Ch 4 Gravitation

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Chapter 4 Gravitation
4.1 Newtons law of gravitation
Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distance apart. GMm , where G is r2

Mathematically, the magnitude of the gravitational force is F =

called the Universal gravitational constant. G = 6.6710-11 N kg-2 m2. * The direction is shown as follows:

F1
Particle 1 (of mass m1) r

F2
Particle 2 (of mass m2)

F1 = Gravitational force acting on particle 1 by particle 2 F2 = Gravitational force acting on particle 2 by particle 1

Gm1 m 2 F1 = F2 = , they are action and reaction pair. r2

* If the position of particle 1 is taken as the origin, the position vector of particle 2 with respect to the origin is r
vector along the radial direction. Sometimes, the gravitational force F2 can be

, where r is the distance and r is the unit r

written as * e.g.

Gm1 m 2 r2

. r

Newtons law of gravitation refers to point masses only. Three point masses m are fixed at the vertices of a equilateral triangle of side r. What is the gravitational force experienced by each mass due to the other two? m r m r m

4.2 Gravitational field

* * * Gravitational field at a point is defined as the gravitational force experienced per unit mass if a test mass is put at that point. Mathematically,
g =F / m

The SI unit for it is N kg-1

Gravitational field exists even when there is no test mass. However, gravitational force exists only when a mass is put at that point. Gravitational is a property of space.

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* *

Gravitational field is a vector. However, since its direction is obvious, we often concern the magnitude g only. For a point mass, the gravitational field at a distance r is due to the mass is GM g= 2 r

For a system of particles, the gravitational field at a point is the vector sum of the contribution of each particle.

e.g. Find the gravitational field at a point on the perpendicular axis through the center of a ring of mass m. The distance of the point from the center is r and the radius of the ring is R.

4.3 Gravitational field of spherically symmetric bodies

4.3.1 Uniform Spherical Shell * * 4.3.2 The gravitational field at a point outside a uniform spherical shell is equal to as if all its mass is concentrated at the center. Inside the shell, the gravitational field is zero due to cancellation.

Spherically symmetric objects * * For any spherically symmetric objects, the gravitational field outside the objects is equal to as if all the mass is concentrated at the centers. Inside the objects, the gravitational force is only due to the mass inside but not the outer shells. e.g. Find the gravitational force experienced by a mass m on the surface of the Earth. Assume the Earth is a spherically symmetric sphere. (Mass of the Earth = 5.981024 kg Radius of the Earth = 6.38106 m Gravitational Constant = 6.6710-11 N m2 kg-2) e.g. The gravitational field is sometimes considered as constant near the Earths surface (g 9.8 N kg-1). Justify its validity and estimate the error. e.g. Sketch the variation of gravitational field against distance from center for a uniform sphere of mass M and radius R.

4.4 Variation of gravitational field of the Earth

* * The density of the Earth is not uniform. The Earth is like an ellipsoid rather than a perfect sphere. Equatorial radius exceeds the polar radius by about 21km. Therefore the field at

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equator is smaller than that at the poles. * The Earth is rotating. We sense our weight (gravitational force) by the reaction force from the ground. (Recall the case for a weighing machine in an accelerating lift) If the Earth is not rotating and we are at rest relative to the ground. The reaction force from the ground equals our weight. (By Newtons 2nd Law) However, our Earth is actually rotating. We are accelerating towards the axis of rotation! Therefore, the reaction from the Earth does not cancel the gravitational force exactly. Actually, the resultant of the two forces gives rises to the centripetal acceleration. R mgo r If we take R = mga , where ga is the apparent gravitational field strength. The measured value of ga would be smaller than the actual gravitational field strength go. e.g. Show that due to the rotation of the Earth, the measured value of the apparent gravitational ga is given by ga go 2 r cos2, where go is the actual gravitational field strength, r is the radius of the Earth, is the angular speed of the Earth and is the latitude.

FC

4.5 Gravitational Potential Energy

* * * Gravitation potential energy is the work done by external force against the gravitational force from a reference point O to the position concerned. For gravitational potential energy, we take the reference point at infinity, the place at which the gravitational force is zero. For two point masses r apart, U(r) =

ext

dr

Fcon dr =

Gm1 m 2 dr r2

= *

Gm1 m 2 r

Since the zero potential point is taken at infinity, the negative sign in U(r) represents an attractive potential (attractive conservative force). It means that external force does negative work to bring the two masses from infinity to r, or positive work has to be done to pull them apart.

