we will likely see many changes in the field in the coming years. The hope is that this study will provide a strong foundation for understanding the fundamental issues at stake, and can guide future policy, practice and research.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
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OECD and Statistics Canada (2005), Learning a Living: First Results of the Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey, OECD, Paris. Perrenoud, P. (1988), La part d'valuation formative dans toute valuation continue, in valuer lvaluation, INRAP, Dijon, pp. 203-210. Sanz, F. (Annex 3 on the Internet).
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Chapter 2 Who are the Learners? Data from International and National Surveys on Adult Foundation Skill Learners
This chapter highlights selected findings from international and national surveys on adult literacy. These data have been important for identifying populations most in need as well as the consequences of low foundation skills. While the data are gathered from a range of sources and are not directly comparable, they do demonstrate important patterns across countries.
The Survey of Adult Literacy (SAL) in Australia, which was initially conducted in 1996, and then again in 2006. The SAL measures literacy at five levels, which are roughly commensurate with the five levels measured in International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS) (1994-1998) and Adult Literacy Life Skills Survey (ALL) (2005). The 2003 Skills for Life Survey in England, which draws upon data from the British Market Research Bureau interviews with 8 730 randomly selected adults between the ages of 16 and 65. It
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distinguishes five levels of competence corresponding with National Standards for adult literacy and numeracy. These include Entry Levels 1, 2 and 3 (equivalent to primary school levels) and Levels 1 and 2 (equivalent to the different levels of the General Certificate of Secondary Education, or GCSE levels, in England).
The 2002 Survey on Daily Life in France, conducted by the Institut national de la statistique et des tudes economiques (INSEE, or National Institute for Statistics and Economic Studies) and the Agence nationale de lutte contre lilletrisme (ANLCI, or the National Agency for the Fight Against Illiteracy). The survey draws upon a representative sample of 10 000 adults between the ages of 18 and 65. It includes tests on reading, writing and numeracy, as well as home-based interviews (see Illetrisme: les chiffres, ANLCI and INSEE, 2006). In addition, France administers a literacy test for all 17-year-olds, as part of the Journe dAppel pour la Dfense (Recruitment Day for Military Preparation and National Defence). Seven different research projects commissioned by the Scottish government following publication of IALS results. The different studies explored the factors associated with low literacy and numeracy skills, skills gaps within the workforce, and employer needs in Scotland. The National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL) in the United States, which was first conducted in 1992, and then again in 2003. It includes measures of prose, document and quantitative literacy at four levels (Below Basic, Basic, Intermediate, and Proficient). The NAAL also includes surveys of adults in federal and state prisons, state level assessments of adult literacy (SAAL), a health literacy component, and other specific literacy assessments (NCES, 2006a; 2006b; 2007a; and 2007b). The 2005 National Qualifications Survey in Denmark provides data on lifelong improvement of qualifications and participation in education for those in the labour market (Danish Ministry of Finance, 2006).
Across countries, survey results show that adults with low foundation skills are overrepresented among:
Minority populations. Immigrants and speakers of other languages (that is, other than the majority language).
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Those with low levels of education, including early school leavers. Older learners. Individuals with disabilities. The unemployed or those having low incomes. Prison-based populations. Individuals living in socially excluded areas (urban or rural).
Some surveys also identify gender-based differences in performance in the different literacy domains. Selected findings from these different surveys are described below. This discussion is followed by brief overview of some of the known impacts of low foundation skills on individuals and communities, and findings from research on participation of foundation skill learners in lifelong learning opportunities.
Minority populations
Surveys conducted in Australia, New Zealand and the United States revealed an overrepresentation of adults from minority populations, including indigenous groups, at the lowest literacy levels. In the United States, for example, the 2003 NAAL survey identified 7% of Whites as having Below Basic prose literacy skills, as compared with 24% of Black, 44% of Hispanic and 14% of Asian/Pacific Islander respondents. The survey identified 25% of White respondents at the Basic prose literacy level, as compared to 43% of Black, 30% of Hispanic, and 32% of Asian/Pacific Islander respondents (NCES, 2006a) (see also Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1997, 1999; New Zealand Ministry of Education, 2004).
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lower scores than established immigrants. ALL survey results for Norway found that within the immigrant population, 69% are at risk (Level 1 on at least one of the literacy tests), as compared to 12% of the total adult population (OECD and Statistics Canada, 2005; Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training and Vox/Norwegian Institute for Adult Education, 2008). By contrast, the French Survey on Daily Life (ANLCI and INSEE, 2006) found that 74% of adults identified as having low basic skills speak only French at home from the age of 5 years on (although this may include immigrants from francophone countries). Spain reports that the average age in the immigrant population is younger than in the general Spanish population, and new immigrants may have higher levels of education than the average Spaniard, due, in part, to uneven training opportunities across the generations in Spain (Planas and Montoriol, 2008).
In Flanders, 73% of those performing at the lowest levels in at least one of the IALS domains had not completed upper secondary school. More than 1 in 10 Flemish students leaves school without a qualification (in Belgium, students attend compulsory schooling to the age of 18) (Ministry of the Flemish Community and University of Ghent, 2008). In the United States, the 2003 NAAL found that adults who had not completed upper secondary school had the lowest level literacy skills as compared to adults at all other educational levels across all three scales prose, document, and quantitative (NCES, 2007a). In Denmark, almost a third of early school leavers (those without any education beyond 9th or 10th grade of the Danish Folkeskole) have poor reading, writing and mathematics skills. Of these, 24% never use reading, writing or numeracy skills in connection with their work (Danish Ministry of Finance, 2006). In Spain, the picture is slightly more complicated as initial levels of compulsory education increased from four to eight years as recently as 1970. Nevertheless, the percentage of early school leavers is still high; between 25 and 30% of Spanish adults have not completed secondary school (Planas and Montoriol, 2008).
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Even those who have completed secondary school may find that they do not have adequate foundation skills. For example, Foley and Cavallaro (2007) point out that in Australia, an increasing number of school leavers are participating in LLN programmes. In Flanders, 22% of adults performing at the lowest level in at least one of the IALS domains have completed upper secondary education, and 4% have completed tertiary education. Norway, reporting on ALL findings, notes that some adults with higher education score below Level 3.
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identified as having a learning disability. Of those adults, 24% had Below Basic prose and Below Basic document skills. Thirty-eight per cent of adults with learning disabilities had Below Basic quantitative skills. These figures compare to 13% of adults without a learning disability, who scored at the Below Basic level on the prose scale, 12% at Below Basic on the document scale, and 20% at Below Basic on the quantitative scale (NCES, 2007a). Australia reports a disproportionate number of low foundation skill learners have a disability (physical, mental, learning). In 2004, 11.7% of adult LLN learners in vocational education and training (VET) programmes, and 4.1% of adults participating in LLN distance learning reported having a disability (Australian Department of Education, Science and Training, 2004; Foley and Cavallaro, 2007; NCES, 2007a). In general, however, international and national surveys do not provide detailed information on disabilities and skill levels. The existing information points to a need for more thorough investigation of these factors.
Prison-based populations
The US NAAL includes a survey of adult prison populations. The 2003 survey found small differences in the percentages of incarcerated adults and adults living in households scoring at the Below Basic level in prose and document literacy. For example, 16% of incarcerated adults scored Below Basic in prose literacy and 15% in document literacy compared with 14 and 12%, respectively, of adults living in households. Greater differences were found at the Below Basic level in quantitative literacy (39% of the incarcerated population as compared to 22% of adults living in households), and at the Basic level in prose and document literacy
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(respectively, 40% and 35% of incarcerated adults as compared with 29% and 22% of adults living in households) (NCES, 2007b). A 2004-05 survey of the prison population in France found that 51% of respondents did not have a diploma, 55% did not have any professional qualification, and 53% were unemployed or out of the labour market at the time of their incarceration. The survey also found that 12% had left school at the primary level, 5% had been in special education, and 5.9% had severely low levels of literacy while nearly another 12% had reading difficulties (Ministre de la Justice, 1997). In Norway, a 2005 Government White Paper on education and training in the correctional services (Report to the Storting, No. 27, 2004-5) found that 7.6% of inmates had not completed primary or lower secondary education, and 49% had not completed upper secondary education. England reports that the majority of those who break the law repeatedly have very low foundation skills (Adult Learning Inspectorate, 2005). Similarly, Australia reports an over-representation of low foundation skills among prisoners (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2005).
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Gender
International and country-level surveys show small differences in performance between men and women. The IALS (1994-98) finds that where differences are statistically significant, they tend to be in favour of men for quantitative and document literacy, and in favour of women for prose literacy (cited in OECD and Statistics Canada, 2005). Based on findings from recent surveys, Australia (except for women between 55 and 74 years of age) and Flanders, report that women have lower average literacy than men (women also have lower levels of initial education), and men perform better on quantitative tests. In the United States, women have higher average prose and document literacy than men, and men have higher average quantitative literacy than women (Misko, 2008; Ministry of the Flemish Community and University of Ghent, 2008; NCES, 2007a). Similarly, in England, men and women have similar levels of literacy, but men appeared to have higher levels of numeracy (this was the case across levels of educational attainment as well as employment status). Thirty-two per cent of men performed at Level 2 or above in the numeracy assessment of the Skills for Life Survey, compared to 19% of women (DfES, 2003).
Combined factors
Several countries report that a combination of factors may explain variances in skill levels. In Flanders, IALS data show that levels of education, home language, age, and whether or not the respondent reported reading at home together, explain 43% of the variance in literacy proficiency (Ministry of the Flemish Community and University of Ghent, 2008). Spain notes that levels of education are related to both age and gender (Planas and Montoriol, 2008). In Scotland, the three most important factors associated with low literacy and numeracy skills are having left education at age 16 or earlier, being on a low income, and being in a manual social class group (Scottish Government, Learning Connections, 2008). In France, of the 3.1 million individuals with low levels of literacy, half are more than 45 years old, half are employed, and more than 30% live in rural areas, and 10% in distressed urban areas (ANLCI sand INSEE, 2006).
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OECD Programme for the International Assessment for Adult Competencies (PIAAC), now in the design phase. PIAAC aims to identify and measure differences between individuals and countries in competencies considered as important to personal and societal success; the impact of these competencies on social and economic outcomes; the performance of education and training systems in promoting required competencies; and the policy levers that could contribute to enhanced competencies. Box 2.1. The economic impact of low foundation skills: selected results from the 2005 Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey (ALL)
The first Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey (ALL) (OECD and Statistics Canada, 2005) measures adults prose, document, numeracy and problem-solving skills across five broad levels of proficiency. ALL denotes Level 3 as the suitable minimum for managing the demands of work and daily life. Data for the survey were gathered in Bermuda, Canada, Italy, Norway, Switzerland, the United States and the Mexican State of Nuevo Leon. The survey examines the impact of low skills on civic engagement, health and economic participation.
Employment/unemployment
Individuals who score at Levels 1 and 2 (the lower end of the scale) in the numeracy domain are two to three times more likely to be outside the labour force for six or more months than those with higher scores. For young adults, proficiency in document literacy and numeracy is strongly associated with finding employment; young adults scoring at Levels 1 and 2 have a lower chance of exiting unemployment and tend to be unemployed for longer periods of time.
In all of the ALL survey countries, higher levels of educational attainment are associated with higher average scores on the survey test; early school leavers are the most likely to score at Levels 1 or 2. Practice engagement (learning by doing, or informal learning) tends to have a significant relation to skills, even after taking initial schooling into account. ICT increases the productivity of capital and labour and drives inequality in wages. Efforts to help individuals to develop ICT skills must first address shortcomings in literacy and numeracy.
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Box 2.1. The economic impact of low foundation skills: selected results from the 2005 Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey (ALL) (continued)
Immigration status/language
In all of the survey countries, more immigrants whose mother tongue is different than the language of the test scored at Levels 1 and 2. In all of the survey countries, recent immigrants are more likely to have completed higher education. Education credentials, however, do not necessarily translate into functional levels of literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving skills in the official language(s) of the host country, particularly when the credentials were earned in another country.
Social transfers/savings
ALL data indicate that adults in several of the participating countries who score at Levels 1 and 2 on the numeracy scale are more likely to receive social assistance. Individuals with higher skill levels are more likely to have investment income. More schooling is also associated with having more savings.
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that their reading skills limited their job opportunities a lot (NCES, 2006a). Denmark reports that on average, early school leavers will earn 15% less over their lifetimes than those with more education, and are at greater risk of being in a marginal position in the labour market. Women and immigrant adults are at greatest risk. In total, 33% of early school leavers in Denmark do not participate in the labour market1 (Danish Evaluation Institute, 2008). In Flanders, adults with low literacy skills are twice as likely to be unemployed, and are more likely to be in the group of long-term unemployed. Sixty-three per cent of those who have been out of a job for two years or more do not have a secondary school certificate (Ministry of the Flemish Community and University of Ghent, 2008). In England, while both literacy and numeracy skills are associated with good wages, survey data show that numeracy skills may be particularly important. The Skills for Life Survey (2003) found that while those with good numeracy skills (Level 2 or above) earned an average of GBP 20 000 a year before tax, those with poor numeracy skills (Entry Level 3 or lower) on average, earned approximately GBP 8 000 less per year (DfES, 2003). Low literacy is also correlated with poor health and shorter life expectancy. For example, approximately 49% of adults who had never attended or had not completed secondary school in the United States had Below Basic health literacy, as compared to 14% of those who had attained a secondary school certificate, and 3% of those with a 4-year university degree (NCES, 2006b). In Flanders, adults with more years of education report healthier life styles (e.g., fewer heavy smokers, and fewer women who had not had a cervix smear within the past three years) (Ministry of the Flemish Community and University of Ghent, 2008). A UK study analysing data from 30-year-olds born in 1958 found that 36% of women and 18% of men with very low literacy skills suffered from depression as compared to 7% of women and 6% of men with good literacy skills. Eighteen per cent of women and 11% of men with low numeracy skills suffered from depression, as compared to 5% of women and men with good numeracy skills (Bynner and Parsons, 2005). These statistics point to significant costs for medical systems. The American Medical Association has found that adults with lower levels of literacy incur medical expenses up to four times those of adults with adequate literacy skills, costing the system billions of dollars per year (National Institute for Literacy, 2008).
1
The 2005 National Qualifications Survey, Chapter 18: Early school leavers, p. 235.
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Individuals with low foundation skills are also more likely to have poor social health. In Flanders, individuals with lower levels of education report having less frequent social contacts, and a negative perception regarding the availability and quality of support, as compared to those with higher levels of education. Adults with lower levels of education are also less likely to participate in community activities (Ministry of the Flemish Community and University of Ghent, 2008). The National Research and Development Centre for adult literacy and numeracy in England notes that numeracy has a stronger relationship than literacy with a range of social engagement attributes: not voting, lack of political interest and not being a member of a voluntary or community organisation. Women with poor numeracy skills appear to be exceptionally disadvantaged. Such women tend to be out of the labour market in full-time home caring roles; to live in a non-working household; not to vote nor have any expressed political interest; to be in poor physical heath; to be depressed; and to feel they lack control over their lives (NRDC, 2008).
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However, a separate analysis of PISA data in 17 OECD countries with large immigrant populations found that there are significant international differences in how well immigrant students perform across the PISA domains (OECD, 2006). The UK 1970 Birth Cohort Study (BCS70) finds moderate correlations between parents and childrens literacy and numeracy skills. The correlations were the strongest for children whose parents literacy was at Entry Level 2 or 3. The study finds that childrens basic skills acquisition is highly fluid in the early years, but there is a strengthening component that can be attributed to parents skill levels (NRDC, 2008). In Flanders, data show that young adults whose mothers had not completed upper secondary education are 5.5 times more likely to fail in obtaining a certificate of upper secondary education than students whose mothers had completed secondary education (Ministry of the Flemish Community and University of Ghent, 2008). The NRDC reports that respondents with low levels of literacy or numeracy tend to watch more TV and to have fewer books (NRDC, 2008). These findings are consistent with PISA data from 2000 and 2003, identifying a significant positive relationship between problem-solving performance of young learners, and possessions related to classical culture such as classical literature, poetry and works of art in a students family (OECD, 2001b, 2004b).
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increasing skills demands in the following five years; and, a fifth reported that employees poor or moderate skills had been a barrier to productivity (MORI, 2000a).
Patterns of participation
Many of the countries participating in this study experience the Matthew-effect3 that is, those with higher levels of education are most likely to receive further training while those with skill deficits are more likely to be excluded from it (Planas and Rif, 2003). Moreover, those with higher level skills have more opportunities to engage in informal learning at work, while those with low skills have only limited opportunities to use literacy and numeracy in the workplace. The 2005 National Qualifications Survey in Denmark found that just under half of early school leavers work in jobs where they are not required to do any reading or writing; these individuals may therefore have less incentive to participate in learning opportunities (Danish Ministry of Finance, 2006). A number of factors may prevent adults with low foundation skills from joining or persisting in formal educational programmes. Lack of selfefficacy4 and prior negative experiences with schooling are major factors. Another significant factor is that adults with foundation skill needs may not identify their skill deficits as a problem. The English Skills for Life Survey found that very few people regarded literacy and numeracy skills as below average. Over half (54%) of those with Entry Level 1 or lower literacy said their everyday reading ability was very or fairly good; two thirds (67%) of those with Entry Level 1 or lower level numeracy felt that they were very or fairly good at number work; 2% felt their weak skills had hindered their job prospects or led to mistakes at work (DfES, 2003). A Workforce Survey in Scotland found that those who are out of work are more likely to rate their skills as poor or moderate than those in work. Moreover, two-fifths of unemployed workers were unclear about the skills they needed for the job of their choice (MORI, 2000b). Patterns of participation also vary according to context and location. In New Zealand, for example, those participating in workplace learning are
The term Mathew Effect is a reference to the Gospel of Matthew For unto every one that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance: but from him that hath not shall be taken away even that which he hath. (Matthew XXV: 29, King James Bible). Comings, Parella and Soricone (2000) note that self-efficacy is focused on the ability to accomplish a specific set of tasks, while self-confidence, might be described as a global feeling of being able to accomplish most tasks.
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predominantly male, while those in community-based programmes are predominantly female. While Pacific Island learners are under-represented in LLN provision overall, they are proportionally over-represented in workplace programmes. Participation may also be low in rural areas and small towns, even though need is high (Benseman and Sutton, 2008). For some learners, participation is obligatory. For example, the Introduction Act in Norway, as amended in 2005, states that non-EU immigrants receiving their residence permit after 1 September 20055 (and who intend to apply for permanent resident status and later, for citizenship) have both a right and an obligation to participate in Norwegian language and social studies courses. These individuals are required to participate in 250 hours of language training, and 50 hours of social studies taught in a language they can understand. Learners may apply for up to 2 700 additional hours of class-time (Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training and Vox/Norwegian Institute for Adult Education, 2008). Another major challenge in this sector is helping learners to persist. Many learners who are trying out new programmes may stay only a short time. In the United States, mean attendance for adult learners was found to be between 80 and 100 hours (Educational Testing Service, 2007). New Zealand reports that many learners in foundation skills programmes participate in short courses and receive less than 100 hours of instruction per year, although funding guidelines for specialist funds now favour programmes of sufficient intensity to ensure learner gain (Benseman and Sutton, 2008).
Concluding remarks
International and national surveys have been invaluable for gaining a better understanding of adults skill levels and the prevalence of those with foundation skill needs. Ongoing surveys will provide important longitudinal data. Studies on the impact of low foundation skills on individuals, families, communities and economies underscore the urgency of addressing needs. The remainder of this study complements these macro-level findings with a focus on meso- and micro-level strategies for improving learning and outcomes. It is through these strategies that communities can begin to address larger-scale challenges.
Immigrants and refugees granted a residence permit prior to 1 September 2005 are required to participate in Norwegian language training over a transitional period of 5 years. Since 1 September 2007, asylum seekers have also received 250 hours of Norwegian training. The courses are free for these groups. EU citizens are exempt from these requirements.
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2. WHO ARE THE LEARNERS? DATA FROM INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL SURVEYS 53
OECD (2001b), Knowledge and Skills for Life: First Results from PISA 2000, OECD, Paris. OECD (2004a), Employment Outlook, Chapter 4, Improving Skills for More and Better Jobs: Does Training Make a Difference?, OECD, Paris. OECD (2004b), Learning for Tomorrows World: First Results from PISA 2003, OECD, Paris. OECD (2005), Promoting Adult Learning, OECD, Paris. OECD and Statistics Canada (2005), Learning a Living: First Results of the Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey, OECD, Paris. Ok, W. and P. Tergeist (2003), Improving Workers Skills: Analytical Evidence and the Role of Social Partners, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 190, OECD, Paris. Planas, J. and M. Montoriol (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in Spain, Spanish Ministry of Education and Science and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks). Planas, J. and J. Rif (2003), Consolidacin y desarrollo de la formacin continua en Espaa, Fundacin Tripartita, Madrid. Report to the Storting., No. 27. St.meld. (2004-2005), Om opplringen innenfor kriminalomsorgen, Enda en vr. Schaie, K.W. (1994), The Course of Adult Intellectual Development, American Psychologist, Vol. 49(4), pp. 304-313. Scottish Government, Learning Connections (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in Scotland, LC Scotland and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks). Smith, J. and M. Marsiske (1997), Abilities and Competencies in Adulthood: Lifespan Perspectives on Workplace Skills, in A.C. Tuijnman, I.S. Kirsch and D.A. Wagner (eds.), Adult Basic Skills: Innovations in Measurement and Policy Analysis, Hampton Press, Inc., Cresskill, NJ, pp. 73-114. Workbase (1998), Literacy Skills and the New Zealand Workforce; New Data from the International Adult Literacy Survey, Workbase, Auckland. Young, M., H. Fleischman, N. Fitzgerald and M. Morgan (1994), National Evaluation of Adult Education Programs: Patterns and Predictors of Client Attendance, Development Associates, Arlington, VA.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
This chapter draws upon the country background reports prepared for this study to describe the current policy context for teaching, learning and assessment in adult LLN programmes. While it does not provide a full summary of policy developments in this field, the policies discussed here are nevertheless illustrative of the different approaches that set the content and context for teaching, learning and assessment in adult foundation-skill programmes.
