BASIC INSTRUMENT FOR FLYING LECTURE NOTES In flight an aircraft and its operating crew form a man machine

e system loop which depending on the size and type of aircraft may fairly simple or very complex. The function of the crew within the loop is that of controller, and the extent of the control function is governed by the simplicity or otherwise of the aircraft as an integrated whole. For example in manually flying an aircraft and manually initiating adjustments to essential systems the controllers function is said to be a fully active one. If the other hand, the flight of an aircraft and systems adjustment are automatic in operation, then the controllers function becomes one of monitoring, with the possibility of reverting to active function in the event of failure of systems Instruments play an extremely vital role in the control loop as they are the means of communicating data between systems and controller. Therefore in order that a controller may obtain a maximum of control quality and also to minimize the mental effort in interpreting data it is necessary to pay the utmost regard to the content and format of the data displays. Common forms of data display: 1. Quantitative Display: in which the variable quantity being measured is presented in terms of a numerical value and by the relative position between a pointer or index and a graduated scale 2. Qualitative Display: in which the data is presented in symbolic or pictorial format. 3. Director Display: was the gyro horizon

1. Quantitative Display: displayed:

There are three principle methods by which data may be a) The circular scale clock type scale b) Straight scale c) Digital or counter

Principle Classification of Instruments Measurements of basic quantities are possible in terms of length, weight, time, pressure and temperature. Other quantities which are essential for understanding and negotiating with any real phenomena are derived ones. For example speed = distance/time and density = mass / volume etc.

Even though former formula is excellent for calibration and accurate, it is not practicable to use. Inference from Pitot tube is much more convenient for such measurement. Instruments will perform some internal manipulation to get the desired and understandable quantity. From application point of view following types of Instruments are crucial for aircraft flight. Pressure type instruments Mechanical type instruments Gyro instruments Electrical & Electronic instruments Pitot/Static Systems THREE PRINCIPLE CATEGORIES OF INSTRUMENTS Power-plant - Information concerning operations of engine. Some of them could be Engine rpm, Temperature, Fuel and Oil Pressure Gauge etc. Flight & Navigational Instruments - Information concerning Flight Speed, Altitude, Attitude, Rate of Ascent or Descent, Directional Heading etc. System Instruments - Information concerning various systems such as Hydraulic System & its Pressure, Air conditioning, Electrical system Status etc. Safety of Aircraft & Passengers depends on accurate and reliable instruments as well as corrects reading of these. At times these Instruments can forewarn the Pilot about impending disaster or calamity while in flight. Instruments and recordings could also be used for trouble shooting. Pitot Tube Pitot tube on the aircraft is around 25 centimetres long with a 1 centimetre diameter. Several small holes are drilled around the outside of the tube and a centre hole is drilled down the axis of the tube. The outside holes are connected to one side of a device called a pressure transducer. The centre hole in the tube is kept separate from the outside holes and is connected to the other side of the transducer. The transducer measures the difference in pressure in the two groups of tubes by measuring the strain in a thin element using an electronic strain gauge. The pitot tube is mounted on the aircraft so that the centre tube is always pointed in the direction of travel and the outside holes are perpendicular to the centre tube. Since the outside holes are perpendicular to the direction of travel, these tubes are pressurized by the local random component of the air velocity. The pressure in these tubes is the static pressure (ps) discussed in Bernoulli's equation. The center tube, however, is pointed in the direction of travel and is pressurized by both the random and the ordered air velocity. The pressure in this tube is the total pressure (pt) discussed in Bernoulli's equation. The pressure transducer measures the difference in total and static pressure. (pt - ps). Location of the Pitot-Static vents: The choice to probe locations is largely dependant on the type of aircraft, speed range and aerodynamic characteristic and as a result there is no common standard for all aircraft. Typical locations are: ahead of a wing tip, ahead of a vertical stabilizer tip at the side of a fuselage nose section and ahead of fuselage nose section. Some practical limitations: 1. If the velocity is low, the difference in pressures is very small and hard to accurately measure with the transducer. Errors in the instrument could be greater than measurement! So pitot tubes don't work very well for very low velocities.