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* *

Gravitational potential energy is scalar. The total potential energy of a system of point masses is equal to the scalar sum of each point mass. In Form 4, we use the expression mgh to represent gravitational energy. The zero potential energy level is taken on the ground but not at infinity. This expression is only valid for objects near the Earth surface.

e.g. By taking the ground as the reference point, show that the gravitational potential energy is approximately equal to mgh where h is the height above the ground and g is the gravitational field strength on the Earth surface.

4.6 Gravitational potential

* * The gravitational potential at a point is defined as the gravitational potential energy per unit mass if an object is put at that point. Mathematically,

V (r ) =
*

U (r ) m
GM r

The gravitational potential at a point r from a point mass is given by

V (r ) =

e.g. Sketch the variation of gravitational potential against r for a spherical shell of uniform mass. e.g. Sketch the variation of gravitational potential against r for a uniform hard sphere.

4.7 Summary on Gravitational force, field, energy and potential

U (r ) = GMm r GM r

F (r ) =

GMm r2 GM r2

F = g =

dU dr dV dr

V (r ) = V =

g (r ) =
g=

U m

F m

F and g are vectors, while V and U are scalars. Resultant F and g are vector sum of individuals while resultant V and U are scalar sum of individuals.

* *

The fact that spherically symmetric bodies behaves like a point mass is valid for all the four quantities. The minus signs for F and g are due to their attractive properties, while the minus signs for V and U are due to the choice of reference point. Once the reference point is taken at the infinity, the values of V and U must be negative because of the attractive nature of force.
dU dV and g = ) indicates dr dr

The minus signs for the two derivatives ( F =

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that the force (field) always points at a direction along which the energy (potential) is decreasing.

4.8 Gravitational field lines and equipotential surface

4.8.1 * * * * Gravitational field lines Field lines are used to represent gravitational field strength g . The density of field lines indicates the relative field strength at different position. The arrow represent the direction of g . Properties of gravitational field lines: 1. 2. 3. 4. Never cross each others. Never form closed loops. Only stop on meeting a mass. Number of field lines is directly proportional to the mass of the object attached.

4.8.2

Equipotential surface * * Surfaces of the same gravitational potential are called equipotential surfaces. Field lines must be perpendicular to equipotential surfaces.

4.9 Circular orbits under gravitation

* For a satellite moving in circular orbits around a planet, the gravitational force gives rises to the centripetal acceleration. e.g. A satellite of mass m is orbiting around a planet of mass M with orbiting radius R, find the potential energy, kinetic energy and total mechanical energy of the system. e.g. Synchronous satellite Find the parking orbit of a synchronous satellite of the Earth. (Mass of the Earth = 5.981024 kg Gravitational Constant = 6.6710-11 N m2 kg-2)

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e.g.

Escape velocity Find the escape velocity of from the Earth surface to infinity. (Mass of the Earth = 5.981024 kg Radius of the Earth = 6.38106 m Gravitational Constant = 6.6710-11 N m2 kg-2)

e.g.

Possible paths of a body under gravitation Draw the possible paths for a body orbit under gravitation of a planet at different speeds: (v <
gr

,v=

gr

gr

<v<

2 gr

,v=

2 gr

,v>

2 gr

e.g. 1993-II-7 (a) A rocket is fired to launch a spacecraft with an astronaut into an orbit round the earth. If the initial acceleration of the rocket is 100 m s2 and the mass of the astronaut is 60 kg, find the supporting force acting on the astronaut (i) before the rocket is fired from the earth's surface; (ii) during the first few seconds after firing. Explain briefly why the astronaut should lie down in a bed-shaped seat during launching. (b) Now the spacecraft with the astronaut is moving round the earth in a circular orbit of radius r with its engine turned off.

(i)

(ii)

Derive an expression for the total mechanical energy E of the spacecraft in terms of G, ME, m and r, where G = gravitational constant ME = mass of the earth m = mass of the spacecraft Sketch a graph showing how E varies with r for values of r greater that the earth's radius RE.