The voluntary nature of most programmes and the consequent need to build on each learners motivations for starting and staying with a learning programme.
While the chapter provides a broad overview of policy developments in this field, it is necessarily incomplete as a full summary. For example, the does not explore regulations that govern programme administration in any detail, and touches only briefly on discussion of the resource base within this field. These issues are explored in greater depth in prior OECD studies, including Beyond Rhetoric (OECD, 2003), and Promoting Adult Learning (OECD, 2005a).
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
These features have influenced the development of learner-centred approaches, emphasising flexibility of programme delivery as well as tailoring of content to meet individual needs. In the last decade, as the scale of need and impact of low foundation skills on individuals, communities and economies have become apparent, countries have developed a range of new policies to improve access, learner progression and outcomes, while preserving a focus on individual needs.
Our own view is that tensions between individualised, learner-centred approaches and more standardised systems are not inevitable. Policies that maintain the focus on the overall goals for learner development and autonomy, and that also provide flexible tools, guidelines and training to support instructors working inside the black box of the classroom can help to counteract these concerns. A clear policy focus on formative assessment as a means to fully engage learners in the process of learning may also counteract narrowly defined learning objectives and standardised summative assessments that discourage independent thinking and self-direction. The following discussion outlines how different systems attempt to balance these different policy priorities. The discussion is divided into two parts. The first part focuses on:
Policies setting out the principles of learner-centred provision and establishing it as a priority. Pathways for learner progression, official curricula and key competencies. Guidelines and tools to support and provide structure for teaching, learning and assessment. Alternative approaches to certification and summative assessment. Resources.
[A separate chapter is devoted to the subject of human resources that is, the instructional workforce (see Chapter 4).] The second part of the discussion centres on how countries hold programmes accountable for results. Accountability is a particularly challenging area for adult LLN. The task of gathering outcome information is made more difficult by the fact that learners have idiosyncratic goals and may participate in programmes for limited or non-continuous periods of time. In addition, key stakeholders, including community advocates, instructors, programme leaders, policy officials, employers and learners may have very different views of what counts as success, and how to measure it.
Policies setting out principles for learner-centred provision and establishing it as a priority
Several countries set out learner-centred provision as a high-visibility priority for adult LLN programmes. These policies are important for communicating values and goals for provision. They are also important for encouraging debate and reflection on how best to address learner needs.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
educational material, which is to be based on the learners experience and interests. Countries acknowledge that there is a need for further customisation of training that recognises the cultural sensitivities and obligations of diverse learners. For example, in Australia, the Adult Migrant English Programme offers a Special Preparatory Programme for refugee learners who have entered the country on humanitarian grounds, and have special needs arising from their pre-migration experiences (for example, torture, trauma, and limited or no prior schooling) (Misko, 2008).
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Development (GED) test, a high school diploma or high school equivalence (Benseman and Comings, Annex 2 on the Internet). Increasingly, the GED is seen not only as an end in itself, but also as a stepping stone toward enrolment in two or four-year college programmes (Reder, 2007). (See the country background report submitted by National Institute for Literacy [2008] for a more detailed discussion of instructional levels in adult basic education, adult secondary education, and English as a Second Language [www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks]). Systems may also consider whether and how they can better support learners who have discontinued formal learning for a period of time, but are engaged in self-study as part of their individual pathway. Comings (2007) suggests that programmes develop individual learning plans for learners to engage in self-study when they must discontinue formal instruction. When the learner is ready to return to provision, an instructor can track his or her independent progress and start instruction at that point. Programmes might also develop procedures to stay in contact with learners when they are not attending classes regularly, and encourage them to re-engage with the programme when they are ready. Comings proposes that policy makers could support this approach through performance measures that examine whether programmes provide persistence support.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
The Danish Ministry of Education has established aims and standards for adult LLN curriculum and for provision. Diagnostic assessments, official checklists to track learner progress, and final assessments for certification are all aligned with these aims and standards. For example, diagnostic assessments are intended to identify learning gaps between the learners level upon entry into the programme, and course objectives. Official checklists indicate the minimum levels for achieving standards. Instructors may adapt the checklist to local or regional needs (or in the case of workbased learning, to the needs of the enterprise). However, whether the checklists are used formatively to identify learning needs and adapt teaching depends upon the training and skill of the individual instructor (Danish Evaluation Institute, 2008). Norway provides relatively detailed curriculum guidelines which embed many elements of formative assessment (although there is no explicit strategy to promote formative assessment practices). For example, the guidelines for adult basic education recommend mapping the skills of individual learners in order to identify learning needs, build on motivation, and provide learners with positive feedback on steps toward mastering knowledge and skills. The guidelines also recommend the use of learner portfolios to assess learner accomplishments, as well as performance of open-ended tasks. Innovative programmes can build on these guidelines to develop deliberate strategies. The 2003 Introduction Act, which governs language training and social studies for immigrant and refugee learners granted residence permits, requires that instruction be adapted to each learners background and qualifications, and all learners are to have an individual plan. The guidelines are very general however, and instructors have a lot of room for interpretation (which may be seen as both a strength and a weakness). The European Language Portfolio which has recently been adapted for teaching Norwegian language to immigrant learners includes a range of formative assessment tools and processes that build on the learners experiences, culture and learning contexts (Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training and Vox/Norwegian Institute for Adult Education, 2008). Australian learners entering the Language Literacy and Numeracy Programme (LLNP) system take an extensive test, which maps their capacities against those in the National Reporting System.3 Learners may complete the test with or without the assistance of the assessor (Fitzpatrick,
The National Reporting System [NRS] in Australia incorporates standards for the measuring of outcomes and is mandated for reporting on outcomes of specific governmentfunded national programmes. It is also often used in other language, literacy and numeracy programmes to inform the development of training and assessment processes.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Adult LLN programmes in England and the United States use standardised tests. In both England and the United States, learners may take tests when they and their instructors feel they are ready, and may re-take them if necessary. In England, examinations are developed by external providers, such as the LCCI Examinations Board, National Open College Network, Northern Council for Further Education, Open College of the Northwest, and the Oxford, Cambridge and Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts (RSA) Exams, and so on. These institutions also administer and score the tests. Reading literacy is assessed through either paper or computer-based tests. Writing skills may be assessed through tests but also through portfolios procured by instructors as well as evaluators from one of the testing organisations. English language learners may demonstrate listening and speaking skills through structured dialogues assessed by a trained evaluator, either in-person or by audio tape. The tests are criterion-referenced, meaning that learners are judged against specific standards, rather than in comparison with peers (Comings and Vorhaus, Annex 2 on the Internet). In the United States, the General Educational Development (GED) test is the most common way for adult learners to earn a high school certificate.4 The GED is a set of five different tests measuring writing, social studies, science, interpretation of literature and the arts, and mathematics. These are standardised tests, which are skills-based rather than tied to a curriculum. This means that instructors may focus on preparing learners to succeed in this kind of test, but they cannot deliberately teach to the test. The test was revised in 2002 in order to place more emphasis on cross-disciplinary skills, including problem solving, communication, information processing, and writing (test takers are now required to write an essay). The mathematics test places more emphasis on data analysis, statistics and probability. The GED is norm-referenced.5 The passing score for GED subject tests is determined by testing high school graduates; the passing level is set at the point where 40% of high school graduates do not pass the test. States may
In California, the acquisition of a GED does not allow students to earn a high school diploma, and the GED is not always considered to be the equivalent of a high school diploma, but post-secondary institutions do consider it as such. Learners also have the option of taking qualifications other than the GED. In Maryland (and in 12 other States) learners may prepare for an Adult External (or Adult) High School Diploma. The programme is aimed at mature-age students, and includes recognition of prior learning (including both non-formal and informal learning such as home management, or literacy and numeracy skills used in a current occupation or trade).
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Other approaches
Several countries also allow for development of summative examinations for certification at the programme level. Programmes may develop traditional paper and pencil examinations, with content tied to curriculum requirements. Learners may also have the opportunity to demonstrate skills they have acquired through presentations or in portfolios. The latter approach may be used to measure gains made toward individually defined goals. In Denmark, school leaving examinations at the Grade 9 level are prepared by instructors and are based on subjects the learner has studied during the year. The Grade 9 and 10 certificates provide the learners with identical rights of access to further education as learners who have earned certificates within the lower secondary system. The instructors in programmes prepare the school leaving examination for learners. Learner performance is judged by a jury of censors (that is, instructors from other programmes). Learners do not have the test questions in advance (Colardyn and Baltzer, Annex 2 on the Internet). For the Grade 10 examination, questions are developed by the Ministry of Education. The examinations include both oral and written tests, and are aligned with standards and aims set by the Ministry. Approximately 40% of learners in Danish adult LLN programmes decide to participate in the school
CASAS, or the Comprehensive Adult Student Assessment System, is a widely used system of standardised testing for assessing basic reading, math, listening, writing, and speaking skills of adults. English as a Second Language (ESL) tests are described in http://www.ncsall.net/?id=521 CASAS and all other tests are described at http://www.ncsall.net/?id=574
7 6
The balance comes predominantly from state funding, based on daily attendance data.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
leaving examination (a number still too low for the Ministry) (Colardyn and Baltzer, Annex 2 on the Internet). Learners in Flanders have a choice as to how they will earn their certificate. In 1999 the Flemish government moved from a system where learners in second chance education were required to take standardised tests to earn their secondary school degrees, to a system where they have the option of taking the test, or of completing requirements in classes with no tests. This policy has created space for innovation at the programme level, allowing programmes to make decisions as to how they will approach teaching, learning and assessment (Ministry of the Flemish Community and University of Ghent, 2008). There are no tests for certification in Scotland. Instead, the Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) has developed very open evidence requirements. Learners have a range of options for demonstrating competencies tied to specific learning outcomes defined in the SQF framework. For example, learners who are following the accredited Core Skills course in Communications may give a talk on a subject of personal interest that lasts for at least two minutes, with an audience of at least one other person. The learner then responds to questions for at least another two minutes. The whole presentation can be recorded on tape or video and this provides the evidence that it has taken place. This would satisfy the outcome requirement that the learner be able to speak so that others can understand. This approach to gathering evidence of learner achievement is in line with the Scottish philosophy that learners achieve success when they recognise their own achievements and begin to make changes in their life, or to identify new goals for learning. Instructors may also develop their own assessment instruments but these must be approved in advance by the SQA as meeting their standards of fairness, consistency and transparency. Participants in the same course may achieve accreditation in Communications, Numeracy, Information Technology, at a level appropriate for them. In other words, learners in the same course may achieve different levels of accreditation. An external verifier moderates the achievement of the learning outcomes and examples of suitable forms of assessment are available to instructors (Sliwka and Tett, Annex 2 on the Internet).
Resources
In addition to supports such as guidelines and tools, instructors need adequate time and resources if they are to devote attention to the needs of individual learners. Several countries have significantly increased resources available to this sector in the last decade. Nevertheless, these new
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Established targets for participation and/or number of learners to earn certification (England and Scotland). Developed national reporting systems (Australia, Scotland, Spain and the United States). Created or strengthened inspectorates (Flanders, England, Scotland and Spain). Commissioned external evaluations (Denmark), or guidelines for programme self-review (New Zealand).
Adult LLN policies generally identify a wide range of acceptable learning outcomes, including certification, attainment of individual goals, further education and/or employment. But accountability systems do not always give equal weight to these outcomes. Outcomes such as increased learner autonomy and confidence, or how learners are using new skills in their daily lives may pose challenges for measurement systems. It may also be difficult to track learners longer-term outcomes related to participation in further education or employment. Education systems are often criticized for a tendency to teach to the test or to other narrow objectives. This tendency is even stronger in systems where accountability measures have implications for programme rankings and/or funding levels (Derrick, Ecclestone and Merrifield, 2007). If
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
accountability systems are poorly aligned with goals for learner-centred provision, do not measure progress toward higher-level skills and autonomy, or focus on a narrower range of outcomes, then classroom practice may also be significantly narrowed. Ideally, measurements of programme performance developed for purposes of accountability will also help programmes to identify areas for improvement, as well as what is working well. Not all measures are appropriate for this purpose, however, and programmes thus miss a significant opportunity for their own formative learning (see OECD, 2005c; St. Clair and Belzer, 2007).
Targets
England has established a very ambitious target for 2.25 million adult LLN learners to earn certification over a period of nine years, in increments of 750 000 learners every three years. The first target for 750 000 learners to earn certification by 2004 has been met, although half of this group were 16-19-year-olds. Achievement of successive benchmarks will be increasingly challenging. Indeed, this focus on certification as a measure of programme success is problematic. In Scotland, the Adult Literacy and Numeracy in Scotland (ALNIS) strategy document defines target groups for services, and as well as final attainment levels and development objectives, based on trends. Targets are thus focused on learner participation, with special emphasis on underrepresented priority groups, rather than numbers of learners to earn certification. Targets are further refined in each of the 32 Scottish Local Authorities, where Community Learning Strategy Partnerships decide collectively how to use resources, and monitor programmes (Scottish Government, Learning Connections, 2008).
2. 3.
States are required to negotiate a set of initial targets as to how many students will make one NRS level gain or pass the GED. The target number increases each year. States may also identify additional performance indicators and annual performance levels in their state plans, so outcomes other than the GED or alternative diplomas may be included in these indicators. The US NRS system does not currently include sufficient detail to link which teaching practices have led to the most successful outcomes, but can help to identify the most successful programmes (Benseman and Comings, Annex 2 on the Internet).
Inspectorates
Inspectorates monitor the quality of the learning process and programme delivery. Flanders established an inspectorate for adult basic education in 1999. The inspectors use a CIPO framework (Context-Input-ProcessOutput) using indicators and qualitative observations. They also set out standards and expectations for learner assessment, including the use of formative assessment methods. For example, the inspectorate sets out the expectation that assessment results should be used to provide learners with high-quality feedback and to adapt teaching. Learners should be actively involved through peer- and self-assessment. The Flemish adult inspectorate notes that centres do use a range of formative assessment strategies, while also acknowledging that the degree to which formative assessment is used
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
varies between centres, types of courses, and individual instructors (Ministry of the Flemish Community and University of Ghent, 2008). In Scotland, Her Majestys Inspectorate for Education (HMIE) monitors the quality of programmes receiving literacies partnership funding. HMIE is also responsible for inspecting compulsory level schooling and tracks formative assessment practice in classrooms (Scottish Government, Learning Connections, 2008). In England, the Skills for Life programme also strengthened the quality framework for inspection of programmes within its jurisdiction. The inspection reports have been useful in monitoring teaching, learning, and assessment processes (including formative assessment, even though it has not been promoted as an official government policy) (NRDC, 2008). In Spain, the Education Ministry is responsible for creating inspection frameworks in adult education and training programmes, and educational administrations in the autonomous regions that carry them out. All training institutions, whether public or private, are subject to inspection. The focus is on compliance with laws and regulations as well as quality improvement. The labour administrations in autonomous regions are responsible for inspections in programmes targeted to unemployed and working people. The Spanish State Foundation for Employment Training (Fundacin Estatal para la Formacin en el Empleo) carries out an annual evaluation survey on the scope of on-going training for the working population. It also evaluates the adjustment of the schemes to the needs of the market, and the impact of training on the maintenance of employment, the improvement of the competitiveness of companies, as well as on the efficiency and efficacy of the economic resources and means employed. Thus, the results of inspections in this area help to shape improvements in quality at the system and programme levels (Planas and Montoriol, 2008).
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
meeting them. Well-designed programme performance measurements are aligned with goals for teaching and learning, and provide insight into the quality of programme delivery as well as the effectiveness of investments in the sector. All systems can benefit from a careful analysis as to whether data collected for the purposes of accountability are appropriately aligned with goals. In addition, there is a need to consider whether the information gathered can be used to shape programme improvement, as well as to identify what works.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
References
ALI/Ofsted (2005), Annual Report of the Chief Inspector 2004-05, Adult Learning Inspectorate. Benseman, J. and J. Comings (Annex 2 on the Internet). Benseman, J. and A. Sutton (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in New Zealand, the New Zealand Ministry of Education and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks). Colardyn, D. and K. Baltzer (Annex 2 on the Internet). Comings, J. (2007), Persistence: Helping Adult Education Students Reach Their Goals, www.ncsall.net/fileadmin/resources/ann_rev/comings02.pdf, accessed 04/02/07. Comings, J. and J. Vorhaus (Annex 2 on the Internet). Danish Evaluation Institute/EVA (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in Denmark, Danish Evaluation Institute and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks). Derrick, J., K. Ecclestone and J. Merrifield (2007), A Balancing Act? The English and Welsh Model of Assessment in Adult Basic Education, in P. Campbell (ed.), Measures of Success: Assessment and Accountability in Adult Basic Education, Grass Roots Press, Edmonton, Alberta. DfES (2003), Skills for Life the National Strategy for Improving Adult Literacy and Numeracy Skills: Focus on Delivery to 2007, Department for Education and Skills. Educational Testing Service (ETS) (2007), Adult Education in America: A First Look at Results from the Adult Education Program and Learner Surveys ETS, Princeton, N.J. Fitzpatrick, K., L. Wignall and R. McKenna (1999), Assessment and Placement Resource for Language, Literacy and Numeracy Program, www.nrs.dest.gov.au/litnum/index.htm, viewed April 2006.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Ministry of the Flemish Community and University of Ghent, Education Department (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in the Flemish Community, Belgium, Ministry of the Flemish Community and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks). Misko, J. (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in Australia, NCVER and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks). Moser, C. (1999), A Fresh Start: Improving Literacy and Numeracy, Report of the Working Group, Department of Education and Employment. NIFL (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in the United States, NIFL and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks). Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training and Vox/Norwegian Institute for Adult Education (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in Norway, Vox, Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks). NRDC (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in England, NRDC and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks). OECD (2003), Beyond Rhetoric: Adult Learning Policies and Practices, OECD, Paris. OECD (2005a), Promoting Adult Learning, OECD, Paris. OECD (2005b), Definition and Selection of Key Competencies: Executive Summary, OECD, Paris. OECD (2005c), Formative Assessment: Improving Learning in Secondary Classrooms, OECD, Paris. OECD (2006), Personalising Education, OECD, Paris. Planas, J. and M. Montoriol (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in Spain, Spanish Ministry of Education and Science and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks). Reder, S. (2007), National Commission on Adult Literacy Policy Brief: Adult Education and Postsecondary Success, Council for Advancement of Adult Literacy, New York.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Chapter 4 The Educational Workforce for Adult LLN Provision Instructors, Support Staff, Volunteers
This chapter explores policies to foster professionalism in adult language, literacy and numeracy provision. Countries are introducing new qualifications and professional development programmes for those working in the adult foundation skill sector. At the same time, precarious conditions of employment and the marginal employment status of instructors in this field continue to pose major barriers to change. No element is more important to the quality of provision than the instructional workforce. Instructors need skills to help learners identify their goals and objectives, to identify the source of learner misconceptions or learning gaps, and to offer useful learning tasks and challenges to promote progress and autonomy. This implies the need for strong subject-matter and pedagogical expertise and skills in assessment, as well as softer skills, such as humour, patience, flexibility, and empathy. Indeed, the quality of interactions between instructors and learners, both substantive and personal, are at the heart of effective teaching, learning and assessment. Building an instructional workforce that can meet such high expectations is particularly challenging given constrained financial resources in the adult LLN sector. Many instructors in this sector have precarious employment situations, and turnover may be high. Many programmes are staffed primarily by volunteers. The fact that many instructors work only part-time means that it may be difficult for staff to find time to discuss innovation or to reflect on practice. But this is also very much a field in transition. While precarious conditions of employment continue to pose major barriers to change in this field, countries and regions have nevertheless made a great deal of progress in strengthening qualifications and professional development specifically targeted to the field of adult LLN in recent years. Moreover, the field benefits from a cadre of dynamic, committed instructors.
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it is nevertheless common for instructors to have been working in the same centre for at least ten years (Danish Evaluation Institute, 2008).
California requires that adult LLN instructors pass a state basic skills test as well as some having specialist qualifications such as for English as a Second Language.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Professional development
Much of the specialised training for those working with adults occurs through professional development. The US federal government sponsors professional development programmes, such as the new STAR programme (Star Achievement in Reading), which has been trialled in six states. Instructors and programme leaders in California, one of six trial states, say that STAR has enabled programmes to develop more adult-specific expertise, rather than relying on research and practices developed for primary school students. In the United States, there are also professional development opportunities aimed at helping instructors learn to recognise and use findings from scientific research in their practices. Studies that employ a rigorous methodology, particularly experimental or quasi-experimental, and have been peer reviewed, qualify as scientific research. The National Institute for Literacy (NIFL) and the National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy (NCSALL) both disseminate evidence-based research to states and provide training for instructors on how to judge the quality of and to use research to improve instruction. In another example, California has developed its own research-to-practice initiative (Benseman and Comings, Annex 2 on the Internet; NIFL, 2008).