2. If the velocity is very high (supersonic), we've violated the assumptions of Bernoulli's equation and the measurement is wrong again. At the front of the tube, a shock wave appears that will change the total pressure. There are corrections for the shock wave that can be applied to allow us to use pitot tubes for high speed aircraft. The static line vents the pitot-static instruments to the outside, or ambient, air pressure through the static port. The static port (may be located in various places on different types of aircraft and more than one port may be used. Regardless of location, the port is always positioned so the plane of the opening is parallel to the relative air flow. By comparison, the plane of the pitot tube opening is nearly perpendicular to the relative wind. The pressure sensed at the static ports is transferred to the cabin instruments by a tube. Aircraft constantly encounter atmosphere pressure changes as they climb, descend, accelerate or decelerate.

The pitot-static system

The purpose of this pitot-static system is to provide the pressure information displayed on cabin instrumentation by providing the pressures to operate such instruments. This system is sensitive to airspeed, altitude, and rates of altitude change. Static pressure is also required for such control units as air data transducers and automatic pilots.

The above figure illustrates a pitot head for a standard system on some older airplanes. The purpose of the head is to pick up indications of dynamic (ram) air pressures and static (ambient ) air pressure to be transmitted through tubing to the instruments requiring these pressures for operation. The dynamic pressure caused by the movement of the airplane through the air is picked up through the front inlet of pitot pressure tube. This pressure is carried through the head and the out tube to the airspeed indicator and Mach number sensing units. Static pressure is picked up through the holes is sampled at one or more locations outside the aircraft. The pressure of the static air is sensed at a flush port where the air is not disturbed. On some aircraft, air is sampled by static ports on the side of the electrically heated pitot-static head. The pitot head shown is provided with heater to prevent ice formation. These heaters are connected with electrical connecting plugs. On many aircraft the dynamic pressure only is picked up by the pitot heads. These heads are mounted on the aircraft where they will provide the most accurate indications of dynamic pressure. The static pressure is obtain through one more ports on the fuselage.

A pitot static system as installed in a light, twin engine airplane. In this systems the pitot head mounted under the wing supplies only ram air pressure. The static pressure is supplied through the perforated static buttons mounted flush with fuselage skin toward the rear of the airplane. An important feature of the pitot pressure system is that it have provision for removing all water before it can reach the instruments. Baffles in the pitot head and drains in the pressure line are used to remove water. Pitot static systems are often provide with an alternate static pressure source in the cabin or cock pit. These are usually satisfactory except for pressurization aircraft. An outside air temperature sensor must be installed for air data systems. The airspeed indicator is vented to both pitot and static lines. The airspeed indicator reacts to changes between pitot air and static air. The altimeter and vertical speed indicator, however, require venting to only the static line. Heated pitot tube prevents ice formation.

Figure 3-1. A Typical Electrically Heated Pitot-Static Head.

Blockage Considerations The pitot tube is particularly sensitive to blockage especially by icing. Even light icing can block the entry hole of the pitot tube where ram air enters the system. This affects the ASI and is the reason most airplanes are equipped with a pitot heating system. Indications of Pitot Tube Blockage. If the pitot tube becomes blocked, the ASI displays inaccurate speeds. At the altitude where the pitot tube becomes blocked, the ASI remains at the existing airspeed and doesnt reflect actual changes in speed. At altitudes above where the pitot tube became blocked, the ASI displays a higherthan-actual airspeed increasing steadily as altitude increases. At lower altitudes, the ASI displays a lower-than-actual airspeed decreasing steadily as altitude decreases.