(iii) (c )

What is the extra energy required for the spacecraft to escape from the earth's gravitational field ? Express your answer in term of G, M E, m and r. The astronaut inside the orbiting spacecraft is said to be 'weightless'. A student explains that since the orbit is at a great distance from the earth, the acceleration due to gravity and the weight of the astronaut are both zero. Do you agree with the student? Explain your answer.

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1994-I-3(AL) The value of gravitational potential due to a planet are given in Table 3.1 : Distance from the surface of the planet / m 0 790 000 800 000 810 000 infinity (a) Gravitational potential / J kg1 62.53 106 55.66 106 55.58 106 55.50 106 0

If the gravitational potential is taken to be zero at an infinite distance from the planet, the gravitational potential at any point closer to the planet than infinity will be negative. What

property of gravitational force ensures this ? (b) A satellite of mass 2000 kg is raised from the planet's surface to a height of 800 000 m above its surface. (i) Find the change in gravitational potential energy of the satellite. (ii) Calculate the kinetic energy of the satellite when it moves round the planet in a circular orbit at such a height. (c ) Calculate the minimum speed with which a spacecraft must be fired from the planet's surface so as to escape from it. (Neglect air resistance and assume the spacecraft itself is unpowered.) (d) Using the information from Table 3.1, estimate the gravitational field strength. (i) at a height of 800 000 m above the surface of the planet. (ii) at the surface of the planet. (Show your working)

1991-II-7 (Given : GME = 4.0 1014 N m2 kg-1 where G = gravitational constant. ME - mass of earth ) A spacecraft (mass m) has just finished its mission on the moon and is planning to return to the earth. Figure 7.1, which is not to scale, shows how the gravitational potential, V, between the surface of the moon and the surface of the earth varies along the line of centres. (a) Explain why there is a point of maximum on the graph. (b) If the spacecraft is to just succeed in reaching the earth, (i) what is the minimum energy per unit mass that has to be supplied ? (ii) What is the minimum speed of the spacecraft at take off ? (c ) A points A and B, the spacecraft is so far away from the moon that its gravitational attraction on the spacecraft is negligible. The spacecraft is coasting through space with its motors off. If it had a velocity of 5 200 m s 1 when at point A, 28 000 km from the centre of the earth, what would be its velocity at point B, 20 000 km from the centre of the earth ? (d) As the spacecraft is returning to the earth at a very speed, frictional force between the spacecraft and the atmosphere would cause its surface to reach a very high temperature. In order to protect the astronauts, what sort of material should the spacecraft be made of and why ?

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4.10 Keplers laws

4.10.1 Keplers 1st law All planets move about the sun in closed, elliptical orbits, with the sun at one of the foci. * * An ellipse is defined as a curve such that the sum of the distances from any point on the curve to the two foci is constant. The point in the orbit closest to the sun is called the perihelion. The point farthest is called the aphelion. For satellite motion around the earth, the corresponding points are called perigee and apogee. * Eccentricity e is defined as
e= distance between foci major axis

which is used to measure the departure of ellipse from circularity. 4.10.2 Keplers 2nd law For a given planet, the area swept out in a given time by the line joining the planet to the sun is always the same. * This law can be proved by the conservation of angular momentum, which will be introduced later in rotational dynamics. 4.10.2 Keplers 3rd law The cube of the semi-major axis of a planetary orbit is directly proportional to the square of its period in the same solar system. * e.g. We can verify this law for a special case of a circular orbit.

(Further physics p.17 example 5) A satellite is launched with perigee distance r p = 7.00106m (from earths center) and velocity at perigee vp = 8.00103 ms-1. Find the distance at apogee ra and the velocity at apogee va. The radius of the earth R=6.38106m.

1993I11 For planets or satellites in circular orbits around a celestial body such as the sun or the earth, the period T is related to the radius of orbit r by Kepler's 3 rd Law T 2 = kr3 where k is a constant. Which of the following statements concerning the constant k is correct ? A. B. C. D. E. It is a dimensionless constant whose value is not affected by the choice of units. It is a universal constant whose value is not affected by the choice of units. It is a universal constant whose value depends on the choice of units. It would have a certain value for the earth moving around the sun, but a different value for another planet moving around the sun. It would have a certain value for all planets moving around the sun, but a different value for all satellites moving around the earth.