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Scotlands Learning Connections are developing a range of services for professional development, including an irregular programme of seminars, consultations and guidance for key stakeholders in local programmes, and support networks targeted to themes such as youth literacy, disabilities, English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL), and other programmes. There are also specialised training courses, such as the ESOL Literacies: Teaching Adults Reading, Writing and Numeracy course offered by the Scottish Qualifications Authority. It is a 10-session course for those who are already qualified teachers of ESOL, providing more in-depth training to work with learners at the most basic levels (Scottish Government, Learning Connections, 2008). In Flanders, professional development has been compulsory for staff at adult basic education centres since 1995. It is intensive: 1 500 hours over two years, including assisted practical training and independent study. In addition, there are plans to extend support and guidance services currently provided to adult basic education centres (VOCB Vlaams Ondersteunings Centrum voor Basiseducatie) to all adult education providers. Services include general support as well as support targeted to the providers specific needs. Adult LLN instructors in Flanders may also participate in ad hoc training, including university-based initiatives, training offered by private providers, educational networks, and so on (Ministry of the Flemish Community Education Department and University of Ghent, 2008). Until recently, most professional development in New Zealand has been ad hoc. A 2003 report, for example, counted over 100 nationally-funded professional development programmes reaching over 2 500 instructors. The only systematic training at a national level had been provided by Literacy Aotearoa for its predominantly voluntary staff (Benseman and Sutton, 2008). New Zealand is just beginning new professional development programmes, including for the workplace, as part of its Learning for Living cross-agency project. This project involves the Ministry of Education, the Tertiary Education Commission, the New Zealand Qualifications Authority, and the Ministry of Social Development. The project will tie to ongoing research on effective methods for teaching adults, standards, progression and assessment (Benseman and Sutton, 2008). Professional development may be expensive. For example, the STAR programme in the United States starts at approximate USD 813 per participant for six days of training (www.startoolkit.org/services.html). Massachusetts spends on average 10% of its annual adult literacy education budget on its professional delivery system, roughly USD 200 per learner per year (this investment, however, is atypical of states). It should also be noted
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Innovation opportunities
Involvement in action research projects is also an important form of professional development. In California and Massachusetts, several of the instructors interviewed for the OECD case study reported that they had been involved in action research as well as study circles to improve the teaching of reading, as well as learner retention rates. Two of the sites featured in Section II of this study were involved in action research to better integrate formative assessment in the classroom (note, for example, action research projects at the Ateliers de Formation de Base in Haute Normandie, France, and the Adult Learning Centre, in Arendal, Norway, which was a pilot site for the development of the I Can portfolio2).
voluntary sector, further education and the workplace (Scottish Government, Learning Connections, 2008). Each of the programmes featured in the English case study developed for this report had developed partnerships with a range of providers, and had active outreach efforts in the community and with local employers (Comings and Vorhaus, Annex 2 on the Internet). Volunteer instructors are essential to the success of many LLN programmes (particularly community-based programmes), and likely will be for some time to come, given the scale of need in this sector and the financial implications of supporting full-time professional staff. For example, in Scotland, a 2005 report showed that nearly half of full-time equivalent instructors were volunteers (452 FTE paid tutors and 213 volunteer tutors) (Scottish Government, Learning Connections, 2008). A 2003 report in New Zealand estimated that there were approximately 1 700 (primarily voluntary) tutors working in adult community education (often only teaching a few hours per week). An additional 3 500 volunteers were providing social support for learners of English as a Second Language, offering primarily social English support (Sutton, Lander and Benseman, 2005). Several of the OECD case study sites have teams with both professionally qualified instructors and volunteers. Programme leaders have found that this strategy can work well. Qualified instructors with experience in the field are able to provide guidance to newer staff members and volunteers. Volunteers help provide extra support in classrooms (particularly important with approaches that emphasise tailoring of learning to meet individual needs), and help lessen the dependency of learners on a single instructor. Volunteers may also provide extra one-to-one time for learners who need extra support. Volunteers receive some minimal training and preparation. For example, the Scottish Qualification Authority sponsors the Introductory Training in Adult Literacies Learning (PDA: ITALL is a training course to help tutors new to literacies teaching and volunteers learn how to identify individual learners specific needs, and to support literacy and numeracy learning) (Scottish Government, Learning Connections, 2008). Volunteers at the Savoirs pour Russir (SPR) programme in Marseilles, France also receive guidance that helps them to better understand how learners progress (Michel and Maroun, Annex 2 on the Internet). In some cases, learners become volunteer instructors. Volunteers serving as peer mentors at the Equal Man project of the Reading and Writing Circle in Verdal, Norway have previously completed the course. These peer mentors, or Equal Men, explain concepts, encourage learners to keep going, serve as role models, and at the same time reinforce their own learning. Both
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A few of the programmes featured in the OECD study have also initiated action research as professional development. This research has not only served as an intensive form of professional development for instructors, but also has helped to build the knowledge base in this field. Nevertheless, dissemination of innovation in this field, where programmes are often only loosely associated, is a challenge. The field thus misses opportunities to learn from exemplary practice and innovation.
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References
Benseman, J. and J. Comings (Annex 2 on the Internet). Benseman, J. and A. Sutton (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in New Zealand, the New Zealand Ministry of Education and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks). Berghella T., J. Molenaar and L. Wyse (2004), The Professional Development Requirements for WELL Programs Practitioners, NCVER, Adelaide. Comings, J. and J. Vorhaus (Annex 2 on the Internet). Danish Evaluation Institute (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in Denmark, Danish Evaluation Institute and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks). Educational Testing Service (2007), Adult Education in America: A First Look at Results from the Adult Education Program and Learner Surveys ETS, Princeton, N.J. Looney, J., A. Husby and T.D. Rynestad (Annex 2 on the Internet). Michel, B. and E. Maroun (Annex 2 on the Internet). Ministry of the Flemish Community Education Department Belgium and University of Ghent, Education Department (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in the Flemish Community, Belgium, Ministry of the Flemish Community and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks). Misko, J. (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in Australia, NCVER and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks). National Institute for Literacy (NIFL) (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in the United States, NIFL and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks).
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National Research and Development Centre for adult literacy and numeracy (NRDC) (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in England, NRDC and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks). Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training and Vox/Norwegian Institute for Adult Education (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in Norway, Vox, Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks). Planas, J. and M. Montoriol (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in Spain, Spanish Ministry of Education and Science and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks). Rosen, D. and I. De Meyer (Annex 2 on the Internet). Scottish Government, Learning Connections (2008), Country Background Report on Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Provision in Scotland, Scottish Government, Learning Connections and OECD, Paris (www.oecd.org/edu/whatworks). Sutton, A., J. Lander and J. Benseman (2005), Foundation Learning in Aotearoa New Zealand: Mapping the Nature and Extent of Provision, 2003, The University of Auckland and UniServices Ltd., Auckland.
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Introduction
The chapters in Section II draw on the international research reviews and case studies of exemplary teaching, learning and assessment developed for this report. These different contributions highlight the importance of seeing learning as a process. The process begins as soon as learners enter a programme. We have organised Chapters 6 to 10 around the different steps of the learning process:
Diagnosis of learning needs, and establishment of learners motivations and goals. The development of strong relationships within the classroom, and creation of safe environments for learning. The use of assessment to provide information on learning, and to be used as feedback by learners and instructors to modify teaching and learning activities. A focus on building learner autonomy, including skills for selfassessment and for addressing the literacy and numeracy tasks of daily life independently. Tracking of learner progress toward goals and recognition of achievement.
These steps are portrayed as the beginning of a spiral staircase in the figure below. The spiral draws on Bruners concept of the spiral curriculum, which proposes that any domain of knowledge can be represented at varying levels of abstractness and complexity (Bruner, 1996). The staircase represents the learners progression toward higher-level skills and greater autonomy. Learning is not necessarily a linear process, however, and the steps are not to be taken as such. As emphasised in literature and by the exemplary practitioners participating in this study, instructors and learners may be engaged in several steps of the process at any given time. Researchers and practitioners stress the importance of involving learners in decisions as to what they will learn, and how, as an important step for setting relevant goals (step 1 of the OECD staircase), as well as for developing autonomy (step 4 of the staircase). Learners and instructors track progress toward goals on a regular basis, not just at the end of a unit or course. The literature and case studies also highlight the combined importance of the different elements rather than discrete steps, practices or tools in promoting learner progress.
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This understanding of teaching, learning and assessment as a holistic process is vital. For example, the techniques of formative assessment are too often seen as teacher-led techniques for giving feedback, practice
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examinations or as continuous or modular assessment, with summative assessments given at intervals, rather than only at the end of a course (see Ecclestone, 2002; Torrance et al., 2005). A more holistic approach sees learners as fully engaged in each of the steps of the process: diagnosis, debate, review and decisions as to how to adjust teaching and learning to meet their needs. In this way, learners develop their own skills for selfassessment, and for sustainable learning (Boud and Falchikov, 2007). Chapter 5 provides a brief introduction to the exemplary case studies. The subsequent five chapters (Chapters 6 through 10) describe findings from research and practice related to each of the five steps. There are clear and common themes that run throughout the chapters. These include the focus on formative assessment as a means to identify individual learner needs and tailor teaching, the active engagement of learners in the process of defining goals and next steps for learning, and the emphasis on building learners higher-level skills and increasing autonomy. The chapters also provide a clear sense of the conditions important for success, and where policy can make a difference.
References
Boud, D. and N. Falchikov (eds.) (2007), Rethinking Assessment in Higher Education: Learning for the Longer Term, Routledge, London. Bruner, J. (1996), The Culture of Education, Harvard University Press, Cambridge and London. Ecclestone, K. (2002), Learning Autonomy in Post-compulsory Education: the Politics and Practice of Formative Assessment, Routledge Falmer, London. Torrance, H. et al. (2005), The Impact of Different Modes of Assessment on Achievement and Progress in the Learning and Skills Sector, Learning and Skills Development Agency.
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This chapter provides an overview of the case studies of exemplary practice conducted for this study. It outlines the criteria used for selection of the cases, and then provides brief descriptions of each of the participating programmes. The cases selected represent the range of provision in this field. At the same time, the innovative practices observed at these sites are not necessarily widespread rather they illustrate what is possible. Evidence gathered in the case sites for this study provide insights as to how new approaches to teaching, learning and assessment have been put into practice. While the programmes are diverse, they also have several features in common. They are all environments appropriate for adult learners, as reflected in the parity of relationships between instructors and learners, and learners freedom of choice regarding what and how they will learn. They all share a concern with ensuring that learning tasks are relevant to learners daily lives. And they use assessment to promote learner success, and build autonomy, rather than as a tool for selection. The exemplary practices explored in the OECD study are not necessarily indicative of wider practice in adult LLN, but they do illustrate how programme leaders and instructors have taken advantage of opportunities to create effective teaching and learning environments (Looney, 2007). The case studies fulfil specific criteria set out in the OECD protocol:
The programmes are targeted to adults with foundation skill needs. The cases are drawn from a range of settings serving diverse learners. Instructors use formative assessment as a deliberate strategy for identifying the needs of individual learners and tailoring teaching. The studies provide examples of interactive assessment of learner progress and understanding, and the tailoring of teaching to meet the needs of diverse groups of learners.
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Programmes offering primary or secondary school certification. Community-based programmes not leading to formal certification. Programmes for immigrant and refugee learners. Work-based education programmes. A prison-based programme.
A second-chance school in Hoboken, Belgium (the Tweedekansonderwijs or TKO). The TKO is one of 13 Flemish centres that enable adults to obtain a diploma with exactly the same value as the certificate awarded in the compulsory sector. The TKO serves over 600 learners annually. The majority of learners attend full-time daytime courses; evening courses are also offered two or
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three evenings a week. Learners may complete the programme within a few months or over the course of a year, depending on the course they are following, prior learning, and whether they are attending part- or full-time (Rosen and De Meyer, Annex 2 on the Internet).
General adult education courses in Frederikssund and rhus, Denmark. The principles for knowledge and proficiency in these programmes are the same as for the Grade 9 School Leaving Examination, and follow the aims and standards established by the Danish Ministry of Education. Subjects are adapted for adult learners. The programme in rhus is targeted specifically to youth between the ages of 18 and 25, and support services are also targeted to the needs of this age group (Colardyn and Baltzer, Annex 2 on the Internet). Three Skills for Life programmes in England. Skills for Life was initiated by the Department for Education and Skills in 2001 to meet needs of adult foundation skill learners. The three sites featured in this study include the Mary Ward Centre, a non-profit organisation in central London; York College, a further education college in York, England; and, the Continuing Education and Training Services (CETS), supported by the Croydon Education Authority. The Skills for Life programmes at each of these institutions serve between 500 and 700 adults per year (between 4 and 10% of the total student body). There are also innovative outreach programmes to support a range of needs, including work-based provision and family learning (Comings and Vorhaus, Annex 2 on the Internet). An adult returners course at Jewel and Esk Valley College, Edinburgh, Scotland. The course, which has only 12 places per term (36 per year), is advertised in the college prospectus and through word of mouth. There is a waiting list. All applicants for the course are interviewed and those who are not admitted to the returners course are placed in other appropriate courses. The course is aimed at helping learners to develop reading, writing and numeracy skills relevant to their personal, family, community and working lives. Course leaders also aim to build a sense of community among the learners (Sliwka and Tett, Annex 2 on the Internet). Adult Basic Education (ABE) and Adult Secondary Education (ASE) programmes in California, Massachusetts and Maryland in the United States. The programmes visited were in a range of settings, including community and technical colleges, family resource centres, adult schools, and a workforce development centre.
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The Reading and Writing Circle, Verdal, Norway, which serves adults with learning disabilities or difficulties. It was initiated in 2003 by a local activist from the Learning Disabilities Association in partnership with the head of the Verdal Upper Secondary School. This site has implemented a unique Equal Man project. The Equal Man is a person with learning disabilities or difficulties who has previously completed the course, and who serves as a mentor for newer learners while also reinforcing his or her own learning. The programme serves approximately 20 learners per year. The instructors working in this programme have certificates for teaching primary and/or secondary school (Looney, Husby and Rynestad, Annex 2 on the Internet). The Ateliers de Formation de Base (workshops for foundation skill learners) network in Haute-Normandie, France. This network brings together the Mdia Formation and Fodeno (Formation Dmocratie Normandie) and other programmes in the region. The
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programmes are open to all individuals having difficulties in their personal, social or working lives as a result of low literacy or difficulties with the French language (including knowledge of the French socio-cultural code). Between 2000 and 2003, a group of instructors in the network were involved in an action research project on formative assessment to promote goals for literacy and better learner integration (Michel and Maroun, Annex 2 on the Internet).
Savoirs pour Russir (SPR), Marseilles, France. This programme was founded by the Caisses dEpargne Foundation in 2003 to serve young adults (16 to 25 years old) with low literacy skills. Most learners participating in the programme are identified through a language and literacy test administered as part of the Journes dAppel et de Prparation la Dfense. SPR, which is primarily staffed by volunteers, helps learners to attain greater stability in their daily lives, and to build their self-confidence (Michel and Maroun, Annex 2 on the Internet). Buddies for Learning, Renfrewshire, Scotland. The Buddies programme was initiated in 2000 with support of the European Social Fund to provide individualised literacy and numeracy education. Buddies serves adults age 16 and over. There are also programmes to meet the needs of specific groups, such as parents wishing to help their children with homework, or long-term unemployed. The one-to-one teaching is undertaken primarily by volunteers who are supported by the professional staff (Sliwka and Tett, Annex 2 on the Internet).
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Two programmes under Norways Introduction Act. All adult immigrant learners receiving their residence permits after 1 September 2005 have a right and an obligation to participate in courses in Norwegian language and social studies.1 The Johannes Learning Centre in Stavanger and the Adult Learning Centre in Arendal featured in this study have developed portfolio approaches to help learners track progress and develop skills for learning-tolearn. Learners stay in the programmes from one to three years, depending on need and individual circumstances (Looney, Husby and Rynestad, Annex 2 on the Internet). Two ESOL programmes in California. Case study visits to two sites in Napa Valley, California included observations of English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) classes. ESOL makes up 43% of overall provision in foundation skills in the state of California. The ESOL programmes visited in California reflected culture of seasonal work for many migrants. Attendance levels depend on the fluctuating demands of the viticulture calendar (Benseman and Comings, Annex 2 on the Internet).
The Introduction Act was implemented in September 2003. The Act states that refugees and persons granted residence on political and humanitarian grounds are to participate in a 2-year introductory programme (since 1 September 2004, participation has been obligatory for persons in these groups). This arrangement also applies to persons who immigrate in order to be united with family members who fall under the requirements of the Introduction Act. The Act was amended in 2005. Under the amendments, non-EU immigrants receiving their residence permits after 1 September 2005 have a right and an obligation to participate in 250 hours of Norwegian language, and 50 hours of Norwegian social studies. Courses in social studies must be taught in a language the participants can understand. Those who need additional training to reach their goals may petition for up to 2 700 additional hours. All training must be completed within 5 years.
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Work-based education
A common concern across countries is that adults who are most in need of improving skills are the least likely to participate in formal learning programmes. The workplace may be an ideal place to reach this population, and may bring significant benefits to both employers and employees. Each of the case study sites includes programmes to help those who want to improve their job prospects. A few of the programmes visited were located directly in workplaces, others included outreach to work-based education, and some tailored programmes to meet the needs of particular companies, although these particular programmes/classrooms were not featured in our study. In this section we highlight only those programmes held at a worksite or employment agency. Three of the sites visited for this study were based primarily at worksites. They include:
The Mobile Trailer in Southern Jutland, Denmark. A unique trailer mobile teaching unit brings LLN provision directly to enterprises in the region. Two trailers, which were initially supported by the European Social Fund and now by the County of Southern Jutland, are equipped as classrooms and include high quality ICT facilities. The trailers move to different enterprises every few weeks. Classes take place during working hours (Colardyn and Baltzer, Annex 2 on the Internet). Haven Products, Ltd., Inverness, Scotland. The Haven Company, which aims to provide meaningful employment for individuals with a range of disabilities such as autism, arthritis and epilepsy, participates in a programme known as Big Plus for Business promoted by Learning Connections Scotland, and the Workers Educational Association (WEA). The WEA supports tuition for three weekly courses, including a communication class and two ICT classes incorporating literacy and numeracy training. The WEA has also provided networked laptops and other materials for learning. Fifteen out of the 24 employees participate in these programmes. Classes take place during working time (Sliwka and Tett, Annex 2 on the Internet). Just-in-Time training for job seekers and employees in Leuven, Belgium. The Flemish Public Employment Service (VDAB) collaborates with the adult basic centre (CBE), or Open School in Leuven, Belgium to develop short training courses for adults who are having problems finding and/or keeping a job. The courses focus on basic employability competencies and attitudes (literacy, ICT, communication and other skills). The focus is primarily on
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A prison-based programme
Low language, literacy and numeracy skills are prevalent in prisonbased populations, as noted in Chapter 2. The OECD case study included one visit to a prison-based programme.
The Saint-Quentin-Fallavier Penitentiary, Lyon, France. A national network of providers brings LLN training to prisons throughout France. It is important for preparing learners for re-entry into society. It is also important for quality of life in the prison milieu, where literacy skills are needed in order to maintain contact with the family and the outside world, to request visits with social workers, use of facilities, and so on. Instructors working in the milieu receive specialised training and support materials from the National Education Service. Provision is individualised (Michel and Maroun, Annex 2 on the Internet).
Concluding remarks
The exemplary cases featured in this OECD study, which were selected according to the criteria outlined at the beginning of this chapter, represent a range of provision in this sector. The programmes target the needs of very diverse learners, including immigrants, younger learners who have dropped out of secondary schooling, learners with disabilities, learners wanting specific work-based skills, those who are working toward certification, and those who are learning in order to reach personal goals. Our focus on formative assessment as an integrated feature of teaching and learning has provided a common thread to the case studies. The programmes featured throughout Section II all place an emphasis not only on identifying learning needs and tailoring teaching to meet those needs, but also on ensuring that learners are partners in the process, are deepening their own skills for peer and self-assessment and for learning-to-learn, and are progressing to more sophisticated levels of understanding and greater autonomy. There is also a strong emphasis on learner self-determination. The case study programmes also share a common commitment to innovation and ongoing programme improvement. While they are not necessarily representative of common practice, they demonstrate what is possible, and provide directions for policy development.
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References
Benseman, J. and J. Comings (Annex 2 on the Internet). Colardyn, D. and K. Baltzer (Annex 2 on the Internet). Comings, J. and J. Vorhaus (Annex 2 on the Internet). Looney, J. (2007), Formative Assessment in Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy, Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy and Practice, CARFAX, Oxfordshire, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 373-386. Looney, J., A. Husby and T.D. Rynestad (Annex 2 on the Internet). Michel, B. and E. Maroun (Annex 2 on the Internet). OECD and Statistics Canada (2005), Learning a Living: First Results of the Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey, OECD, Paris. Rosen, D. and I. De Meyer (Annex 2 on the Internet). Sliwka, A. and L. Tett (Annex 2 on the Internet).