Indications from Static Port Blockage Many aircraft also have a heating system to protect thestatic ports to ensure the entire pitot-static system is clear of ice. If the static ports become blocked, the ASI would still function but could produce inaccurate indications. At the altitude where the blockage occurs, airspeed indications would be normal. At altitudes above which the static ports became blocked, the ASI displays a lowerthan-actual airspeed continually decreasing as altitude is increased. At lower altitudes, the ASI displays a higher-than-actual airspeed increasing steadily as altitude decreases. The trapped pressure in the static system causes the altimeter to remain at the altitude where the blockage occurred. The VSI remains at zero. On some aircraft, an alternate static air source valve is used for emergencies. [Figure 3-2] If the alternate source is vented inside the airplane, where static pressure is usually lower than outside static pressure, selection of the alternate source may result in the following erroneous instrument indications: 1. Altimeter reads higher than normal, 2. Indicated airspeed (IAS) reads greater than normal, and 3. VSI momentarily shows a climb. Consult the Pilots Operating Handbook/Airplane Flight Manual (POH/ AFM) to determine the amount of error.

Figure 3-2. A Typical Pitot-Static System.

Effects of Flight Conditions The static ports are located in a position where the air at their surface is as undisturbed as possible. But under some flight conditions, particularly at a high angle of attack with the landing gear and flaps down, the air around the static port may be disturbed to the extent that it can cause an error in the indication of the altimeter and ASI. Because of the importance of accuracy in these instruments, part of the certification tests for an aircraft is a check of position error in the static system. The POH/AFM contains any corrections that must be applied to the airspeed for the various configurations of flaps and landing gear.

PRESSURE GAUGES PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

DIAPHRAGM

Fig: Burdon Tube CONSTRUCTION The pressure instruments are used to monitor many aircraft flight situations such as altitude and airspeed as well as the condition of system such as hydraulic pressure and engine oil pressure.

Instruments that measure pressures in relatively high pressure fluid systems are usually operated through a mechanism known as a bourdon tube. Among the indicators requiring this type of instruments are hydraulic pressure, engine oil pressure, oxygen pressure, and any other indicator of comparatively high pressures. The bourdon tube is constructed of metal and is oval or flat ended in cross-sectional shape , with the tube itself formed into a crescent or part circle. Figure Bourdon tube indicates the general construction. One of the ends of the tube is open is open, and the tube is open, and the other end is closed. The open end is attached to a casting that is anchored to the case of the instruments, thus making the open end of the tube stationary. The closed end of the tube is free to move and is attached to a series of linkages such as levers and gears. When fluid under pressure against the closed end, and this tends to straighten the tube. The principle involved here is well illustrated by a familiar party novelty the roiled up paper tube that uncoils when you blow into it. The pressure on the closed end of the paper causes it to uncoil, and the springs inside. The bourdon tube is constructed of a metal such as spring temperated brass, bronze, or beryllium copper. These metals have a strong spring effect that causes the bourdon tube to return to its original position when pressure is released. When pressure enters the bourdon tube, the tube tends to straighten out: as it does so, it moves the mechanical linkages connected to the sector gear. The movement of the sector gear causes the spur gear to rotate and this in turn moves the indicating needle along scale to give a reading of the pressure. The indicating needle is mounted on the hand staff, which is rotated by the spur gear. Pressure gauges designed to provide readings of comparatively low pressures are usually of the diaphragm or bellows type. The figure Diaphragm consists of two disks of thin metal corrugated concentrically and sealed together at the edges to form a cavity or capsule. The diaphragm designed with an opening through one of the disks to admit the pressure to be measured. The opposite side is provided with a bridge that can be against a rocking shaft lever through which the movement is transmitted to the indicating needle. Changes in the pressure of the air outside the diaphragm cause it to expand or contract, thus producing a movement that is converted to a dial reading through the instrument. The figure Bellows Capsule is made of thin metal with corrugated sides and formed into a cylindrical capsule. This unit operates in much the same manner as the diaphragm or bellows mechanism include altimeters, airspeed indicators and manifold pressure gauges.

