Residual Stress

Magnitude Of Stresses- A Simple Analogy

Strain Age Embrittlement

This phenomenon applies to carbon and low alloy steel. It involves ferrite forming a compound with nitrogen; iron-nitride (Fe4N). Temperatures around 250C, will cause a fine precipitation of this compound to occur. It will tend to pin any dislocations in the structure that have been created by cold work or plastic deformation. Strain ageing increases tensile strength but significantly reduces ductility and toughness. Modern steels tend to have low nitrogen content, but this is not necessarily true for welds. Sufficient Nitrogen, approximately 1 to 2 ppm, can be easily picked up from the atmosphere during welding. Weld root runs are particularly at risk because of high contraction stresses causing plastic deformation. This is why impact test specimens taken from the root or first pass of a weld can give poor results. Additions of Aluminium can tie up the Nitrogen as Aluminium Nitride, but weldcooling rates are too fast for this compound to form successfully. Stress relief at around 650 degrees C will resolve the problem.

HOW TO AVOID PWHT

The above picture is of a new pressure vessel that failed during its hydraulic test. The vessel had been stress relieved, but some parts of it did not reach the required temperature and consequently did not experience adequate tempering. This coupled with a small hydrogen crack, was sufficient to cause catastrophic failure under test conditions. It is therefore important when considering PWHT or its avoidance, to ensure that all possible failure modes and their consequences are carefully considered before any action is taken. The post weld heat treatment of welded steel fabrications is normally carried

out to reduce the risk of brittle fracture by:

Reducing residual Stresses. These stresses are created when a weld cools and its contraction is restricted by the bulk of the material surrounding it. Weld distortion occurs when these stresses exceed the yield point. Finite element modelling of residual stresses is now possible, so that the complete welding sequence of a joint or repair can be modelled to predict and minimise these stresses. Tempering the weld and HAZ microstructure. The microstructure, particularly in the HAZ, can be hardened by rapid cooling of the weld. This is a major problem for low and medium alloy steels containing chrome and any other constituent that slow the austenite/ferrite transformation down, as this will result in hardening of the micro structure, even at slow cooling rates.

The risk of brittle fracture can be assessed by fracture mechanics. Assuming worst-case scenarios for all the relevant variables. It is then possible to predict if PWHT is required to make the fabrication safe. However, the analysis requires accurate measurement of HAZ toughness, which is not easy because of the HAZs small size and varying properties. Some approximation is possible from impact tests, providing the notch is taken from the point of lowest toughness. If PWHT is to be avoided, stress concentration effects such as: - backing bars, partial penetration welds, and internal defects in the weld and poor surface profile, should be avoided. Good surface and volumetric NDT is essential. Preheat may still be required to avoid hydrogen cracking and a post weld hydrogen release may also be beneficial in this respect (holding the fabrication at a temperature of around 250C for at least 2 hours, immediately after welding). Nickel based consumables can often reduce or remove the need for preheat, but their effect on the parent metal HAZ will be no different from that created by any other consumable, except that the HAZ may be slightly narrower. However, nickel based welds, like most austenitic steels, can make ultrasonic inspection very difficult. Further reduction in the risk of brittle fracture can be achieved by refining the HAZ microstructure using special temper bead welding techniques.

Alloying Elements
Manganese Increases strength and hardness; forms a carbide; increases hardenability; lowers the transformation temperature range. When in sufficient quantity produces an austenitic steel; always present in a steel to some extent because it is used as a deoxidiser Silicon Strengthens ferrite and raises the transformation temperature temperatures; has a strong graphitising tendency. Always present to some extent, because it is used with manganese as a deoxidiser Chromium Increases strength and hardness; forms hard and stable carbides. It raises the transformation temperature significantly when its content exceeds 12%. Increases hardenability; amounts in excess of 12%, render steel stainless. Good creep strength at high temperature. Nickel Strengthens steel; lowers its transformation temperature range; increases hardenability, and improves resistance to fatigue. Strong graphite forming tendency; stabilizes austenite when in sufficient quantity. Creates fine grains and gives good toughness. Nickel And Chromium Used together for austenitic stainless steels; each element counteracts disadvantages of the other. Tungsten Forms hard and stable carbides; raises the transformation temperature range, and tempering temperatures. Hardened tungsten steels resist tempering up to 6000C Molybdenum Strong carbide forming element, and also improves high temperature creep resistance; reduces temper-brittleness in Ni-Cr steels. Improves corrosion resistance and temper brittleness. Vanadium Strong carbide forming element; has a scavenging action and produces clean, inclusion free steels. Can cause re-heat cracking when added to chrome molly steels. Titanium Strong carbide forming element. Not used on its own, but added as a carbide stabiliser to some austenitic stainless steels. Phosphorus Increases strength and hardnability, reduces ductility and toughness. Increases machineability and corrosion resistance Sulphur Reduces toughness and strength and also weldabilty.

Sulphur inclusions, which are normally present, are taken into solution near the fusion temperature of the weld. On cooling sulphides and remaining sulphur precipitate out and tend to segregate to the grain boundaries as liquid films, thus weakening them considerably. Such steel is referred to as burned. Manganese breaks up these films into globules of maganese sulphide; maganese to sulphur ratio > 20:1, higher carbon and/or high heat input during welding > 30:1, to reduce extent of burning.