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This chapter introduces the first of the five steps in the OECD staircase. It explores different approaches to welcoming new learners, and to diagnosing their needs, capabilities and goals. Individual learning plans or learning contracts are common in many of the case study programmes. They may be used to identify learner motivations for starting and staying in a programme, and as a tool to track learner progress toward goals. When adult LLN learners first enter a new programme, they very typically have an initial interview with programme administrators and/or instructors to discuss their goals and motivations for learning. This first meeting may also include a diagnostic assessment to identify the learners strengths and any potential barriers to learning (such as a disability), and to place learners at the appropriate level. As a follow-up to this initial interview usually within the first few days instructors and new learners set out their goals for learning in a written document, such as an individual learning plan (ILP) or contract. Instructors will use the document to better link learning objectives set out in core curricula with the learners specific interests. The ILP or contract also serves as a way for learners and instructors to track progress toward goals. These are the first steps in the learning journey. The general principles shaping these first steps are fairly common in the adult LLN sector. And while staff and instructors in the exemplary programmes featured take different approaches to these first steps, they share concerns with ensuring that learners feel welcome, are engaged in the learning process from the outset, and that the learning plan reflects the individual learners goals and motivations.
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Normandie, France have eliminated the initial set of diagnostic tests altogether. Programme leaders and instructors there felt that formal diagnostic tests were off-putting for individuals who have had negative experiences in school. Instructors in the AFB network believe that the welcoming interview should be the first step in an ongoing assessment process; there need not be a lot of pressure on building a complete profile of learners in this initial encounter. Instructors say that they are able to make fairly accurate diagnoses through more informal dialogue and observation (Michel and Maroun, Annex 2 on the Internet). Others have found that very informal questions are effective for establishing a collaborative tone between learners and assessors and providing helpful initial information during the welcoming interview. Guidelines used at the Centre for Adult Education (Centro de Educacin de Personas Adultas, or CREA) in vila in Central Spain suggest that initial questions might include: What do you expect from this course? What do you fear? How do you feel at this time? What earlier experiences of school have you had? What cultural handicaps do you feel you have? (Sanz, Annex 3 on the Internet). Scholz (2004) makes straightforward recommendations for initial interviews for example, to avoid desktop barriers between the assessor and the new learner, or the use of simple techniques and instruments (schemes of the alphabet, headlines of newspapers, filling in gaps in texts, and so on). Scholz suggests that assessors with good knowledge of diagnostics can learn a great deal from such simple approaches. Learners may also be asked to give their own assessment of their skill levels. At the Jewel and Esk Valley College in Edinburgh, learners are asked to describe how they feel about their reading, writing, speaking, numeracy, IT and/or study skills. They rate their skills on a scale of 1 to 10 (Sliwka and Tett, Annex 2 on the Internet). Some programmes are required to use more formalised intake and assessment procedures. In the case study featuring the Mobile Trailer Teaching Unit in Southern Jutland, Denmark, for example, instructors use the diagnostic, or entry level test developed by the Ministry of Education. The test is linked to the aims and standards for the curriculum and for certification. It is intended to identify learning gaps between the learners level upon entry into the programme, and official course objectives. Instructors at this site use the results of this test to develop individualised learning programmes. Learning objectives as well as methods are specific to each learner (Colardyn and Baltzer, Annex 2 on the Internet). But there is also a need to evaluate the validity and reliability of the actual diagnostic instruments, whether implemented as a more formal
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These diagnoses are important not only for better understanding of specific barriers to learning, but also because learners with a specific
As defined by the World Dyslexia Network Foundation, dyslexia is: a specific learning difficulty in the acquisition of reading, writing and spelling, and is neurological in origin.
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disability may have a legal right to accommodation in the education setting (in some countries, such as the United States, individuals with disabilities, including learning disabilities such as dyslexia, also have a legal right to accommodation in work settings). Accommodation may include access to computers (particularly important for individuals with dysgraphia, or difficulties with writing), the opportunity to take tests orally, extended time on exams and other guidance. However, it is important to emphasise that learners cannot claim rights if they do not have an official diagnosis. The diagnosis of a disability and appropriate response may make all the difference for the learner. An instructor at the Haven programme in Inverness, Scotland recounted that they had had people that have had one specific barrier that kept them from learning Once [a learner has] defined and overcome that there is nothing to stop them. This instructor cited the case of one learner who had been diagnosed with epilepsy as a pupil and was told not to use computers because a flickering computer screen might trigger an epileptic fit. He had always thought that he would never be able to work with computers until the programme coordinator at Haven made him aware that the newer LCD monitors would not have the same problems with flickering (Sliwka and Tett, Annex 2 on the Internet).
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Learning contracts, which are used to help learners to develop problemsolving skills in the German apprenticeship system as well as in some university classes, are a variation on the ILP, but also have features in common with the management-by-objectives approach (Ott, 1999). A learning contract may set out an agreement for completion of a small project, with an outline of objectives, competencies to be built, and time. Upon completion of the project, the results are presented for summative assessment (Grotlschen and Bonna, Annex 3 on the Internet). An evaluation on use of the contracts in a university setting found that the learners had mixed reactions. Some learners reported that the contracts helped them to reflect on and better articulate study aims, and to structure group processes. Others reported that they liked the overall approach of the learning contracts, but found that the design was too complex, and required too much administrative work. A third group reported negative reactions to the economic terminology. As one respondent commented, This reminds me of my time as a hospital nurse, where I already hated agreements on objectives (Graener 2002, p. 11). Box 6.3. Saint-Quentin-Fallavier Penitentiary Lyon, France
All the case study programmes in France use learning contracts. The contracts developed within the French penitentiary system illustrate how the contracts are adapted to their particular situation. Because inmates may not stay in a particular facility for a long period of time (the inmate may be transferred or released) learning contracts define very specific objectives which may be attained in a relatively short period of time (for example, around 40 hours). [As one instructor noted] we dont have 600 hours at our disposal [to accomplish everything we would like to], so we identify a specific need with the learner, and fix our objectives. Then we measure demonstrated qualitative gains.
Source: Michel and Maroun (Annex 2 on the Internet).
The ILP helps learners to express their personal motivations for learning (intrinsic motivation) to define achievable goals, and provides information for instructors as to how they might make learning more relevant. Motivation is crucial for successful learning, and reflects the energy and focus learners are prepared to commit to achieving goals (see OECD, 2000; OECD, 2007). Several studies also highlight the centrality of learner motivation to learner persistence (see for example, Beder, 1991; Wikelund, Reder and Hart-Landsberg, 1992; Tracy-Mumford, 1994; Quigley, 1997).
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Tools to identify competencies may also be useful for helping adults take a more positive view of their existing skills. The integration of validated instruments for recognition of prior learning into adult LLN programmes may provide better information on learners existing strengths and capacities. Instructors may also use this information to better anchor teaching. The range of instruments used to identify and validate learners acquired competencies in German-speaking countries, as reviewed for this study, show some promise, although further development is needed. Individual learning plans and contracts are quite common across exemplary programmes visited. These plans help to identify the learners motivations for starting and staying in a programme. (A learners ability to articulate specific goals is an important factor in persistence, as well.) Instructors are also better able to understand the contexts within which learners will use skills. The plans or contracts often serve as tools for formative assessment that is, a way to gauge how learners are progressing toward goals, remaining gaps, and plans to address those gaps. (See Chapter 10 for more on the use of ILPs and contracts as tools for tracking progress.) Balancing individual goals with official curriculum is not only one of the most challenging tasks for instructors, but also one of the most important. Learners should also be involved in this process, and plans should be simple, straightforward and accessible. In this way, learners develop their own skills for learning-to-learn, and stay focused on meeting their goals.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
References
Barton D., Y. Appleby, R. Hodge, K. Tusting and R. Ivanic (2006), Relating Adults Lives and Learning: Participation and Engagement in Different Settings, NRDC, London. Beder, H. (1991), Adult Literacy: Issues for Policy and Practice, Krieger, Malabar, FL. Benseman, J. and J. Comings (Annex 2 on the Internet). Blais, H. (ed.) (1995), Analphabte ou allographe ?: pour une vision renouvelle de l'analphabtisme et de l'alphabtisation, Logiques, Montral. Brigitte (2004), Mein erstes Beratungsgesprch bei der Volkshochschule, in Alfa-Forum, 17. Jg., H. 56, S. 19-22. Clarke, J. (1991), Autonomy and Dependence in Adult Basic Education, RaPAL Bulletin No. 16, Autumn, reprinted in M. Herrington and A. Kendall (2005) (eds.), Insights from Research and Practice, NIACE, pp. 204-210. Colardyn, D. and K. Baltzer (Annex 2 on the Internet). Comings, J. and J. Vorhaus (Annex 2 on the Internet). Daniau, S. and P. Blanger (Annex 3 on the Internet). DIE/DIPF/IES (2006), Weiterbildungspass mit Zertifizierung informellen Lernens (ProfilPASS). Endbericht der Erprobungsund Evaluationsphase, Frankfurt. Egloff, B. (1997), Biographische Muster funktionaler Analphabeten. Eine biographieanalytische Studie zu Entstehungsbedingungen und Bewltigungsstrategien von funktionalem Analphabetismus, M. (DIE), Frankfurt. Fssenich, I. (2004), Diagnostik nicht schon wieder, oder?, in AlfaForum, 17. Jg., H. 56, S. 10-11.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Genuneit, J. (2004), Essen Bananen Kuchen?, Sinn und Unsinn von Diagnostik, Prfungen und Tests in literarischen Texten, in Alfa-Forum, 17. Jg., H. 57, S. 27-34. Graener, G. (2002), Ein Lehr-/Lernvertrag: Wieso, weshalb, warum?, http://evanet.his.de/evanet/forum/positionen.html Greenwood M. and P. Wilson (2004), Recognising and Recording Progress and Achievement in non-accredited learning, Evaluation report on the RARPA pilot projects April 2003-March 2004, NIACE, Leicester. Grotlschen, A. and F. Bonna (Annex 3 on the Internet). Heyse, V., J. Erpenbeck, and M. Horst (eds.) (2004), Kompetenzen erkennen, bilanzieren und entwickeln, Waxmann, Mnster. Kpplinger, B. (2002), Anerkennung von Kompetenzen: Definitionen, Kontexte und Praxiserfahrungen in Europa, http://www.diebonn.de/esprid/dokumente/doc-2002/kaepplinger02_01.pdf Looney, J., A. Husby and T.D. Rynestad (Annex 2 on the Internet). Michel, B. and E. Maroun (Annex 2 on the Internet). OECD (2000), Motivating Students for Lifelong Learning, OECD, Paris. OECD (2007), Understanding the Brain: The Birth of a Learning Science, OECD, Paris. Ott, B. (1999), Strukturmerkmale und Zielkategorien einer ganzheitlichen Berufsbildung, Berufsbildung, 17. Jg. Quigley, B. (1997), Rethinking Literacy Education: The Critical Need for Practice-based Change, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Reder, S. (1994), Practice Engagement Theory A Sociocultural Approach to Literacy across Languages and Cultures, in B. Ferdman, R. Weber and R. Ramirez (eds.), Literacy Across Languages and Cultures, State University of New York Press, Albany, pp. 33-74. Sanz, F. (Annex 3 on the Internet). Schladebach, A. (2006), Ein rotes Tuch: Formulare und Fragebgen! Auswertung der Teilnehmerbefragung im 2. Semester 2004 im Grundbildungszentrum der Hamburger Volkshochschule Aus: Grotlschen, A, and Linde, A. (Hrsg.): Literalitt, Grundbildung oder Lesekompetenz? Beitrge zu einer Theorie-Praxis-Diskussion, Mnster. Scholz, A. (2004), Die Erstberatung in der Alphabetisierung unter diagnostischem Blickwinkel, in Alfa-Forum, 17. Jg., H. 56, S. 15-18.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
This chapter introduces the second of the five steps in the OECD staircase. It highlights the importance of high quality classroom relationships, fuelled by dialogue, in the teaching, learning and assessment process. Instructors create environments where learners are able to reveal what they do and do not understand, and are fully engaged in the learning process. Peer assessment also helps to build solidarity within a group, and provides opportunities to catalyse learning. The second step of the OECD staircase highlights the centrality of relationships within the classroom, as built through dialogue and peer assessment. The subject of classroom relationships is a central theme in much of the literature on adult learning much more so than in literature for school-age learners. This reflects, in part, the historical absence of a welldefined curriculum or standardised goals for adult learners, as well as the need to balance learners varied goals, motivations, and diversity of their backgrounds (Derrick and Ecclestone, Annex 3 on the Internet). Dialogue and peer assessment also provide rich opportunities to uncover and build on learners prior experiences and knowledge, and to develop and improve strategies and skills. Indeed, brain research reinforces the importance of high-quality social interaction for catalysing learning and development (OECD, 2007).
Dialogue
The focus on dialogue is one of the important ways in which adult learning is distinguished from compulsory school teaching and learning, where the image is usually of the teacher lecturing from the front of the room while learners take notes. Dialogue recognises the learners status as an equal, and enables instructors and learners to discover and draw upon the
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Taken separately, any of these five elements may be seen either as too diffuse or as serving only narrow learning objectives. For example, several commentators point out that building a safe environment is essential, but learners also need to be challenged to move beyond their comfort zone. Other commentators see the focus on dialogue as a method for uncovering the learners understanding, in particular, as serving an instrumentalist approach to meeting externally defined learning outcomes, while paying little heed to whether learners have internalised the ideas and concepts. But taken together, the five elements help to ensure that dialogue enriches the learning process.
one instructor at the Reading and Writing Circle in Verdal, Norway, commented. Instructors may also invite learners to critique their own performance. This same instructor commented, a very good sign of progress is when the learners catch the instructor making a mistake. Instructors in this programme say that empathy is absolutely essential. Empathy, of course, refers to the ability of the instructor to put him/herself in the learners place and to understand feelings as well as to understand their specific learning challenges and needs (Looney, Husby and Rynestad, Annex 2 on the Internet; see also Marshall and Wiliam, 2006). The instructors interviewed at the Verdal Reading and Writing Circle also emphasised that no subject should be off limits for discussion during class time. As one instructor commented, learners need to be able to bring concerns from their everyday lives into the classroom and to know that they can discuss them with instructors or peers. Learners in the programme are invited to express their needs for teaching and learning. Coffee/tea breaks are also noted as an important opportunity to socialise, where all may talk about their lives and the class with each other. Joking is common including self-deprecating humour. Several commentators confirm the importance of such approaches, noting that instructors must be willing to engage with other aspects of learners lives as well as their emotions, attitudes and beliefs about learning (Barton and Papen, 2005; Ginsburg and Gal, 1996; Nonesuch, 2006; Swan, 2006). In a synthesis of findings from research conducted between 2002 and 2005, the National Research and Development Centre (NRDC) in the United Kingdom, found that the instructors empathy and patience, as well as capacity to understand the learners needs and trajectories are as important as technical competence. The NRDC synthesis report further notes that [a]ddressing adults needs and life experience (often including negative experiences of education) is far more influential in guiding learning programmes than environment, funding or accreditation-related targets (NRDC, 2005). Some instructors and programmes have also created more formal ways for learners to address their fears or to express their feelings about the learning process. For example, the second-chance TKO (Tweedenkan Onderwijs) programme in Hoboken, Belgium, has developed a course entitled Fear of Failure. Some learners say that this course has helped them to feel more confident and provided guidance on how to meet their goals (Rosen and De Meyer, Annex 2 on the Internet). At the Johannes Learning Centre in Stavanger, Norway, one of the instructors has class time once a month with coffee and ice cream to discuss the atmosphere and organisation of the class. During this session, she asks the learners if there is anything difficult, bad, or positive that they want to talk about. Another
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Research on learner persistence by Comings, Parrella and Soricon (1999) points to the importance of positive relationships with the instructor and fellow students. However, learners rate the relationship with the instructor as being much more significant. (Of all respondents, 50.7% found that classroom relationships were important. Of this group, 81% indicated the relationship with the specific instructor as being most important, 9% indicated the importance of their relationships with fellow learners as most important, and 10% referred to a combination of the two.) In a separate study, learners in a mathematics course credited better individual relationships with the instructor and group work with helping to build their confidence. These were in sharp contrast to the kinds of relationships they had experienced in school and sometimes in other adult learning settings (Baxter et al., 2006). Beder (2005) found that learners are more engaged when they interact more frequently with the instructor. Instructors point out that creating this safe space, or culture of trust, may be challenging, particularly among learners who are sceptical about educational institutions. Instructors at the Adult Education Youth Class in rhus, Denmark, observe that helping learners to develop motivation and positive self-efficacy is as necessary for these youngsters as are the studies themselves. (Learners in the classes observed were between 17 and 30 years of age.) Instructors in this programme make themselves available for personal meetings with learners. They also collaborate closely with their colleagues. These instructors have been trained in conflict resolution and mediation; learners have also learned strategies for coping with conflict. Instructors at the programme have initiated regular Monday morning joint evaluations where learners may participate in collective project work, or even card games. The joint evaluations are a way to build social competencies, and to move away from more stressful experiences (Colardyn and Baltzer, Annex 2 on the Internet). An instructor at the Johannes Learning Centre in Stavanger, Norway observed that building a culture of trust also requires that learners see the assessment process as positive. As this instructor noted, nothing aggravates people so much as how they are assessed by others. She wants learners to understand that the assessment process is directly related to helping them learn and to improve over time (Looney, Husby and Rynestad, Annex 2 on the Internet). A safe environment, however, does not imply that instructors and/or other learners cannot challenge each others beliefs and assumptions. Alexander (2004), for example, argues that true dialogue entails challenge and disagreement as well as consensus. Brookfield (1990) points out that teaching is about making judgements although some approaches to assessment are more effective (constructive, specific, task-oriented,
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Fault-finding: Placing too much emphasis correcting mistakes. Collusion: Validation of work that should be corrected. Deconstruction: Re-working a learners approach to problemsolving without acknowledging the positive aspects of what he or she has done. Apology: Seeing only the positive aspects without helping the learner to reconsider his or her approach to doing things. Truisms: Referring to existing work without advancing it in anyway. Proselytism: Excessive generalisation without consideration of context. Prophesy: Ignoring the details or logic behind a concept. Betrayal: Lack of respect for confidentiality. Improvisation: Having too much confidence that a lesson will go well in spite of a lack of structure or preparation.
Thus, instructors need to establish a supportive climate, while also providing opportunities for learners to express frustration or resistance to aspects
Instructors may also need to consider whether and how to raise issues that may be sensitive in some cultures, or which may not be considered as appropriate for group discussion. For example, some subjects may not be appropriate for discussion in mixed-gender groups (as highlighted in the health literacy literature, subjects such as AIDS, rape, drugs, trauma, and other subjects may be particularly sensitive).
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
of the learning experience (Nonesuch, 2006), or to disagree or challenge others in regard to strategies for solving problems (Swan, 2006). Knowles (1983) further suggests that a supportive climate is necessary if learners are to look objectively at their own learning gaps and needs. Helsing, Drago-Severson and Kegan (2004), in their exploration of theories of adult development, note that the ability to question assumptions and to be receptive to others ideas is important to the development of critical thinking skills.
3.
4. 5.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
7.
The seven principles are particularly important for learners in marginalised communities, such as learning groups in prisons or in Roma communities (see also Flecha Garca, 1997), or in other informal or non-institutionalised collective learning situations (Sanz, Annex 3 on the Internet). These ideas also resonate among many experts and practitioners in other countries. At the Saint-Quentin-Fallavier penitentiary in Lyon, France, inmates say that the classroom is the only place within the facility where they can come together no matter who they are or what their background. They say they feel respected within the classroom (here, the instructor refers to me as Mr.). The instructor in this programme notes that the courses are, symbolically, lcole rpublicaine, where individual rights are respected and the person is protected. Thats something very strong for us, the instructor notes. Its a true antidote to the tensions elsewhere in the facility (Michel and Maroun, Annex 2 on the Internet). Similar attitudes were found in the exemplary case studies across the participating countries, where instructors placed emphasis on modelling democratic interactions within the classroom (whether they articulate the ideas in these terms or not). Participants in classrooms listened to others, posed questions, critiqued ideas, argued points of view. These skills are also the core skills of citizenship (see also Alexander, 2004). So, while the content in many of the LLN classes observed for this study was usually very focused on helping learners to gain specific skills, such as a new grammar structure or a new mathematical concept, the interactions reflected the principles of democratic interaction (in line with those formulated by CREA). Learners interviewed for the OECD case studies also express their appreciation that instructors treat them as equals. Several of the OECD case study researchers describe interactions between and among instructors and learners as positive adult experiences, reflecting a relationship of equals. Research on the workplace may provide a window on how dialoguebased teaching and learning can most effectively promote democratic participation. Belfiore and Folinsbee (2004) highlight the importance of workplace management style. They provide examples of how employees demonstrate their critical thinking capacities in making suggestions for improvements in work processes. They suggest that training and quality
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
improvement processes should allow full participation of learners/workers, rather than being top-down instructor or manager-led.