PITOT / STATIC INSTRUMENTS

ALTIMETER

Figure 3-3. Sensitive Altimeter Components. The altimeter is used to indicate the height of the aircraft with respect to above mean sea level. The instrument also provides information for determining the true airspeed of the aircraft, proper engine power settings, proper clearance above the terrain, and proper flight altitude to avoid flight path of the other aircraft. As altitude increases the density of the air decreases, resulting in a decrease in pressure. In general two types of altimeters that operate on the barometric principle: the non sensitive or simple altimeter and the sensitive altimeter. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION: The pressure altimeter is a simple, reliable, pressure gauge calibrated to indicate height. The pressure at a point depends on the weight of the column of air which extends vertically upwards from the point to the outer limit of the atmosphere. The higher an aircraft is flying the shorter is the column of air above it and consequently the lower is the atmospheric pressure at the aircraft. In other words the greater the height, lower the pressure and by measuring the pressure the altimeter measures height. Unfortunately, the relationship between pressure and height is not a linear one, so that calibration of the altimeter scale is not a simple matter. The situation is further complicated by high and low pressure weather systems which produce pressure difference in a horizontal plane. The temperature of the air at the surface and the temperature lapse rate in the air above vary considerably: this affects pressure .

Sensitive Altimeter:
A sensitive altimeter is an aneroid barometer that measures the absolute pressure of the ambient air and displays it in terms of feet or meters above a selected pressure level.

CONSTRUCTION: The sensitive element in a sensitive altimeter is a stack of evacuated, corrugated bronze aneroid capsules. [Figure 3-3] Static pressure is fed into the case of the instrument from the static source. As height increases static pressure decreases and the bronze aneroid, the air pressure acting on these aneroids tries to compress them against their natural springiness, which tries to expand them. The result is that their thickness changes as the air pressure changes. Stacking several aneroids increases the dimension change as the pressure varies over the usable range of the instrument. Below 10,000 feet, a striped segment is visible. Above this altitude, a mask begins to cover it, and above 15,000 feet, all of the stripes are covered. [Figure 3-4] Another configuration of the altimeter is the drum-type. [Figure 3-5] These instruments have only one pointer that makes one revolution for every 1,000 feet. Each number represents 100 feet and each mark represents 20 feet. A drum, marked in thousands of feet, is geared to the mechanism that drives the pointer. To read this type of altimeter, first look at the drum to get the thousands of feet, and then at the pointer to get the feet and hundreds of feet. A sensitive altimeter is one with an adjustable barometric scale allowing the pilot to set the reference pressure from which the altitude is measured. This scale is visible in a small window called the Kollsman window. A knob on the instrument adjusts the scale. The range of the scale is from 28.00" to 31.00" inches of mercury (Hg), or 948 to 1,050 millibars. Rotating the knob changes both the barometric scale and the altimeter pointers in such a way that a change in the barometric scale of 1" Hg changes the pointer indication by 1,000 feet. This is the standard pressure lapse rate below 5,000 feet. When the barometric scale is adjusted to 29.92" Hg or 1,013.2 millibars, the pointers indicate the pressure altitude. The pilot displays indicate altitude by adjusting the barometric scale to the local altimeter setting. The altimeter then indicates the height above the existing sea level pressure.

Altimeter Errors A sensitive altimeter is designed to indicate standard changes from standard conditions, but most flying involves errors caused by non-standard conditions and the pilot must be able to modify the indications to correct for these errors. There are two types of errors: mechanical and inherent. a. Mechanical A pre-flight check to determine the condition of an altimeter consists of setting the barometric scale to the local altimeter setting. The altimeter should indicate the surveyed elevation of the airport. If the indication is off by more than 75 feet from the surveyed elevation, the instrument should be referred to a certificated instrument repair station for

recalibration. Differences between ambient temperature and/or pressure causes an erroneous indication on the altimeter. b. Inherent Altimeter Error When the aircraft is flying in air that is warmer than standard, the air is less dense and the pressure levels are farther apart. When the aircraft is flying at an indicated altitude of 5,000 feet, the pressure level for that altitude is higher than it would be in air at standard temperature, and the aircraft is higher than it would be if the air were cooler. If the air is colder than standard, it is denser and the pressure levels are closer together. When the aircraft is flying at an indicated altitude of 5,000 feet, its true altitude is lower than it would be if the air were warmer. [Figure 3-6]