An instructor in one of the programmes visited in California engages learners by sharing what she has learned in her professional development sessions. For example, she had told her students that the four main components of successful literacy were phonemic awareness and phonics, vocabulary, comprehension, and fluency. She was delighted when recently talking about building vocabulary in a session, one of the students called out,
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Instructors develop activities and provide materials to guide conversation, and to relate to the specific interests of the learners. They may use a combination of direct instruction or structured activities for the whole class, as well as individual or small group tutoring. In a class observed in the Skills for Life programme in Croydon, Borough of London, the instructor noted that all the learners in the class want to improve their skills either to become employed or to improve their income. In the class observed, the instructor focused on goals of the core curriculum, but also drew upon his knowledge of the learners specific employment goals, interests in sports, movies, and the novel one of the learners was reading. At the Ateliers de Formation de Base (AFB) in Haute-Normandie, France, a group of instructors has engaged in an action research project in partnership with researchers at the University of Rouen (Jean-Pierre Astolfi) and the University of Provence (Anne Jorro). The action researchers focused on making the assessment process transparent, as well as adjusting teaching to meet learner needs while working toward goals. The instructors have developed tools to structure observation of learners, and to better understand the logic behind each learners way of thinking. Classes are structured and planned, but instructors are also prepared to re-orient teaching when necessary that is, until the learner shows evidence of having understood the goal for the lesson. Assessment is thus integrated into the learning situation, where the learner is an active participant in his/her own learning (Michel and Maroun, Annex 2 on the Internet). Researchers and practitioners involved in the project at HauteNormandie suggest that assessment should not be about pointing out what learners lack (even if the aim is to fill learning gaps), but about building on what learners already know and can do. Thus instructors need to be accepting of learners as well as demanding. These action researchers also point out the importance of modelling assessment skills for learner peer- and self-assessment (Forum des pratiques, 2005).
Using dialogue to establish what learners do and do not know and to adjust teaching to meet identified learning needs
Identifying learning gaps (that is, the gap between what learners know and what they are trying to achieve) and adjusting teaching to meet identified needs is central to the concept of formative assessment. Grard (2004) suggests that formative assessment should be used throughout the learning process to identify and analyse the kinds of errors a learner is making in order to select an appropriate remediation. Learners also need opportunities to reinforce new knowledge, by applying it in a variety of situations (see for example, Vygotsky, 1986).
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
issue or problem in class and the instructors often prepare lessons in response to these requests. The intention is to get the learners to diagnose their own learning needs, and for the instructor to act as a guide in helping them reach their learning goals. The log books also encourage learners to reveal what they dont understand, and to address learning gaps directly (Looney, Husby and Rynestad, Annex 2 on the Internet). Classroom dialogue also presents multiple opportunities for spontaneous teaching and learning. Case study researchers in the United States observed several instances where instructors turned simple and fairly straightforward questions into mini-lessons on learning-to-learn. For example, in one of the lessons observed, a learner identified Ottawa as the capital of Canada. The instructor then asked, so who knows how to spell it?, prompting a five minute mini-lesson incorporating a discussion on how to check spelling using a computer, and how to use Google as a learning resource. In another example, a learners question on accessing health services led to a discussion on recent experiences other learners had had in accessing those services. Dialogue to establish what learners do and do not know inevitably means that learners must reveal misunderstandings or allow themselves to make mistakes in front of the instructor and their peers. Instructors need to first establish an environment of trust and support (the safe space discussed above), and the understanding that mistakes provide an opportunity to learn. As an instructor in one adult basic education classroom in the United States told her students, its OK if its not right, because we can all fix it (Benseman and Comings, Annex 2 on the Internet).
Instructors and Equal Men participate in a one-and-a-half day training with the National Dyslexia Association in order to better understand their roles and what they can contribute to the learning setting. They see themselves as part of a collaborative team. The instructors and Equal Men take on different tasks related to pedagogical and social-psychological challenges. The effectiveness of the team depends on making sure that roles are clearly defined, that all know what their responsibilities are, and importantly, what they do not include. One of the special challenges for the Equal Man is in deciding when he or she is a learner (as the Equal Men are also reinforcing their own learning during the course), and when he or she is an Equal Man supporting newer learners. All agree that good communication is very important to the success of the Equal Man approach. The first year of the programme, the instructors and Equal Men say, involved a lot of hard work in sorting out roles. They note that they need to re-adjust with each new course. The Dyslexia Association supports outside activities for learners in the programme, such as social events and occasional out-of-town travel (many adults with dyslexia, the president of the local Dyslexia Association says, have never left their home towns or stayed in a hotel). They note that social networks and peer support are an essential part of learner empowerment (Looney, Husby and Rynestad, Annex 2 on the Internet). Several instructors across the exemplary learning programmes visited for the OECD study commented that more active involvement of learners in the classroom also means that they have needed to change their own roles. An instructor at the Johannes Learning Centre in Stavanger notes that she probably speaks 50% less than in the past allowing learners themselves to do more of the talking. At the same time, the instructor is relieved of some of the burden of assessment as learners take on self- and peer-assessment (Looney, Husby and Rynestad, Annex 2 on the Internet). While peer assessment and/or group projects were prominent in all the OECD case studies visited, there are few studies on the impact of such approaches on the learning process and outcomes. Two small scale studies indicate that there are indeed benefits. Roberts et al. (2004) developed case studies of English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) groups in five different settings to identify distinctive features of learners and provision. Most relevant to the question of peer assessment was the finding that group interaction was the most significant mode of learning for the ESOL learner support. Interestingly, and calling for further investigation, the study found
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
By contrast, research by Hannah, Diaz, Ginsburg and Hollister (2004) found that learners using independent computer-assisted instruction to supplement classroom based made more progress in development of English oral skills. The learners in this experiment had intermediate level English.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Group work may also help to reduce learners dependency on the instructor. The learners can draw upon the skills and knowledge of a wider range of people. Peers may also be better able to help each other link new skills to real life contexts, a key element for adult learners (Barton et al., 2004, 2005, and 2006; Ivanic et al., 2005, 2006; Roberts et al., 2004, 2005). Box 7.5. An overview of peer learning Courses observed in California, Maryland and Massachusetts, United States
There was considerable use of students as resources for learning in most of the classes observed for the US case study. Typically, teachers would simply ask students to help their fellow students with tasks Adele, why dont you help her out there, you know how to do that dont you? Adele would then move over and sit down with the student needing help to work on the problem. Several students would be helping in this way at any time, meaning that there was considerable movement around the classroom. Although a few students appeared to be called on to help more frequently than others, there was also a reasonable degree of reciprocity between the students. This form of peer teaching was particularly common in mathematics and English as a Second Language (ESL) classes. For example, in several of the ESL classes, students were working with other students with the same language, unprompted by the teacher and this informal teaching was seen as part and parcel of the usual teaching process for that classroom. Along similar lines, there was a lot of time during the observations involving students working in pairs. A typical episode would involve the teacher teaching a point of grammar for example and then asking students to pair up and practise the point that had been taught. Another element of using students as resources could be seen in several teachers who wrote learners responses to written questions given for homework on the whiteboard and then rather than simply correcting the responses herself, the teacher would pose the question back to the learners, so what do you think of this answer? [its not right], all right, what would a better answer be? Students incorrect or incomplete responses were sometimes used as prompts for micro-teaching to clarify or correct the learners responses. The students appeared to be more engaged with this process than in instances where the teacher simply corrected and/or supplied the correct answer. In addition to the use of peer teaching, one teacher gave an interesting reply to a students request, can I tell her? [the answer]; she replied, no, but you can help her understand it whereupon the two students then discussed the mathematics problem and the first student subsequently provided the correct answer.
Source: Benseman and Comings (Annex 2 on the Internet).
The workplace may also provide some clues for peer work within classrooms. However, as Fuller and Unwin (2002) point out, managements approach to training and development affects the way in which interactions among colleagues benefit learning. The review of francophone literature
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Dialogue helps to build rapport within the classroom; learners feel safe to express their feelings and to reveal what they do and do not understand. Dialogue promotes participatory and democratic learning. Learners and instructors are equals within the classroom. Through negotiation, learners help set the terms of the learning process. Learners explore issues and problems related to specific learning objectives, but also offer their own critiques of the material or their feelings about it. Instructors identify specific learner needs, and adjust teaching.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
The skill of the instructor in guiding dialogue is crucial. This includes the instructors empathy as well as subject and pedagogical knowledge. Instructors also need to support learners while challenging them to deepen their skills and to think more independently. We have argued that instructors need to draw upon each of these elements as they guide classroom dialogue. For example, dialogue that is focused primarily on building rapport may miss opportunities to explore learner understanding of concepts. At the same time, dialogue focused on meeting narrow learning objectives may mean that learners do not develop their critical capacities, or express their own ideas and opinions. Adult LLN classrooms inevitably include learners with different learning needs and backgrounds. Instructors in the OECD case study classrooms take advantage of this diversity, drawing upon different experiences and talents of learners in the classroom. The focus on peer learning also helps to build solidarity within a group, and provides opportunities to catalyse learning. Peer assessment, which is fairly common across the programmes visited, may help learners to develop their own skills for self-assessment and learning-to-learn. As noted at the beginning of this chapter, the subject of classroom relationships is a central theme in much of the literature on adult learning, reflecting an absence of well-defined curriculum or standardised goals for learning. There are concerns, however, that the introduction of new curricula and standardised learning objectives encourage a much narrower focus for teaching and learning. Instructors in exemplary classrooms managed to balance teaching focused on meeting specific curriculum objectives with objectives to develop learners deeper skills. These instructors had worked hard to achieve this balance. But if policy makers are to encourage this kind of exemplary teaching on a broader basis, they will need to closely examine whether learning objectives and curricula are aligned with overall goals for learner progression and autonomy. They will also need to consider strengthening qualifications requirements and professional development for instructors to build these essential skills.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
References
Absolum, M. (2006), Clarity in the Classroom: Using Formative Assessment, Hodder Education, Auckland. Alexander, R. (2004), Towards Dialogic Teaching Rethinking Classroom Talk, Dialogos 2004. Barton, D. et al. (2004), Adult Learners Lives Project: Setting the Scene, NRDC Progress Report, London, April. Barton, D. et al. (2006), Relating Adults Lives and Learning: Participation and Engagement in Different Settings, NRDC Research Report, London, April. Barton, D. and U. Papen (2005), Linking Literacy and Numeracy Programmes in Developing Countries and the UK, NRDC Research Report, London, September 2005. Bastyns, C. and C. Stercq (2002), La place de l'alphabtisation dans les dispositifs d'ducation et de formation des adultes : tat des lieux de l'alphabtisation en Communaut franaise Wallonie-Bruxelles 2002, Lire et crire & Ministre de la Communaut franaise, Brussels. Baxter M., E. Leddy, L. Richards, A. Tomlin, T. Wresniwiro and D. Coben (2006), Measurement Wasnt Taught When they Built the Pyramids Was It? The Teaching and Learning of Common Measures in Adult Numeracy, NRDC Research Report, London. Beder, H. (2005), Research on Factors that Shape Engagement, Focus on Basics, Vol. 7, Issue D. Belfiore, M.E. and S. Folinsbee (2004), Workplace Learning and Literacies in Practice, in M.E. Belfiore, T.A. Defoe, S. Folinsbee, J. Hunter, N. Jackson (eds.), Reading Work: Literacies in the New Workplace, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New Jersey. Benseman, J. and J. Comings (Annex 2 on the Internet).
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Boud, D. (2000), Sustainable Assessment: Rethinking Assessment for the Learning Society, Studies in Continuing Education, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 151-167. Breen, M. (2001), Overt Participation and Covert Acquisition in the Language Classroom, Learner Contributions to Language Learning New Directions in Research, Pearson Education, Harlow. Brookfield, S. (1990), The Skillful Teacher: on Technique, Trust, and Responsiveness in the Classroom, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Charest, D. and S. Roy (2001), Tirer profit des expriences internationales, Ministre de l'ducation, Qubec. Colardyn, D. and K. Baltzer (Annex 2 on the Internet). Comings, J, A. Parrella and L. Soricone (1999), Persistence among Adult Basic Education Students in Pre-GED Classes, NCSALL Reports No 12, at www.ncsall.net/fileadmin/resources/research/report12.pdf, accessed 31-12-06. Condelli, L. (2002), Effective Instruction for Adult ESL Students: Findings from the What Works Study, accessed 31-12-06 from www.nrdc.org.uk/uploads/documents/doc_54.pdf Daniau, S. and P. Blanger (Annex 3 on the Internet). Derrick, J. and K. Ecclestone (Annex 3 on the Internet). Ecclestone, K. (2004), From Freire to Fear: The Rise of Therapeutic Pedagogy in Post-16 Education, in J. Satterthwaite et al. (eds.), The Disciplining of Education: New Languages of Power and Resistance, Trentham Books, Stoke on Trent. Eldred J., J. Ward, K. Snowdon and Y. Dutton (2005), Catching Confidence The Nature and Role of Confidence Ways of Developing and Recording Changes in the Learning Context, NIACE, Leicester. Fernndez, J.A. (1986), La Educacin de adultos, Un libro abierto, Libro Blanco, Ministerio de Educacin y Ciencia (ed.), Spain. Flecha Garca, R. (1997), Compartiendo palabras. El aprendizaje de las personas adultas a travs del dilogo, Paids, Barcelona. Forum des pratiques (2005), Dmarche d'valuation des apprentissages en AFB, document from the Groupe rgional Haute-Normandie presented at the Forum des pratiques ANLCI, Lyon, 7 April. Freire, P. (1972), The Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Sheed and Ward.
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Jorro, A. (2000), valuation de la formation des dispositifs et des actions de formation, in Unit 1: Ingnierie de la Formation Tome III : Une dmarche, des pratiques, Centre National dducation Distance, Poitiers, pp. 126. Knowles, M. (1983), Andragogy: An Emerging Technology for Adult Learning, in R. Edwards et al. (eds.), Boundaries of Adult Learning, Open University, 1996. Looney, J., A. Husby and T.D. Rynestad (Annex 2 on the Internet). Marr, B. (2000), Talking Volumes: Enhancing Talk, Language and Conceptual Development in Adult Mathematics and Numeracy Classes, Literacy and Numeracy Studies: An International Journal in the Education and Training of Adults, Vol. 10, No. 1 and 2, pp. 55-70, also reprinted in S. Kelly, B. Johnston, and K. Yasukawa (2003) (eds.), The Adult Numeracy Handbook Reframing Adult Numeracy in Australia, New South Wales Adult Literacy and Numeracy Australian Research Consortium, pp. 275-286. Marshall, B. and D. Wiliam (2006), English Inside the Black Box Assessment for Learning in the English Classroom, Kings College London, Department of Education and Professional Studies, London. McGivney, V. (1996), Academic Support, Chapter 10, Staying or Leaving the Course: Non-Completion and Retention of Mature Students in FHE, NIACE, Leicester. McNair, S. (1996), Learning Autonomy in a Changing World, in Edwards et al. (eds.), Boundaries of Adult Learning, Routledge, London. McNickle, C. (1994), Collaborative, Peer and Self Assessment: What the Literature Says, Canberra Institute of Technology, Canberra. Michel, B. (2006), Lutte contre l'illettrisme, formation de base des adultes et formation de leurs formateurs en Suisse romande : tat des lieux, Fondation pour le dveloppement de l'ducation permanente (FDEP), Geneva. Michel, B. and E. Maroun (Annex 2 on the Internet). Morton T., T. McGuire and M. Baynham (2006), A Literature Review of Research on Teacher Education in Adult Literacy, Numeracy and ESOL, NRDC, London. National Research and Development Centre (2005), Three Years On: What Research is Saying to Practice, NRDC, London.
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TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
This chapter introduces the third of the five steps in the OECD staircase. The focus is on specific techniques of formative assessment: feedback, questioning and scaffolding. There is a strong research base pointing to significant learning gains associated with these techniques for school-age and university learners. While there is no significant research on impact in the adult language, literacy and numeracy sector, there is, a rich literature based on practitioner wisdom. Instructors at the OECD case study sites had integrated several of these techniques into their practice. The chapter identifies areas where further research may reveal importance nuances for practice with the adult LLN population. The third step of the OECD staircase highlights the formative assessment techniques of feedback, questioning and scaffolding. These techniques are intended to uncover learner understanding, to help instructors pitch learning to the right level, and to provide learners with specific advice on how they can improve their performance. Research drawing on controlled studies at the compulsory (Black and Wiliam, 1998) and university levels (Brookhart, 2001; Crooks, 1988; Gibbs and Simpson, 2003) points to the significant learning gains associated with these techniques. This research has been extremely important for promoting formative assessment at the level of both policy and practice. There is a rich literature on these techniques in the adult LLN sector, but it is usually based on practitioner wisdom, or findings from very small-scale empirical studies. The lack of significant research featuring controlled studies in the adult LLN sector has meant that little is known about the real impact of these formative techniques on outcomes for this population. Nor has it been possible to develop a more finely-tuned understanding of how these techniques should be adjusted for adult LLN learners. This chapter explores the state of the art in the adult LLN context, including literature based on practitioner wisdom, evaluations of ICT programmes, and in
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Feedback
Feedback is central to effective formative assessment. The OECD case study researchers observed instructors giving learners a lot of positive feedback. In an English-language class at the Mary Ward Centre in London, for example, instructors used words such as good, great, and fantastic when giving feedback. Instructors were also sure to point out when learners were able to do something they had not been able to do earlier. When providing feedback on where a learner needed to put more effort, it was never negative usually the vagaries of the language were blamed, and not the learner. At the same time, instructors gently challenged learners to rethink incorrect answers, and to understand the nature of their mistakes avoiding the charge of collusion with learners (that is, validation of incorrect work). At the Ateliers de Formation de Base (AFB) in Haute-Normandie, the action researchers developed an individual tracking tool to record learner progress over the course of an activity. Case study researchers observed that, when using the tool, the instructors proposed initial tasks, but then stepped back in order to observe and record essential points. They did not intervene during the course of the activity. Typically, the instructors involved in this project make a point of refraining from pointing out learner gaps. They feel that learners are already well aware of what they are not able to do; reinforcing the negative only serves to de-motivate and devalue the learners (Forum des pratiques, 2005). Their approach is supported by a study by Turner and Watters (2001), which found that feedback viewed as enriching rather than judging is highly effective. The authors report that learners in the study .were surprised at becoming hooked into learning, and that they were more interested in how they were learning than how successfully they were performing. Several learners at the three English case study sites agreed that regular feedback and reviews of progress were important to them not only for the specific suggestions the instructor may provide, but also because they found it motivating. They found feedback to be particularly helpful when they were beginning to struggle (Comings and Vorhaus, Annex 2 on the Internet). At the TKO second chance school in Hoboken, Belgium, learners agreed that while formative assessment is more work, it is helpful for
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
subjects that require building up of knowledge over time (Rosen and De Meyer, Annex 2 on the Internet). Not all feedback is effective and indeed, feedback cannot be considered to have been formative until it has been used to improve performance. Several commentators note that assessment may only be considered as formative when feedback is used to close the learning gap (Boud, 2000; Sadler, 1989; Black and Wiliam, 1998). Interactive engagement in feedback and learner efforts to close the learning gap also enable the instructor to assess the effectiveness of the approach with a particular learner in a specific situation. Importantly, the effectiveness of different approaches to feedback is also critically affectedby what each learner understands about the nature and purposes of the assessment process itself. Boud (2002) describes the damaging nature of the final language of assessment even including terms such as good, right, and so on. In a small-scale quantitative study of a group of access learners, Young (2000) found that individual learners had very different perceptions of the messages being given through feedback on their work. Their opinions as to whether it was important to receive positive comments varied. Young also reports that for some students, feedback was only work; others felt their whole sense of self was at stake. A number of commentators give advice on effective feedback based on observation and experience. In line with Black and Wiliams (1998) findings on the effectiveness of feedback for younger learners, a number of commentators recommend that feedback for adult learners be focussed on the task at hand, and not on the ego of the learner.1 In their summary of this literature, Derrick and Ecclestone (Annex 3 on the Internet) also suggest that if instructors are not aware of the various nuances involved in giving feedback, or cannot adjust teaching appropriately, then the formative benefits of feedback may not be realised, and ...learners motivation may even be affected negatively.