c. Cold Weather Altimeter Errors A correctly calibrated pressure altimeter indicates true altitude above mean sea level (MSL) when operating within the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) parameters of pressure and temperature. Nonstandard pressure conditions are corrected by applying the correct local area altimeter setting. Temperature errors from ISA result in true altitude being higher than indicated altitude whenever the temperature is warmer than ISA and true altitude being lower than indicated altitude whenever the temperature is colder than ISA. True altitude variance under conditions of colder than ISA temperatures poses the risk of inadequate obstacle clearance. Under extremely cold conditions, pilots may need to add an appropriate temperature correction determined from the chart in Figure 3-7 to charted IFR altitudes to ensure terrain and obstacle clearance with the following restrictions: Altitudes specifically assigned by Air Traffic Control (ATC), such as maintain 5,000 feet shall not be corrected. Assigned altitudes may be rejected if the pilot decides that low temperatures pose a risk of inadequate terrain or obstacle clearance. If temperature corrections are applied to charted IFR altitudes (such as procedure turn altitudes, final approach fix crossing altitudes, etc.), the pilot must advise ATC of the applied correction

DEFINITIONS HEIGHT: The vertical distance of a level, point or object considered as a point, measured from specified datum (normally associated with QFE and height above aerodrome level) or the vertical dimension (size) of an object. ALTITUDE: The vertical distance of a level, point or object considered as a point, measured from MSL (normally associated with QNH) Cruising Level: This is a generic term describing vertical position for a significant portion of the flight and can be a height, altitude or flight level depending on the altimeter setting procedure in force. Absolute Altitude: Alternately known as absolute height, meaning the height of the aircraft above the surface immediately below. Used more often in connection with radio or radar altimeters than with pressure altimeters. Flight Levels: Surfaces of constant pressure related to the standard pressure datum and separated by specified pressure intervals. A flight level is expressed as the number of hundreds of feet which would be indicated at the level concerned by an ISA calibrated altimeter set to 1013.25mb (29.92inches). QNH: This setting is used mainly in flight below transition altitude/level. It is an equivalent MSL pressure calculated by ATC from the aerodrome level pressure assuming ISA condition prevail between aerodrome level and MSL. With QNH set on the sub scale, the altimeter of an aircraft on the aerodrome indicates aerodrome elevation, that is the height AMSL. QFE: This is aerodrome level pressure which when set on the sub-scale, will cause the altimeter of an aircraft on the ground to read zero, assuming there is no instrument error. In flight with QFE set, the altimeter will indicate height above aerodrome QFE reference dautum provided ISA conditions obtain between aerodrome level and aircraft and there is no error. ALTITUDE DEFINITIONS : Vertical separation of aircraft is based on local altimeter settings. The definitions below are important because pressure variations en route require changes in the altimeter setting, and TAS computations are based on temperature and pressure onversions (see Types of Altitude figure, on the right). 1. Indicated altitude is read directly from the altimeter when set to current barometric pressure. 2. Pressure altitude is read from the altimeter when set to the standard barometric pressure of 29.92 in. Hg. 3. Density altitude is the pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature. 4. True altitude is the exact height above mean sea level. 5. Absolute altitude is the actual height above the earths surface.

AIR SPEED INDICATOR An airspeed indicator is required on all certified aircraft except free balloons. The purpose of the ASI is to show the speed of the aircraft through the air. USES OF AIR SPEED INDICATOR: 1. It gives the pilot a definite indication of the attitude of the airplane with respect to the horizontal flight path. 2. It assists the pilot in determining the best throttle setting for most efficient flying speeds. 3. Indications of airspeed are necessary in estimating or calculating ground speed 4. Every airplane has certain maximum speeds recommended by the manufacturer and without air speed indicator these limits of design might be exceeded without the pilots being aware of it. This s particularly true with respect to flap and landing gear extension speeds. 5. The airspeed indicator shows the correct takeoff and landing speed and it warns when the airplane approaching stalling speed. It also angle of attack, because higher speed generally means lower angle attack.