Meyer, Mittag and Engler (1986) showed that learner reactions to praise and blame are based on their self-concept of ability. In their study, students who were praised inferred lower task-specific competence than students who received neutral feedback. The level of cognitive development seems to be a moderator of such paradoxical effects: Barker and Graham (1987) found that the learners of different ages infer different meanings from praise and criticism. Younger learners always infer that praise indicates high ability, whereas older learners may take praise as indicating lower ability (a paradoxical effect). It is not clear that these findings will hold for adult LLN learners, however. This population needs to be studied separately.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
ICT-based feedback
Perhaps one of the most promising features of ICT in adult learning is its potential to provide learners with immediate and constructive feedback. ICT-based feedback may involve online interaction between learners, instructors and peers, as well as automated feedback. However, the effectiveness of these approaches depends very much on the quality of the feedback whether from the on-line instructor or the programme. Research on the impact of e-learning on learner performance in Germanspeaking countries may also provide some clues on effective feedback in the ICT context. Grotlschen (2003) conducted a series of interviews with adult learners using e-learning in companies and in training situations in Germany, including the use of multiple choice tests, open questions and an
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
application portfolio. While the study is of a very small scale and findings are not generalisable to other groups, it nevertheless raises interesting questions. The study found that the online multiple-choice tests appear to have motivated the learners to continue working, although they apparently (and very importantly) did not retain any of the content of the lessons. When asked about what they liked best about the lesson, learners responded that they would need to look at the chapters online again, because they couldnt tell by heart what the chapters were about. The web-based software also included tests with open questions, but the learners did not receive any personalised feedback on their answers. Learners found this lack of personalised feedback discouraging and so did not use the tests. In some cases, learners did receive personalised feedback. For example, with one e-learning programme, learners were able to make an online presentation of project results to their peers and the tutor. The instructor in this particular study preferred to give hints for further improvement, but left it up to the learner to decide how to use the hints. The lighter approach to feedback allowed learners to retain ownership of the work, and appears to have contributed to their continued participation in the process (Grotlschen, 2003). While this approach may come closer to simulating a classroom setting, there are still some drawbacks. For instance, unless the instructor and learner are on-line at the same time, the learner will not receive immediate feedback, while questions and concerns are still fresh. In addition, the learner and instructor do not have the same opportunities to develop relationships, and the learner may therefore be less accepting of the instructors technical competence and quality of advice. In Spain, the e-gramm initiative (developed by Lawley and Beltrn at the Universidad Nacional de Educacin a Distancia and first launched in 2001) provides detailed and explicit feedback to learners at a low level of proficiency on their written compositions for English as a Foreign Language courses. E-gramm provides two complementary filters to identify incorrect sequences and problem words. In developing the programme, the project team analysed common mistakes in hundreds of learner compositions, encoded them, and wrote feedback to enable learners to modify their own writing. Currently e-gramm is able to detect 60 to 70% of mistakes made by Spanish mother tongue learners, and it could be expanded further. Because e-gramm requires that learners make their own corrections, the developers believe that learners benefit (Sanz, Annex 3 on the Internet). The e-gramm initiative has not yet been evaluated, although Sanz (Annex 3 on the Internet) proposes that it holds much more potential than
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Questioning
Effective questioning can help to draw learners into active dialogue and debate, joint enquiry, and/or reveal whether learners have understood a new concept. Questioning may help to establish common understandings within heterogeneous groups, where learners have different backgrounds, as well as different ways of thinking and approaches to problem-solving. It may also help to establish whether learners have indeed made progress in closing learning gaps. Several commentators recommend that teachers develop a repertoire of questioning techniques. Questions that push learners to reflect and/or explain are more useful (for example, how?, why?, are you sure?, are you happy with that?, show me, and other questions which cannot be answered with a yes or no). Questions to avoid include: double questions, leading questions, rhetorical questions and closed questions (those looking for a unique correct answer). These kinds of questions discourage learners from reflecting on the problem, or revealing that they do not understand (Derrick and Ecclestone, Annex 3 on the Internet; Rogers, 2001). Box 8.1. Johannes Learning Centre Stavanger, Norway
In a primary school level Norwegian language class observed, the content of the lesson was designed to meet requests several learners had made in their learning logs to spend a bit more time on prepositions, vocabulary and synonyms. In this class, learners worked in pairs and groups on a variety of tasks centred on the content. Throughout the class, the instructor was careful to ask open-ended questions. She did not give the answers right away, but delved into the questions further until learners were able to grasp the idea, and to also understand it from different angles. Questions were developed in a very systematic way. The instructor drew upon the knowledge of all learners in the class, and followed up responses to questions with new questions.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Creating safe environments to ask questions: several instances demonstrated that instructors were genuinely interested in hearing learners questions asking if anyone wanted anything explained further at the end of a session. Ensuring that questions are pitched at the right level: instructors asked questions at levels that were attainable, but also challenging. Leaving reasonable wait-time for learners to respond to questions so that they clearly understood that a response was expected from them and would not be answered by the teacher. Ensuring that the learners answered the questions and not the teacher so is that sentence OK? anything that you would like to see changed with it? (addressed to the whole class). Providing learners with realistic feedback on their answers along with suggestions for reviewing why the answer may have been incorrect or incomplete or additional questions to elicit another response. Tuning of questions based on learners responses: teachers often opened with a general, open question (so what do you all think about this?), but then gradually focussed their questioning both in relation to more specific topics (what do you think the writer is trying to do in this chapter?) and also finetuning their questions based on the learners responses (you think that its all about control in this case or something else?). Providing opportunities for high levels of learner: learner interaction in part due to the number of questions that students asked each other, but also to avoid instructor-dominated questioning. Promotion of critical thinking, for example by prompting students to make fine distinctions between similar words (fixable and feasible). Allowing for diversity of answers so that students received a message that there are a number of ways to answer correctly.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Swan (2005), in a study on questioning in mathematics teaching, found that instructors tended to ask low level questions, for example, testing learners recall of facts and procedures. The study found that allowing learners more time to respond to questions helped to significantly improve learner achievement.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Swain (2005) suggests that instructors need to spend more time developing questions that are worth asking, and which are critical to the learners understanding of the subject-matter. These should be followed up with appropriate activities. Hodgen and Wiliam (2006) suggest that instructors have more time to construct thoughtful interventions when they spend less time talking.
Scaffolding
Scaffolding is a key concept in formative assessment, building on Vygotskys concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD that is, the zone between what learners already know, and what they have yet to learn) (Vygotsky, 1986). Essentially, scaffolding means that instructors pitch the level of lessons and learning material so that learners get as much or as little challenge as they can handle at any given point. At the Buddies for Learning programme in Inverness, Scotland, instructors comment that there have been learners who even left their coats and hats on during the first sessions. This lack of confidence makes it necessary to provide learners with quick wins, such as enabling them to write their own name and address within two sessions (Sliwka and Tett, Annex 2 on the Internet). Instructors at the Reading and Writing Circle in Verdal, Norway cite similar experiences. These positive learning experiences help to facilitate further success (Looney, Husby and Rynestad, Annex 2 on the Internet). The Comings, Parrella and Soricon (1999) study on learner persistence, referred to in earlier chapters, found that learners were more successful if they built their sense of self-efficacy through mastery, including quick early wins, social persuasion and opportunities to address emotional states (among other significant factors). These elements highlight the importance of dialogue and discussion in the learning setting. In some cases, programmes may get involved in addressing wider issues affecting the learners ability to engage in classroom work. Learners may be in precarious economic, social and linguistic situations, with few of the skills necessary to help them cope (reading, writing, and numeracy, but also problem-solving abilities and resilience). At the Savoirs pour Russir (SPR) programme in Marseilles, the programme leaders find it important to address the learners social (housing, health, identity papers) and personal difficulties (identity). The volunteer tutors help learners identify the personal tools and resources they already have for problem-solving, and then provide the extra help needed to become increasingly independent. It is a process of
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
they have met all the criteria. Instructors say that learners improve their ability to assess their own writing as well as that of their peers in this process. They are also developing skills that will serve them later, as this process is consistent with the kind of writing done within work contexts, and where co-workers often set their own criteria (Rosen and De Meyer, Annex 2 on the Internet). Instructors at the Reading and Writing Circle in Verdal and at the Johannes Learning Centre in Stavanger, Norway separately commented that, with experience, they have learned to focus on helping learners do a few things well. They may also cover the same topics repeatedly during a course in order to reinforce learning. The mathematics instructor at the Johannes Learning Centre commented that his learners are coping better, building their confidence with mathematics, and addressing their emotional blocks to learning. Learners also say that they appreciate that they are allowed to progress at their own pace (Looney, Husby and Rynestad, Annex 2 on the Internet). The Spanish research community emphasises the spiral construction of learning, which may also be described as a process of progressive enrichment. This approach is relevant to scaffolding of learning. It involves a three-step process: observing reality; evaluating reality, and, acting on reality. The process then starts again (Sanz, Annex 3 on the Internet). Bruner (1996), in his own description of the spiral construction of learning, notes that knowledge can be represented at varying levels of abstractness and complexity. Vergnaud (1990) points out that learning is much less linear and progressive than it is often presumed to be. This explains why instructors are sometimes surprised when learners do not transfer learning from one situation to another, even when the problems appear to be closely related. Nevertheless, instructors and learners need to keep in mind that they always have some expertise or knowledge on which they can draw to address a new situation. The challenge is to identify this anchor and build on it. Instructors thus identify the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1986) through observation of the learner in action. They try to understand the learners logic in approaching problems. Such an approach takes a more global view of the learner and his or her capabilities than assessment focused on one particular learning objective (see also the discussion in Michel and Maroun, Annex 2 on the Internet). Instructors need strong subject knowledge when deciding where to focus their attention. For example, when emphasising quality over quantity, instructors need to know which core principles are the most important for learners in a given subject. Which basics does a learner need to know before
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Box 8.5. Learn and Workplace, Flemish Public Employment Service (VDAB) Leuven, Belgium (continued)
When there are only a few learners this way of working is not difficult. However, when there are more learners, the instructor must move quickly through the lab, and back and forth between the two rooms to stay in touch with how each learner is doing and assign new work a model sometimes referred to as teaching on roller skates. It requires a high degree of expertise in mathematics, teaching strategies, and the ability to mentally keep track of how each learner is doing. Immediately after each session the instructor takes careful notes on what each learner has accomplished and what the learner needs to do next time. She will discuss her notes with the learner at the beginning of the next open lab session. She also sends a copy of the progress notes, immediately after the session, to the VDAB (the Flemish Public Employment Service) instructor who gives the vocational course the learner attends, and to the learners counsellor at the VDAB. This communication accomplishes several things. First, it keeps the VDAB instructor and counsellor informed of the learners progress. Second, it builds and maintains good relationships between the job skills training, VDAB counselling and foundation skills staff. The instructor also sometimes suggests ways in which the numeracy skills could be reinforced in the vocational classes. Collaboration with the professional VDAB training instructors is also practiced as new assessments are developed. The Learn and Workplace instructor works oneon-one with the vocational instructor to assess the numeracy skills and knowledge needed for training and for the job. In some cases this includes understanding math theory, for example, understanding the binary system is important for certain kinds of electrical work. Heidi also works with the VDAB vocational instructors to tailor the curriculum to the needs of the vocational training, and the needs of the learners. For example, often a curriculum needs to have more levels added to address a wider range of learner needs.
Source: Rosen and De Meyer (Annex 2 on the Internet).
Learners in larger programmes may also fill specific learning gaps with extra courses. For example, the Mary Ward Centre in London offers courses to help adults who have been out of school for a long time or who have poor study skills. Immigrant learners whose literacy skills are in a non-Latin script may take courses to prepare them for entry into a regular English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) class. There is also a study workshop for learners who need ongoing support. The Skills for Life programme in Croydon, the Continuing Education and Training Services (CETS) centre, offers support for learners with dyslexia, as well as e-based workshops for learners who enter late in the term and want to catch up. York College offers courses for learning through information technology, spelling, memory, budgeting and financial literacy in addition to the literacy and numeracy courses offered in the Skills for Life courses (Comings and Vorhaus, Annex 2 on the Internet).
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
The site is to be relaunched as ich-will.de and will include English, numeracy and other subjects.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
References
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TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Murphy, R. et al. (2002), E-Desk: A Review of Evidence on the Effectiveness of Discrete Educational Software (Technical Report), SRI International, Menlo Park, CA. OECD (2006), ICT and Learning: Supporting Out-of-School Youth and Adults, OECD, Paris. Rogers, J. (2001), Adults Learning, Open University Press (fourth edition). Rosen, D. and I. De Meyer (Annex 2 on the Internet). Sadler, D.R. (1989), Formative Assessment and the Design of Instructional Systems, Instructional Science, Vol. 18, pp. 145-156. Sanz, F. (Annex 3 on the Internet). Swain, J. (2005), Changes to Adult Learners Identities through Learning Numeracy, Literacy and Numeracy Studies, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 5-16. Swain, J., G. Griffiths and R. Stone (2006), Integrating Formative/Diagnostic Assessment Techniques into Teachers Routine Practice in Adult Numeracy, Research and Practice in Adult Literacy, Vol. 59, Spring. Swan, M. (2005), Improving Learning in Mathematics: Challenges and Strategies, DfES Standards Unit, London. Turner C. and K. Watters (2001), Proof Positive Learners Views on Approaches to Identifying Achievement in Non-Accredited Learning, NIACE, Leicester. Vergnaud, G. (1990), La thorie des champs conceptuels, Recherches en Didactique des Mathmatiques, Vol. 10, No. 23, pp. 133-170. Vygotsky, L.S. (1986), Thought & Language, 2 edition, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Young, P. (2000), I Might as Well Give Up: Self-Esteem and Mature Students Feelings About Feedback on Assignments, Journal of Further and Higher Education, Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 409-418.
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This chapter introduces the fourth of the five steps in the OECD staircase. The focus is on how adults build greater autonomy through strategies such as negotiating and setting their own goals for learning, and through peer and self-assessment. There is also an important emphasis on ensuring that skills will be useful for learners in real-life settings. Two of the earliest and most influential writers on adult learning, Freire (1972) and Knowles (1983), see adult education as a process through which learners aim to gain independence from the instructor. Similarly, the francophone commentator Goffinet (1989) asserts that learner autonomy is the only real long-term measure of the effectiveness of teaching and learning. For Abrecht (1991), the instructors job is to provide the necessary support and tools until learners are able to do things more independently. The more recent OECD Definition and Selection of Competencies (DeSeCo) (OECD, 2005) places autonomy at the centre of its framework of key competencies. DeSeCo defines autonomy as the ability of individuals to think for themselves as an expression of moral and intellectual maturity, and to take responsibility for their learning and for their actions. More concretely, individual autonomy includes the ability to develop and see through personal projects and life plans. Learner autonomy is an essential part of the learner progression, and is the fourth step of the OECD staircase.
These observations are very much in line with the research on learner progression. As Helsing et al. describe, learners at Level 1 expect their instructors to communicate knowledge clearly, giving them the rules to follow to get the right answers. Good instructors make sure that the students understand the subject matter (Helsing, Drago-Severson and Kegan, 2004, citing Drago-Severson, 2001; Drago-Severson and Berger, 2001; Helsing, Broderick and Hammerman, 2001; Kegan et al., 2001a, 2001b; Portnow, Diamond and Rimer, 2001). See also the discussion on learner progression in Chapter 10.
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I am now able to help my children with their homework and that means we are happier together as a family as Im not so worried about not understanding how they learn to read. I have got a job as a gardener now that I can read and write better and this has always been my goal. I am now the Trade Union representative at work and doing this course has helped me to give advice to other staff about, for example, filling in Health and Safety forms. Learning makes you feel better about yourself you know. Now that I know I can learn I want to go on and do more and so I have now enrolled for a computing course at my local college (Sliwka and Tett, Annex 2 on the Internet).
In a second example, an external evaluation of the Trailer Mobile Teaching Unit at the Danfoss Company in Southern Jutland, Denmark, noted the satisfaction of both learners and the enterprise with the programme. Evaluators observed that the working climate had improved, and that individuals who had participated in the courses were more flexible and were able to take on new functions in jobs that demanded reading skills (Colardyn and Baltzer, Annex 2 on the Internet). In a third example, instructors at the Adult Learning Centre in Arendal, Norway shared ways in which both they and learners had benefited with the integration of portfolio methods into teaching and learning. The instructors said that:
They are more goal-oriented in their teaching and assessment practices. They are paying more attention to which teaching and learning approaches are most effective with different learners. Learners now participate in and take more responsibility for planning the learning process that is, what and how they will learn (Looney, Husby and Rynestad, Annex 2 on the Internet).
In a fourth example, instructors at the second chance school the Tweedekansonderwijs (TKO) in Hoboken, Belgium observed that learners were more motivated and were achieving more and learning better. Since the emphasis is more on attitudes and broader skills such as learning how to learn and problem solving and not merely on passing a test the instructors consider the learning now to be more connected to learners lives (Rosen and De Meyer, Annex 2 on the Internet).
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The Adult Learning Centre in Arendal and the Johannes Learning Centre in Stavanger, Norway have each created guidance hours, or study workshops, for learners. Instructors in the two programmes say that the guidance hours have provided time and space for them to work more closely with learners. Learners are free to choose what they will work on during this time, and to decide how they will focus their attention. Instructors are thus able to observe learners approaches to problem-solving.
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Several of the case studies provide examples of how instructors help learners to build strategies to organise their time and approaches to studying, to reinforce their own learning in real-life settings, and to assess their own level of competence. For learners with little prior schooling, for example, this may involve such skills as learning how to keep their work organised (by writing dates on their papers, ensuring that their notes are legible, and so on). Learners may also need help in figuring out how to keep from getting blocked by a specific difficulty. For example, learners at the Reading and Writing Circle in Verdal, Norway have learned that they can understand the gist of something they are reading without understanding every word. This is an important skill for automaticity in reading (that is, the ability to decipher words rapidly). They have also learned to note key words and highlight important points. These are important breakthroughs for learners. The I Can portfolio in use at Adult Learning Centre in Arendal helps learners to see how they are becoming more independent over time. Each lesson in the portfolio asks learners to identify what they can do and what they can do with some help, what they want to learn more about and what they ought to work on. In a class observed for the case study, the instructor discussed with learners how they might assess their level of reading comprehension using the worksheet. How can you test yourself to see if you understand? How can you work later [outside of the class setting]? How can you check if you understand new words? The instructor solicits ideas from the learners. Learners suggest that they can cooperate with other learners, develop their own questions, and so on (Looney, Husby and Rynestad, Annex 2 on the Internet). This positive approach to identifying competencies and how one learns is also important to building learners confidence. As a learner at the Learning Buddies programme in Renfrewshire, Scotland said, Now that Ive begun to understand how I can learn, I want to learn more and more (Sliwka and Tett, Annex 2 on the Internet). Two American commentators find that many adult LLN learners are already actively engaged in independent learning activities. Reder (2006) analysed data from the US-based longitudinal study of adult learning (LSAL), which provided a sample size of 940 learners. He found that learner self-study is widespread, both among adults who are in literacy programmes and those who are not. Self-study may include the use of workbooks, ICT-based programmes, and other materials. Reder argues that learners operate at higher levels of autonomy in relation to education, even at the lowest levels, than is often assumed. Although the study cannot draw any conclusions related to the quality of learning in the self-study environment, there is evidence that it is an important factor in long-term persistence. Comings, Parrella and Soricon (1999) found that the learners
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How is it to be a student (rank from 1 to 6)? How do you feel about and experience the teacher? How do you evaluate your work as a student? What about absences? Overview of how the student learns Use of the study plan What about the learning environment in the VUC (Adult Education Centre)? What about the learning environment in the group? What can I do as a teacher to help you (the student)? What does the student do to take responsibility for his/her own learning process?
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and develop their confidence, ability to plan, take initiative and make independent judgments. In several of the exemplary programmes featured in this report, efforts to build autonomy begin with the learners involvement in negotiating what and how they will learn when they first enter a programme or start a new course. They are active partners at each step of the learning process. Learners gradually develop the confidence to use their own judgment regarding the quality of their work, and for identifying gaps in their learning. As this chapter has shown, instructors in the OECD exemplary case studies have found a number of different ways to help learners develop their skills for autonomy and learning-to-learn. Programmes have created special guidance hours and courses focused on learning-to-learn. They have also integrated the teaching of these skills into regular course work helping learners to better organise their time, develop effective study techniques, draw upon and develop their reasoning skills, assess the quality of their own work, and decide upon next steps. Learner autonomy is also important because many LLN learners are already engaged in independent learning. It is a vital way for learners to maintain their interest and focus if they are unable to participate in formal training for a period of time. While there is a need to look more closely at the kinds of materials that are most effective for independent learning, there is evidence that learners who participate in both organised and independent learning opportunities tend to make greater progress. Learners often measure their own success in terms of what they have achieved in their family, work, community and private lives. As they become more independent, they are also more confident about what they are able to contribute in these different areas of their lives.
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References
Abrecht, R. (1991), L'valuation formative: une analyse critique, De Boeck Universit, Brussels. Anderson, A. and M. Nicol (2000), Computer-Assisted vs. TeacherDirected Teaching of Numeracy in Adults, Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, Vol. 16(3), pp. 184-192. Benseman. J. and J. Comings (Annex 2 on the Internet). Claxton, G. (1995), What Kind of Learning Does Self-Assessment Drive? Developing a Nose for Quality: Comments on Klenowski, Assessment in Education, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 339-343. Colardyn, D. and K. Baltzer (Annex 2 on the Internet). Comings, J., Parrella, A. and L. Soricone (1999), Persistence among Adult Basic Education Students in Pre-GED Classes, NCSALL Reports No. 12, at www.ncsall.net/fileadmin/resources/research/report12.pdf, accessed 31-12-06. Comings, J. and J. Vorhaus (Annex 2 on the Internet). Condelli, L. (2002), Effective Instruction for Adult ESL Students: Findings from the What Works Study, accessed 31-12-06 from www.nrdc.org.uk/uploads/documents/doc_54.pdf Connolly, M., D. Saunders and P. Hodson (2001), Can Computer-Based Learning Support Adult Learners?, Journal of Further and Higher Education, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 325-335. Daniau, S. and P. Blanger (Annex 3 on the Internet). Darkenwald, G. (1986), Adult Literacy Education: A Review of the Research and Priorities for Future Inquiry, Literacy Assistance Center, New York. Derrick, J. and K. Ecclestone (Annex 3 on the Internet).
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Doherty C., F. Mangubhai and J. Shearer (1996), Assessment as an Ongoing Feature of the Learning Environment, in J. Cumming and C. Kraayenoord (eds.), Adult Literacy and Numeracy: Assessing Change, Adult Literacy Research Network, Language Australia, Melbourne. Doubler, S. et al. (2003), When Learners Learn on-Line, What Does the Facilitator Do?, paper presented at the American Educational Research Association Annual Conference, Chicago, Illinois, 21-25 April. Drago-Severson, E. (2001), Were Trying to Get Ahead: A Developmental View of Changes in Polaroid Learners Conceptions of Their Motivations for Learning, Expectations of Teachers, and Relationship to Work, in R. Kegan et al. (eds.), Toward a New Pluralism in the ABE/ESOL Classroom: Teaching to Multiple Cultures of Mind A Constructive Developmental Approach, National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy, Cambridge, MA. Drago-Severson, E. and J.G. Berger (2001), Not I Alone: The Power of Adult Learning in the Polaroid Cohort, in R. Kegan et al. (eds.), Toward a New Pluralism in the ABE/ESOL Classroom: Teaching to Mutiple Cultures of Mind A Constructive Developmental Approach, National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy, Cambridge, MA. Ecclestone, K. (2002), Learning Autonomy in Post-16 Education: The Politics and Practice of Formative Assessment, Routledge Falmer, London. Fordham, P., D. Holland and J. Millican (1995), Adult Literacy, a Handbook for Development Workers, Oxfam/VSO. Forum des pratiques (2005), Dmarche d'valuation des apprentissages en AFB, document from the Groupe rgional Haute-Normandie presented at the Forum des pratiques ANLCI, Lyon, 7 April. Freire, P. (1972), The Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Sheed and Ward. Goffinet, S.-A. (1989), Pratiquer l'valuation formative dans un cours d'alphabtisation, Commission valuation Lire et crire, Brussels. Grotlschen, A. and F. Bonna (Annex 3 on the Internet). Grotlschen, A. and B. Brauchle (2004), Bildung als Brcke fr Benachteiligte. Hamburger Anstze zur berwindung der Digitalen Spaltung. Evaluation des Projekts ICC - Bridge to the Market, Mnster.
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Helsing, D., M. Broderick and J. Hammerman (2001), A Developmental View of ESL Students Identity Transition in an Urban Community College, in R. Kegan et al. (eds.), Toward a New Pluralism in the ABE/ESOL Classroom: Teaching to Multiple Cultures of Mind A Constructive Developmental Approach, National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy, Cambridge, MA. Helsing, D., E Drago-Severson and R. Kegan (2004), Applying Constructive-Developmental Theories of Adult Development to ABE and ESOL Practices, in J. Comings, B. Garner and C. Smith (eds.), Review of Adult Learning and Literacy: Connecting Research, Policy and Practice, Vol. 4, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., New Jersey. Jeris, L. (2002), Comparison of Power Relations within Electronic and Face-to-Face Classroom Discussions: A Case Study, Australian Journal of Adult Learning, Vol. 42(3), pp. 300-311. Kegan, R. et al. (2001a), Adult Development Teams Executive Summary, NCSALL Rep No. 19A, NCSALL, Cambridge, MA. Kegan, R. et al. (2001b), Toward a New Pluralism in the ABE/ESOL Classroom: Teaching to Mutiple Cultures of Mind: A Constructive Developmental Approach, NCSALL, Cambridge, MA. Klenowski, V. (1995), Student Self-Evaluation Processes in StudentCentred Teaching and Learning Contexts of Australia and England, Assessment in Education, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp 145-163. Knowles, M. (1983), Andragogy: An Emerging Technology for Adult Learning, in R. Edwards et al. (eds.), Boundaries of Adult Learning, Open University 1996. Lehouillier, L. (1995), Apprciation par des enseignantes et des reprsentants du monde du travail d'une exprimentation de pratiques ducatives partenariales en alphabtisation, Universit de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke.
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Lewis, L. and M. Delcourt (1998), Adult Basic Education Students Attitudes Toward Computers, SCUTREA 1998 Conference Proceedings, pp. 238-242. Lindsay, A. and J. Gawn (2005), Developing Literacy: Supporting Achievement, NIACE, Leicester. Looney, J., A. Husby and T.D. Rynestad (Annex 2 on the Internet). McGivney, V. (1996), Academic Support, Chapter 10 of Staying or Leaving the Course: Non-Completion and Retention of Mature Students in FHE, NIACE, Leicester. Maki, R. et al. (2000), Evaluation of a Web-based Introductory Psychology Course I. Learning and Satisfaction in On-line versus Lecture Courses, Behaviour Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, Vol. 32, pp. 230-239. Mayes, T. (2000), Pedagogy, Lifelong Learning and ICT, A Discussion Paper for the Scottish Forum on Lifelong Learning (First Forum: Role of ICT in Supporting Lifelong Learning), Centre for Research in Lifelong Learning, University of Stirling. OECD (2005), The Definition and Selection of Competencies: Executive Summary, OECD, Paris. Perry, W. (1970), Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College Years: A Scheme, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York. Portnow, K., A. Diamond and K.P. Rimer (2001), Becoming What I Really Am: Stories of Personal Creation, Recreation, and Refreshment in an Even Start ABE/ESOL Family Literacy Program: A Developmental Perspective, in R. Kegan et al. (eds.), Toward a New Pluralism in the ABE/ESOL Classroom: Teaching to Multiple Cultures of Mind A Constructive Developmental Approach, NCSALL, Cambridge, MA. Reder, S. (2006), Giving Literacy Away, Again: New Concepts of Promising Practice, in A. Belzer and H. Beder (eds.), Toward Defining and Improving Quality in Adult Basic Education: Issues and Challenges, Elbaum, Mahwah, NJ. Rosen, D. and I. De Meyer (Annex 2 on the Internet). Schladebach, A. (2006), Ein rotes Tuch: Formulare und Fragebgen! Auswertung der Teilnehmerbefragung im 2. Semester 2004 im Grundbildungszentrum der Hamburger Volkshochschule Aus: Grotlschen, A, and Linde, A. (Hrsg.): Literalitt, Grundbildung oder Lesekompetenz? Beitrge zu einer Theorie-Praxis-Diskussion, Mnster.
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This chapter introduces the fifth and final of the steps in the OECD staircase. In the spirit of lifelong learning, this step does not represent the end of the learning journey, but an opportunity to take stock of progress made and to identify next steps and goals. The chapter explores theories of learner progression that is, how learners move toward higher level skills and autonomy. Programmes have developed a range of formative assessment tools to track learner progression and adjust teaching and learning strategies to meet needs. Learners also participate in summative assessments at the end of a programme. Programmes may give formal examinations, or may use alternative approaches to assessing learner achievements. Not all learners are working toward certification. Recognition of learner progress is the final of the five steps that make up the OECD staircase although of course it is not the final step in the learning journey. Rather, it is an opportunity to identify next steps and goals. The emphasis is on measuring the distance travelled toward individual learner goals, and on creating lifelong learners. This chapter explores how programmes recognise learner progress toward personal goals as well as for certification. It starts with an exploration of theories of adult learner progression how learners move toward higher-level skills for critical analysis and autonomy. The chapter continues with an exploration of the range of approaches to assessment of learner progress including formative and summative assessment. An important sub-theme in the chapter, as throughout this report, is the fundamental tension between the teaching and learning focused on attainment of learning objectives as defined in official curricula and other documents, and more complex skills, which cannot be reduced to simple objectives.
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In a synthesis of theories on adult learning progression, Helsing, DragoSeverson and Kegan (2004) point out that the learners evolution from simpler to more complex ways of knowing depends on the nature of supports, encouragement and challenges. Their analysis is based on a synthesis of models developed by: Baxter Magolda, 1992; Belenky et al., 1986; Kegan, 2001; King and Kitchener, 1994; and Perry, 1970. These models of adult learner progression set out broadly similar descriptions of the nature and direction of growth. Helsing et al.s synthesis describes four levels of adult development in learning. Learners at Level 1 are described as having an absolutist stance toward knowing (Perry, 1970). Learners at this level believe that good students study hard, follow clear instructions and rules, find the right answers, get good grades, and possess the correct facts and skills (p. 169). At Level 2, learners recognise that some knowledge is only partially certain (Baxter Magolda, 1992). Learners are interested not only in acquiring knowledge, but also in understanding how they can apply it in other parts of their lives. They also develop a greater awareness of themselves as learners, and their own attitudes toward learning and the subject they are learning. Adult learners at Level 3 are developing critical thinking capacities and draw upon standards and criteria to assess information and to make their own judgements. At Level 4, learners are able to create and explain their own complex ideas, to construct their own standards for self-assessment, and take responsibility for their own learning. As with younger learners, individual adult learners vary in the pace of development, how they take in, organise, understand and analyse new information. Prior knowledge and experiences also shape learners approaches to learning.
to maintain their motivation. At the end of the year, the learner and instructor complete a Final Tutorial Record. It is important that the learner take ownership of the ILP. The Mary Ward Centre in England has developed two important innovations. First, they have started working with interpreters for those immigrant learners whose English is too poor to discuss the ILP with the instructor. Second, they have reduced the ILP forms from the full A4 size to a much smaller size which makes it more convenient for learners to carry around in a small ring binder. This, in turn, also helps learners develop a sense of ownership. (Some forms are also kept in files at the programme so instructors can refer to them, or outside evaluators may look at them to see that formative assessment is taking place) (Comings and Vorhaus, Annex 2 on the Internet). Box 10.1. The Scottish Adult Literacy and Numeracy Programme
Guidance on progression is also part of this process of regular review [with learners] and includes checking if the barriers that learners have identified to their progress are being overcome and if the support needs they have identified are still relevant. At these reviews progress is recognised in the four areas of life: family, community, work and lifelong learning. Achievements can be hard to measure quantitatively other than in terms that progress is good, significant, slow, etc., but are recorded qualitatively through the learners comments on their own progress. In some cases learners build a portfolio of their work, for example, a learner who wanted to help her daughter with her reading, kept a copy of a tape of bed time stories she had told her daughter as well as the titles of books that she had practiced reading in class so she could read them to her daughter when she felt more confident about all the words. The skill and confidence of the tutor is crucial in this process and can be supplemented by participation of the local co-ordinator who is responsible for tutor-support.
Source: Sliwka and Tett (Annex 2 on the Internet).
In the general adult education programme in Frederikssund, Denmark the first six-week review of progress also covers elements that can affect the learners progress (e.g., family problems, friends, etc.). Instructors have guidelines that help them to address these topics. Learners may also raise questions about the teaching and learning process. Instructors note that learners may want to clarify their and the instructors responsibilities, to discuss the social climate of the class, whether they are enjoying the learning or are bored, what to expect next in the programme, and so on. Learners may record their feelings about their own progress (Colardyn and Baltzer, Annex 2 on the Internet).
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Portfolios
Portfolios of learners work samples are popular across several of the exemplary programmes featured in this report. Portfolios provide a way for instructors and learners to track progress over time, and in some cases, are also used to document achievement for official reporting purposes. Both instructors and learners in the OECD case study sites using portfolio methods perceived benefits of this approach (see also Klenowski, 1996). At the Johannes Learning Centre in Stavanger, Norway, two instructors have been using portfolios as a tool for learning for over a decade. As with ILPs, the focus is on helping learners to clarify their learning goals, what they need to do to reach those goals, and to track improvement over time. The instructors also try to be very clear about their expectations. In Norwegian and English language classes, the instructors remarked that many learners will throw away any papers they feel are less than perfect, so learners are asked to keep and take care of every draft of their writing. Together, the instructors and learners review the full portfolio in December, and again in March and at the end of the academic year, in June. Dates are written on texts so that learners can see their progress over time. Learners will see, for example, whether they are more organised, writing longer texts, writing in paragraphs, making fewer mistakes, and using more sophisticated grammar. In this way, learners find it easy to see their own development. When learners deliver their first portfolio to teachers for assessment and review, they are asked to self-assess their work as being very good, good, or not so good. If there is a discrepancy between the assessments of instructors and the self assessments of learners it is usually due to the lower ratings provided by learners. The portfolio review process is also about learners finding out how they are learning. You have to work with it stepby-step, comments one instructor. Instructors are also strategic in deciding how to structure their assessments. They might highlight things that need to be corrected, but leave the learner first to figure out why he or she is making
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mistakes, and then to correct them. Alternatively, the instructor may only highlight a particular kind of problem rather than every mistake that has been made. Instructors generally also schedule one-to-one meetings with learners to provide them with direct feedback. The Adult Learning Centre in Arendal, Norway has piloted a language portfolio, known as the I Can portfolio, as part of a European Grundtvig grant.1 The portfolio includes checklists of language competencies needed for everyday life, such as finding an apartment, helping children with their schoolwork, or for pursuing further education or employment goals. Checklists in the portfolios provide learners with a clear idea as to the gains they have made and what they need to focus on in their language learning in order to meet new goals. Language competencies are described in very specific and detailed ways. For example, I can understand short and simple instructions (usually related to a specific situation, such as making an appointment with the doctor). The levels are based on those developed for the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). Instructors at Adult Learning Centre in Arendal report that learners using the portfolio seem to be more aware of the different levels and types of language skills than they have been in the past. However, all learners need time before they are able to take responsibility for their own learning. Eventually they are able to use the portfolio as a tool for prioritising study tasks (Looney, Husby and Rynestad, Annex 2 on the Internet). Instructors in one of the general adult education (AVU) courses observed in Frederikssund, Denmark, encourage learners to develop computerised portfolios. Learners receive training on use of the portfolio computer programme, and how to store their best products and test results. Instructors notes on learners progress are also stored electronically, and are accessible to participants (Colardyn and Baltzer, Annex 2 on the Internet).
The Grundtvig programme is one out of four programmes in the EUs Socrates programmes for education. The Norwegian project builds on the European Language Portfolio, which was developed and piloted by the Language Policy Division of the Council of Europe between 1998 and 2000 as a tool to support the development of multilingualism and multiculturalism, and is based on the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). The Norwegian model also draws upon Dutch and Irish models which provide checklists for the progressive development of competencies necessary for English-language fluency.
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they need to do to close remaining learning gaps, and place greater value on what they have already learned. The instructors believe that the fact of writing down progress made, and what still needs to be done, also has a strong symbolic value for the learner (more so, they find, than is the case with oral feedback and discussion of progress) (Michel and Maroun, Annex 2 on the Internet). However, the checklists and logbooks are not universally popular with learners. As instructors in the General Adult Education programme in Frederikssund, Denmark mentioned, log books initially encountered a lot of learner resistance (I dont want to participate). Many learners prefer approaches that are closer to what they experienced at school, perhaps because they feel they have a better understanding of the rules and expectations (Colardyn and Baltzer, Annex 2 on the Internet).
Remedial diagnostics
Some programmes, such as the Reading and Writing Circle in Verdal, Norway, re-give diagnostic tests at different points to show learners how far they have advanced, and to identify areas where they need more work. It is important to note, however, that the diagnostic tests have not always been validated (Looney, Husby and Rynestad, Annex 2 on the Internet).
Examinations
As discussed in Chapter 3, several countries set out formal or standardised tests for certification. Preparing learners for these official tests may become an important focus. For example, the OECD case study visit to Denmark took place at the end of April, and the official qualification examinations were scheduled in May and June, so the case study researchers found a very explicit focus on preparing learners (and in particular young adult learners) for these examinations in two of the programmes. For example, in the AVU Youth programme in rhus which serves learners between 17 and 30 years of age, both the Danish language and mathematics instructors had prepared practice tests. The instructors tried to use these practice tests as opportunities for formative assessment with time for instructor and peer feedback. The mathematics instructor also discussed strategies the learners could use to improve their performance. The instructor and learners had earlier prepared a collection of pearls that is, solutions to different kinds of mathematics problems. Learners could refer to the pearls as a guide for solving similar problems encountered during the 3-hour examination (Colardyn and Baltzer, Annex 2 on the Internet). In the United States, OECD case study researchers report that the GED test or state high school diploma equivalent was the clear focus in many of the classrooms observed for the study.2 Teaching and learning centred on curriculum content, but also the culture of the examinations the learners expected to take. Several of the instructors in the US case study sites said that they made conscious efforts to avoid teaching from the workbook in order to prepare learners for examinations. Instead, they tailored learning to ensure that the content was relevant to the learners needs (Benseman and Comings, Annex 2 on the Internet).
Publicly funded programmes require pre- and post-tests of learner accomplishments, using standardised tests.
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In England, ambitious national targets for numbers of learners to earn certification in England place pressure on instructors. Instructors interviewed for the OECD case study in England said that with the introduction of targets, they had feared they would be restricted in what or how they were able to teach as a result of the increased focus on testing and certification. These instructors have found, in fact, that many of the learners are motivated to take the tests for certification. They do need to help learners to build their self-confidence and to develop effective strategies for testtaking, however (Comings and Vorhaus, Annex 2 on the Internet).
In 1999 the Flemish government moved from a system where learners in second chance education were required to take tests to earn their secondary school degrees, to a system where learners have the option of
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
The portfolio is based on the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) on language. It is intended to serve as a complement to regular educational certificates.
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References
Barton, D. and U. Papen (2005), Linking Literacy and Numeracy Programmes in Developing Countries and the UK, NRDC Research Report, London, September. Barton, D. et al. (2004), Adult Learners Lives Project: Setting the Scene, NRDC Progress Report, London, April. Barton, D. et al. (2006), Relating Adults Lives and Learning: Participation and Engagement in Different Settings, NRDC Research Report, London, April. Baxter Magolda, M.B. (1992), Knowing and Reasoning in College: GenderRelated Patterns in Students Intellectual Development, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Belenky, M. et al. (1986), Womens Ways of Knowing: The Development of Self, Mind, and Voice, Basic Books, New York. Belfiore, M.E. and S. Folinsbee (2004), Workplace Learning and Literacies in Practice, in M.E. Belfiore, T.A. Defoe, S. Folinsbee, J. Hunter, N. Jackson (eds.), Reading Work: Literacies in the New Workplace, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New Jersey. Benseman, J. and J. Comings (Annex 2 on the Internet). Colardyn, D. and K. Baltzer (Annex 2 on the Internet). Comings, J. and J. Vorhaus (Annex 2 on the Internet). Condelli, L. (2002), Effective Instruction for Adult ESL Students: Findings from the What Works Study, accessed 31-12-06 from www.nrdc.org.uk/uploads/documents/doc_54.pdf Derrick, J., K. Ecclestone and J. Merrifield (2007), A Balancing Act? The English and Welsh Model of Assessment in Adult Basic Education, in P. Campbell (ed.), Measures of Success: Assessment and Accountability in Adult Basic Education, Grass Roots Press, Edmonton, Alberta.
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TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
OECD and Statistics Canada (1997), Literacy Skills for the Knowledge Society: Further Results from the International Adult Literacy Survey, OECD, Paris. OECD and Statistics Canada (2005), Learning a Living: First Results of the Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey, OECD, Paris. Perry, W. (1970), Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College Years: A Scheme, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York. Rogers, J. (2001), Adults Learning, Open University Press (fourth edition). Schladebach, A. (2006), Ein rotes Tuch: Formulare und Fragebgen! Auswertung der Teilnehmerbefragung im 2. Semester 2004 im Grundbildungszentrum der Hamburger Volkshochschule Aus: Grotlschen, A, and Linde, A. (Hrsg.): Literalitt, Grundbildung oder Lesekompetenz? Beitrge zu einer Theorie-Praxis-Diskussion, Mnster. Sliwka, A. and L. Tett (Annex 2 on the Internet). Sticht, T. (1982), Evaluation of the Reading Potential Concept for Marginally Illiterate Adults, Human Resources Research Organisation, Alexandria, VA. Swain, J. et al. (2005), Beyond the Daily Application: Making Numeracy Teaching Meaningful to Adult Learners, NRDC Research Report, London, October. Turner, C. and K. Watters (2001), Proof Positive Learners Views on Approaches to Identifying Achievement in Non-Accredited Learning, NIACE, Leicester. Ward, J. and J. Edwards (2002), Learning Journeys: Learners Voices, Learning and Skills Development Agency, United Kingdom. Whitty, T. (1993), Pieces of Paper: A Survey of Student Attitudes to Accreditation in Adult Literacy and English Classes in Southwark, RapAL Bulletin No. 21, Summer 1993, reprinted in M. Herrington and A. Kendall (eds.), Insights from Research and Practice, NIACE, London, pp. 330-337.
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TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Chapter 11 Supporting Effective Practice Implications for Policy and Directions for Research
This chapter proposes a framework of seven interrelated principles for strengthening policy and practice, and for building the evidence base. It calls for broad debate on the nature of teaching, learning and assessment, as well as a range of practical strategies. The chapter also sets out a research agenda for this field, calling for greater attention to the impact of different approaches, and active engagement of researchers with policy makers and practitioners. Over the last decade, the International Adult Literacy Survey (OECD and Statistics Canada, 1994, 1995 and 1998), the Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey (OECD and Statistics Canada, 2005), and other national surveys have revealed the persistence and prevalence of low foundation skills in populations. Other research has pointed to the impact of low foundation skills on the economic, health and social well-being of individuals, families and communities. Across countries, policy makers have responded to these data with significant new investments and new programmes. New policies have been important for increasing the transparency, coherence as well as the status of the adult LLN sector. At the same time, investments are still insufficient to meet needs, and it is not clear that even current levels of funding will be sustained over time. These concerns are compounded by a lack of information on how effectively these new systems are promoting adult LLN learning. Data on outcomes other than certification are rare, and as we have mentioned previously, there is little attention to how data can be used to improve programmes and better meet learner needs. To address these gaps, our study has examined exemplary teaching, learning and assessment processes that lead to high quality outcomes. It has considered how policy can better promote and support effective practice across the sector. The studys initial focus on formative assessment has also
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
These seven principles serve as a broad framework for strengthening policy and practice and for building the evidence base.