AIR SPEEDS DEFINITION: INDICATED AIRSPEED: IAS is the airspeed indicated on the instrument CALIBRATED AIRSPED: CAS is the indicated airspeed corrected for instrument and sensor position error. This correction is a result of location of the Pitot tube and static ports and the changing airflow around these sensors with different aircraft flight attitude various flap positions and door, window and vent positions

TRUE AIRSPEED: TAS is the calibrated airspeed corrected for compressibility error and density error Or TRUE AIRSPEED adjusts the IAS for the given temperature and pressure. The F-15E receives TAS from the Air Data Computer which measures the outside temperature & pressure. True airspeed is calculated incorporating pressure and temperature corrections corresponding to flight altitude.

VT = True airspeed, Vi = Indicated airspeed, p & T are pressure and temperature with subscripts std and actual indicating standard and actual (altitude / ambient) conditions. True Air Speed and Ground Speed will be the same in a perfectly still air. EQUIVALENT AIR SPEED: EAS is the calibrated airspeed corrected for compressibility correction GROUNDSPEED is another important airspeed to pilots. Groundspeed is the aircraft's actual speed across the earth. It equals the TAS plus or minus the wind factor.

ERRORS:

COLOUR MARKING IN ASI

VERTICAL AIRSPEED INDICATOR Also referred to as Rate of Climb Indicator. This instrument is valuable during instrument flight because it indicates the rate at which the airplane is climbing or descending. Level flight can be maintained by keeping the pointer of the instrument on zero and change in altitude on the dial in feet per minute. In this manner it assists the pilot in establishing a rate of climb that is within the prescribed limits of the engine. Likewise, when the pilot is coming in for a landing or descending to a lower altitude, the rate of descent can be controlled. PRINCIPLE: When an aircraft departs from level flight the static pressure will change. The VSI measures the pressure difference between each side of a restricted choke/ metering unit. In level flight the pressures on each side of the choke are the same, during a climb or descent, air fed to the choke immediately responds to the change of atmospheric pressure but the choke transmits this change at a lower rate. CONSTRUCTION: Like the airspeed indicator, the climb indicator is a differential pressure instrument. It operates from the differential between atmospheric pressure and the pressure of a chamber that is vented to the atmosphere through a small, calibrated capillary restriction. A capsule in and airtight case is fed with static pressure. The case is also fed with static pressure but through a restricted choke, thus if the static pressure is changed the pressure surrounding the capsule changes at a slower rate than that within the capsule as shown in figure. The action of the diaphragm is transmitted through a lever and gear system to the pointer. As the plane assumes level flight, the pressures equalize and the pointer returns to zero. An overpressure diaphragm and valve prevent excessive rates of climb or descent from damaging the mechanism.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM CUT VIEW

MAGNETIC COMPASS

GYROSCOPE

TURN COORDINATOR

RATE OF TURN INDICATOR (OR) TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR

TURN AND BANK INDICATOR (OR) (OR) TURN INDICATOR

ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

HEADING INDICATOR

Fig : Air driven directional gyro A heading indicator is refined version of the directional gyro. Its principles of operation are same as for the directional gyro, but the display presentation is a compass card. This compass card display allows the pilot to visualize the leading of the aircraft in relation to heading changes that may be required. With this visualization the mental work load of the pilot is reduced and flying by reference the instrument is made easier. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION The gyro used in this heading indicator is air driven directional gyro. To drive this gyro the case of instrument is connected to a vacuum or pressure source. The resulting airflow through the instrument is directed into the buckets machined on rim of the rotor. Within short time after the airflow is started, the rotor is turning at a high rate of speed. CONSTRUCTION Gyro instrument must necessarily be limited in the degree of movement through which the gimbals can travel except in the case of the directional gyro where the z axis can turn through a complete circle. If the degree of permitted movement is exceeded because of violent maneuvers of the airplane, the gyro rotor will be moved out of its normal position of rigidity and it is then said to be tumbled. In order to restore the gyro to its correct alignment a caging mechanism is installed. When the gyro is caged, it is locked into its correct position mechanically. The caging mechanism must then be released to permit the gyro to function normally. The directional gyro is usually mounted at the bottom centre of the flight instrument group.