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What are the underlying principles that should drive provision in the adult LLN system, and how should these be reflected in and aligned across policy and practice? Do these principles reflect the importance of the process of learning, as well as outcomes? What counts as success, and for whom? How can systems develop more meaningful measures of learner success (autonomy, social and economic integration, individual and family health)? Are approaches to learner assessment and programme evaluation consistent with goals and values for adult LLN? How do systems recognise complexity and address ambiguities? For example, measures of learning and programme accountability may be highly contested. The understanding of what it means to be a literate person shifts over time to reflect changes in society. The evidence base as to what works and for whom is underdeveloped. How are systems able to accommodate these uncertainties? Are learner assessment and programme evaluation used as tools for learning, and not merely to judge outcomes?
Debate focused on these and other key questions will help stakeholders to reflect on goals and values for provision, and strategies to support innovative and effective practice.
2) Strengthen professionalism
Effective teaching, learning and assessment centre on the quality of interactions between and among instructors and learners. High quality interactions involve a complex mix of skills in assessment, subject-matter and pedagogical expertise, and softer skills such as humour, patience, flexibility and empathy. How can systems better support instructors in developing this sophisticated set of skills? Instructors will need opportunities for effective training and professional development, as well as the ongoing support of programme leaders and peer networks. As instructors develop their skills, they develop the capacity to think and act reflectively diagnosing needs and developing appropriate responses. A strong focus on building learners higher level skills is also vital if teaching and learning are to move beyond mechanistic approaches, where instructors focus on the technical aspects of assessment. Instructors need to challenge learners, and to ensure that they are genuinely involved in the
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Assessments may be seen as a way to track learners toward meeting summative targets (an iterative process), rather than engaging with learners to build skills, knowledge and understanding (an interactive process). Policies to help structure classroom practice might include: broadly defined learning objectives, tools that can be adapted to context (for example, community-based or work-based programmes), and guidelines that provide insight into the process as well as the principles of formative assessment. In addition, training and professional development for formative assessment will help instructors to develop effective skills for guiding classroom interactions. The introduction of formative assessment as a framework for teaching and learning also enters into the debate on the nature of teaching and learning itself. As emphasised at the beginning of this study, formative assessment represents a fundamental change in how we think not only about assessment, but also about the whole approach to teaching and learning, and how instructors and learners work toward successful outcomes. Policies will need to align principles and strategies to effectively support this change in classroom cultures.
Instruction that fits learners patterns of participation. Programmes may help learners develop learning plans that include several modes of instruction (including classes, distance education, and peer learning). When learners cannot learn in classroom settings, they may continue through self-study. When they are ready to return to classroom learning, instructors can take into account the progress made through self-study. Policy makers can identify persistence
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Smoother pathways for progression. Countries have made a great deal of progress in creating more coherent pathways for progression. But some countries have also pointed to an ongoing lack of cooperation between agencies responsible for adult LLN provision. Learners thus face barriers in moving between programmes (for example, between foundation skill learning and vocational training, or from foundation to programmes offering higher level education and training). Further efforts are needed to improve inter-agency cooperation, and to ensure that the focus remains on the needs of individual learners. Portable portfolios as well as improved national databases to register learners progress toward goals over time and across programmes (whether through formal, informal or non-formal learning). The Adult Learning Inspectorate in England suggests the development of a Lifelong Learning Portfolio which would track a learners progress throughout his or her learning career. It could track learning progress toward a range of goals for personal, family, community and working life. Portable portfolios would also help to track learners participation in a range of settings (communitybased, work-based). A stronger focus on ensuring that formative and summative assessments are grounded in real-life contexts related to the learners goals. This may imply a thorough review of how well individual learning plans (ILPs) and learning contracts are integrated into teaching and learning (or whether they merely coexist with the official curriculum), as well as a review of the quality and relevance of the range of summative assessments. Summative and formative assessments that uncover learners problem solving skills (analysis, meaning association, ability to predict, infer, synthesise and track information) will reveal more about the learners ability to transfer new skills to daily life. Assessments may also consider direct evidence of how learners have integrated new skills into their daily and work lives (see also Chapter 10)
In addition, learners should be regularly consulted on their own views as to how well programmes are serving their needs.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
A focus on outcomes. While we have warned that narrowly defined outcomes also narrow teaching and learning a focus on outcomes is nonetheless essential. Clearly defined outcomes ensure that
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Targets. The idea of setting targets for numbers of learners to earn certification is problematic in systems that allow learners the choice to not work toward certification (and many learners choose not to). But targets that set realistic goals based on recent trends, focus on participation, and which recognise that learners may make different choices, can help to keep the focus on outreach and programme accessibility. Local communities and individual institutions may also set specific targets to improve services. National reporting systems. National databases provide guidelines for assessment, set out standards, and provide a nationally consistent means for tracking and reporting on learner outcomes. Instructors also have access to guidelines and tools for summative assessments. Potentially, these systems may also include details useful for identifying effective practices. Inspections and programme self-evaluations. Systems may also observe and evaluate practices and processes within programmes and classrooms. Inspections and self-evaluations can look more closely at how well programmes are integrating formative assessment to diagnose needs and shape teaching and learning. For example, the Flemish and English Inspectorates have also had some influence on promoting the practice of formative assessment at the programme and classroom level. The Scottish framework for programme self-evaluation includes criteria related to formative assessment practices, such as whether teaching and learning have been responsive to learners identified needs and goals, whether learners have met curriculum standards, evidence of the quality of teaching and learning from the learners ILP. The programme selfevaluation data are evaluated by the Scottish Executive, and areas for improvement are identified.
Systems may include surveys of learner satisfaction in accountability schemes. These may also provide a way to measure less tangible learning
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
gains, such as increases in the learners self-efficacy and confidence, increased involvement in social and community activities, improved ability to help children with homework, and so on. These outcomes are much harder to quantify than certification or course completion rates, but are nevertheless vital measures of programme effectiveness. Box 11.1. Gauging the quality of assessment and evaluation systems A short checklist
Learner assessment
Are learners fully involved in formative assessment processes for example, in setting goals for learning, assessing their progress toward goals, and discussing adjustments to teaching and learning with instructors? Do summative tests measure skills that are important to the development of learner autonomy? For example, do they measure learners skills of analysis, or capacity to transfer skills to daily life?
Programme evaluation
Are targets realistic (neither too high nor too low in their ambitions for programme provision)? Are they based on research on adult learner progression, or data on past trends? Do targets encourage programmes to serve only those learners who are most likely to succeed, or to serve all learners, including those with the greatest need? Do measures of programme performance and accountability provide information on the process of teaching, learning and assessment, as well as on outcomes? Do evaluation data help inform programme improvements? How? What additional data might be needed, and what data are unnecessary? Are programmes given the space to learn from what doesnt work and to make improvements? Are there mechanisms for learning at the systemic level to deepen the knowledge base and to disseminate knowledge on what works, to examine the effectiveness of policies across the different agencies responsible for adult LLN provision, and to adjust them when needed?
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
People
Several countries and programme leaders have reported the problem of high turnover of instructional staff (although in Denmark, it is common for instructors to have taught in the same programme for at least ten years). In addition, several countries report that a large group of instructors are over the age of 50, and therefore nearing retirement age. Two major challenges, therefore, are to attract new instructors to the sector, and to improve conditions of employment in order to increase instructor retention. The timing is opportune in terms of being able to reach a new generation of incoming instructors who will be entering this sector. However, it will take time for new qualification requirements to filter through in the sector. In addition, the kind of initial training and professional development referred to in earlier chapters (see particularly Chapter 4) is expensive. Conditions of employment will also need to be commensurate with instructors status as professionals. The adult LLN sector is still far from having conditions equivalent to those in the compulsory sector, although professionals in the two sectors are undertaking similar work. Countries need to closely examine pay and benefit conditions, as well as career structures for advancement (and development of skills as master instructors). The current over-reliance on voluntary or part-time instructors presents a serious barrier to development of effective practice. That said, a core volunteer/paraprofessional workforce should be supported and sustained with appropriate training and conditions of service. Having volunteers/paraprofessionals is a particularly good strategy in classrooms focused on tailoring provision for different learners. Volunteers can give more time and attention to individual learners, and also bring different points of view and knowledge in explaining new concepts and ideas.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
Time
Many instructors note that formative assessment approaches such as tracking tools, individual sessions with learners and so on, are much more time intensive. Given the amount of paperwork instructors are often required to complete, formative assessment and related strategies may appear as an additional burden. Pragmatic solutions such as ICT-based learning programmes with effective feedback (a few programmes have been found to be particularly effective), effective deployment of volunteer tutors, peer learning and other approaches may help to relieve some of this burden. A close look at how to cut back on official paperwork may also help. Curricula may also reinforce the importance of helping learners to focus on developing a few core skills, and for developing skills for self-assessment and learning-to-learn. As learners progress, they can take on more responsibility for their own learning and self-assesment. In addition, research pointing to the impact of different formative assessment approaches and techniques may also help to convince instructors of the benefits resulting from the extra time invested.
Money
While, as noted above, we have not made a detailed review of funding structures for adult LLN provision, the country background reports prepared for this study have noted that there is significantly more funding in this sector than there has been in the past and that it is still not enough to meet needs. In the United States, for example, demand is significantly greater than supply in many states. In some New York programmes new learners are selected by lottery, rather than keeping waiting lists. Absent a significant new infusion of funding, countries will need to choose between serving as many learners as possible, or raising quality for a smaller number of learners. Likely, the latter strategy will be more effective for demonstrating the worth of programmes, and attracting further investment. But, at best, this trade-off is only a short-term solution to the problem of insufficient funding. Indeed, it is increasingly apparent that countries cannot afford to underfund this sector. The social and economic costs of not addressing the needs of adults with low foundation skills are simply too high.
2.
What are the most effective approaches to providing positive feedback while also challenging learners to do more? What type of feedback is most effective for adults with very low self-efficacy? What questioning methods are most appropriate for adult learners (likely to be different than for younger learners)? How can scaffolding take into account the adult learners prior experiences/uneven levels of capacities?
3.
Validated assessment instruments (and training for assessors). Assessment instruments are needed to ensure that the right questions are asked, and are asked in a way that will yield the needed information on learners existing capabilities and potential barriers to learning. More research on how adult foundation skill learners progress from basic to more complex levels of knowledge and autonomy. This may include research on how learners with different learning histories and barriers take in new knowledge, develop skills and gain independence. Research on progression in different subject areas will be particularly valuable. Evaluation of how well specific learning objectives are aligned with overall goals for learner progression, and autonomy. This should
4.
5.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
include attention to whether and how learners are using new skills in daily and work life. 6. More research on learner persistence. This research should take into consideration different modes and models for sustaining learner engagement, continuity and progression. There is also a need to deepen understanding of the factors that support different types of learners in their efforts to meet goals over time. More extensive evaluations of promising e-based programmes as a complement to traditional learning. There is also a need to better understand the conditions under which adult LLN learners can effectively engage in distance learning. Broader surveys of current teaching, learning and assessment practices. Such surveys would help to identify practices which merit further investigation, as well as widespread but ineffective practices. The surveys should take in the range of provision including communitybased, work-based, prison-based programmes, and so on. Research on how instructors take on and adapt new practices to meet needs of learners. This research should explore the ways in which policies or programmes may promote or create barriers to change (including staffing, professional development, guidelines and tools), as well as how instructors values and goals impact approaches to teaching, learning and assessment. Again, such studies should explore the range of provision
7.
8.
9.
10. Further investigation on the adequacy of funding and effectiveness of investment for improving practice and social and economic outcomes. In turn more funding needs to be devoted to research. 11. Further international research. International research provides opportunities for mutual learning on what works across different contexts, as well as a range of possibilities for organising and supporting improved programmes. 12. Use of data gathered for accountability purposes to learn more about what works and why. Accountability systems also need to be reviewed to be sure that the data gathered can be used to evaluate the quality of provision at an appropriate level of detail.
Concluding remarks
Our review of teaching, learning and assessment for adult LLN learners has revealed a rich array of policies and practices within and across
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
ANNEX 1 213
Level 2 (226-275)
Document tasks at this level are a bit more varied. While some still require the reader to match a single feature, more distracting information may be present or the match may require a low-level inference. Some tasks at this level may require the reader to enter information onto a form or to cycle through information in a document.
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
214 ANNEX 1
Prose Tasks at this level generally direct readers to locate information that requires low-level inferences or that meets specified conditions. Sometimes the reader is required to identify several pieces of information that are located in different sentences or paragraphs rather than in a single sentence. Readers may also be asked to integrate or to compare and contrast information across paragraphs or sections of text. These tasks require readers to perform multiple-feature matching or to provide several responses where the requested information must be identified through textbased inferences. Tasks at this level may also require the reader to integrate or contrast pieces of information, sometimes presented in relatively lengthy texts. Typically, these texts contain more distracting information, and the information requested is more abstract. Tasks at this level typically require the reader to search for information in dense text that contains a number of plausible distractors. Some require readers to make high level inferences or to use specialised knowledge. Document Tasks at this level are varied. Some require the reader to make literal or synonymous matches, but usually the reader must take conditional information into account or match on the basis of multiple features of information. Some require the reader to integrate information from one or more displays of information. Others ask the reader to cycle through a document to provide multiple responses. Quantitative Tasks at this level typically require the reader to perform a single operation. However, the operations become more varied some multiplication and division tasks are included. Sometimes the reader needs to identify two or more numbers from various places in the document, and the numbers are frequently embedded in complex displays. While semantic relation terms such as how many or calculate the difference are often used, some of the tasks require the reader to make higher-order inferences to determine the appropriate operation. With one exception, the tasks at this level require the reader to perform a single arithmetic operation where typically either the quantities or the operation are not easily determined. That is, for most of the tasks at this level, the question or directive does not provide a semantic relation term such as how many or calculate the difference to help the reader.
Level 3 (276-325)
Level 4 (326-375)
Tasks at this level, like those at the previous levels, ask the reader to match on the basis of multiple features of information, to cycle through documents, and to integrate information; frequently, however, these tasks require the reader to make higherorder inferences to arrive at the correct answer. Sometimes the document contains conditional information that must be taken into account by the reader.
Level 5 (376-500)
Tasks at this level require the reader to search through complex displays of information that contain multiple distractors, to make high-level inferences, process conditional information, or use specialised knowledge.
These tasks require readers to perform multiple operations sequentially, and they must locate features of the problem embedded in the material or rely on background knowledge to determine the quantities or operations needed.
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ANNEX 1 215
The Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey Definitions of skill (extract from ALL Survey)
Like IALS the ALL defines skills along a continuum of proficiency. There is no arbitrary standard distinguishing adults who have or do not have skills. For example, many previous studies have distinguished between adults who are either literate or illiterate. Instead, the ALL study conceptualizes proficiency along a continuum and this is used to denote how well adults use information to function in society and the economy. Four skill domains are conceptualized in ALL. Two of them, namely prose and document literacy are defined and measured in the same manner as in IALS. Numeracy and problem solving are new domains. The conceptualization and definitions of the four skill domains as well as examples of test items used for the assessment are described in detail in Annex A and in The Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey: New Frameworks for Assessment (Statistics Canada). The operational definition for each skill domain is summarized here in Box A. Box A Four Skill Assessment Domains in ALL
Prose literacy the knowledge and skills needed to understand and use information from texts including editorials, news stories, brochures and instruction manuals. Document literacy the knowledge and skills required to locate and use information contained in various formats, including job applications, payroll forms, transportation schedules, maps, tables and charts. Numeracy the knowledge and skills required to effectively manage the mathematical demands of diverse situations. Problem solving Problem solving involves goal-directed thinking and action in situations for which no routine solution procedure is available. The problem solver has a more or less well defined goal, but does not immediately know how to reach it. The incongruence of goals and admissible operators constitutes a problem. The understanding of the problem situation and its step-by-step transformation, based on planning and reasoning, constitute the process of problem solving.
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216 ANNEX 1
Level 1 (0-225)
Level 2 (226-275)
Tasks in this level are more varied than those in Level 1. Some require the respondents to match a single piece of information; however, several distractors may be present, or the match may require low-level inferences. Tasks in this level may also ask the respondent to cycle through information in a document or to integrate information from various parts of a document.
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ANNEX 1 217
Level 3 (276-325)
Level 4 (326-375)
Prose Tasks in this level tend to require respondents to make literal or synonymous matches between the text and information given in the task, or to make matches that require low-level inferences. Other tasks ask respondents to integrate information from dense or lengthy text that contains no organizational aids such as headings. Respondents may also be asked to generate a response based on information that can be easily identified in the text. Distracting information is present, but is not located near the correct information. These tasks require respondents to perform multiple-feature matches and to integrate or synthesize information from complex or lengthy passages. More complex inferences are needed to perform successfully. Conditional information is frequently present in tasks at this level and must be taken into consideration by the respondent.
Document Some tasks in this level require the respondent to integrate multiple pieces of information from one or more documents. Others ask respondents to cycle through rather complex tables or graphs which contain information that is irrelevant or inappropriate to the task.
Numeracy Tasks in this level require the respondent to demonstrate understanding of mathematical information represented in a range of different forms, such as in numbers, symbols, maps, graphs, texts, and drawings. Skills required involve number and spatial sense, knowledge of mathematical patterns and relationships and the ability to interpret proportions, data and statistics embedded in relatively simple texts where there may be distractors. Tasks commonly involve undertaking a number of processes to solve problems.
Tasks in this level, like those at the previous levels, ask respondents to perform multiple-feature matches, cycle through documents, and integrate information; however, they require a greater degree of inferencing. Many of these tasks require respondents to provide numerous responses but do not designate how many responses are needed. Conditional information is also present in the document tasks at this level and must be taken into account by the respondent.
Tasks at this level require respondents to understand a broad range of mathematical information of a more abstract nature represented in diverse ways, including in texts of increasing complexity or in unfamiliar contexts. These tasks involve undertaking multiple steps to find solutions to problems and require more complex reasoning and interpretation skills, including comprehending and working with proportions and formulas or offering explanations for answers.
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218 ANNEX 1
Prose Some tasks in this level require the respondent to search for information in dense text which contains a number of plausible distractors. Others ask respondents to make high-level inferences or use specialized background knowledge. Some tasks ask respondents to contrast complex information. Document Tasks in this level require the respondent to search through complex displays that contain multiple distractors, to make highlevel text-based inferences, and to use specialized knowledge. Numeracy Tasks in this level require respondents to understand complex representations and abstract and formal mathematical and statistical ideas, possibly embedded in complex texts. Respondents may have to integrate multiple types of mathematical information, draw inferences, or generate mathematical justification for answers.
Level 5 (376-500)
Table I.2. Four levels of difficulty for the problem solving domain
Problem Solving
Level 1 (0-250) Tasks in this level typically require the respondent to make simple inferences, based on limited information stemming from a familiar context. Tasks in this level are rather concrete with a limited scope of reasoning. They require the respondent to make simple connections, without having to check systematically any constraints. The respondent has to draw direct consequences, based on the information given and on his/her previous knowledge about a familiar context. Tasks in this level often require the respondent to evaluate certain alternatives with regard to well defined, transparent, explicitly stated criteria. The reasoning however may be done step by step, in a linear process, without loops or backtracking. Successful problem solving may require to combine information from different sources, as e.g. from the question section and the information section of the test booklet. Some tasks in this level require the respondent to order several objects according to given criteria. Other tasks require him/her to determine a sequence of actions/events or to construct a solution by taking non-transparent or multiple interdependent constraints into account. The reasoning process goes back and forth in a non-linear manner, requiring a good deal of self-regulation. At this level respondents often have to cope with multi-dimensional or ill-defined goals. Items in this level require the respondent to judge the completeness, consistency and/or dependency among multiple criteria. In many cases, he/she has to explain how the solution was reached and why it is correct. The respondent has to reason from a meta-perspective, taking into account an entire system of problem solving states and possible solutions. Often the criteria and the goals have to be inferred from the given information before actually starting the solution process.
Level 2 (251-300)
Level 3 (301-350)
Level 4 (351-500)
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E-learning in Tertiary Education: Where do We Stand? 290 pages June 2005 ISBN: 978-92-64-00920-5 Formative Assessment Improving Learning in Secondary Classrooms 280 pages February 2005 ISBN: 978-92-64-00739-3 Quality and Recognition in Higher Education: The Cross-border Challenge 205 pages October 2004 ISBN: 978-92-64-01508-6 Internationalisation and Trade in Higher Education Opportunities and Challenges 250 pages June 2004 ISBN: 978-92-64-01504-3 www.oecdbookshop.org
TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT FOR ADULTS: IMPROVING FOUNDATION SKILLS ISBN-978-92-64-03990-2 OECD 2008
OECD PUBLICATIONS, 2, rue Andr-Pascal, 75775 PARIS CEDEX 16 PRINTED IN FRANCE (96 2008 01 1 P) ISBN 978-92-64-03990-2 No. 56009 2008
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