Beruflich Dokumente
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By Bryan N. Scholl, Christopher I. Thornton, Ph.D., P.E., and Barrie King, E.I.T.
AUGUST 2009
Continuing Education
The Professional Development Series is a unique opportunity to earn continuing education credit by reading specially focused, sponsored articles in CE News. If you read the following article, display your understanding of the stated learning objectives, and follow the simple instructions, you can fulfill a portion of your continuing education requirements at no cost to you. This article also is available online at www.cenews.com/ pg.asp?id=20. Development Series sponsor within 90 days and will be awarded 1.0 professional development hour (equivalent to 0.1 continuing education unit in most states). Note: It is the responsibility of the licensee to determine if this method of continuing education meets his or her governing board(s) of registrations requirements.
Learning Objectives
Instructions
First, review the learning objectives below, then read the Professional Development Series article. Next, complete the quiz and submit your answers to the Professional Development Series sponsor. Submittal instructions are provided on the Reporting Form, on page PDH 6. Your quiz answers will be graded by the Professional Development Series sponsor. If you answer at least 80 percent of the questions correctly, you will receive a certificate of completion from the Professional
After reading this article you should understand: ow to evaluate erosion with respect to overtopping H flow; How to design with various types of erosion counter measures; and Factor of Safety Methodology for articulated concrete blocks.
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vertopping flow occurs when a water detention structures capacity is surpassed and flow passes over the structure. Potential sites of overtopping flows are embankments such as dams, levees, detention basins, et cetera. To properly evaluate the level of erosion protection needed, a design discharge must first be ascertained. This may be accomplished using historical record, isohyetal maps, probable maximum flood (PMF) or any number of generally accepted methods. Good engineering practice dictates that more than one method is used and judgment be used in the final determination of design discharge. Once discharge is established, Equation 1 is the generally accepted method for calculating discharge over an embankment: (Equation 1)
where Q = discharge; C = experimentally determined weir coefficient (C is approximately 3.0 (English units) for level-crested embankments); L = embankment length; and H = total head above the embankment crest prior to overflow drop down. In the case of submerged flow, (Equation 2) where (CS /C) is the submergence coefficient that may be calculated using Figure 1. The terminology used here will be that of a reservoir
scenario, though similar conditions exist in the other cases. Without proper protection, these types of embankments may fail as a result of the erosion caused by the overtopping. When discussing the processes of overtopping, it is convenient to divide the flow into three zones as illustrated in Figure 2. Zone 1 is characterized by a change from static energy head to a combination of static and dynamic head as flow accelerates from the near-zero velocity of the reservoir to subcritical velocity in the upstream portion of the dam crest. Zone 2 begins as flow passes through critical velocity and into supercritical flow across the remainder of the crest to the slope change at the opposite side of the embankment. Zone 3 encompasses the rapidly accelerating and turbulent supercritical flow on the downstream slope. As a result of the rapidly accelerating flow off the dam crest, Zone 3 contains a possible separation zone where flow may lose contact with the embankment surface. If this should occur, subhydrostatic pressure will result that must be considered during design. Zone 3 also contains a change in energy state from supercritical flow back to that of subcritical flow and is distinguished by a hydraulic jump. This will occur at the point where slope changes at the toe of the slope or when the flow encounters tailwater having subcritical velocity. Zone 1 with its subcritical flow is the least susceptible to erosion. Zone 2 experiences supercritical flow over a short distance. Erosion here will likely occur first at the downstream transition from dam crest to embankment slope. A major concern in this region is the increase in soil pore pressure. As the water level rises in the reservoir, the phreatic surface within the dam will also rise. Any paving surface on the embankment with insufficient drainage capacity may fail from the uplift pressure. This is also a concern in Zone 3. The accelerating supercritical flow in Zone 3 and the associated increasing tractive stress increases the chance of erosion on the downslope. Locations of discontinuity such as
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Figure 3: Typical submerged flow erosion pattern (Chen and Anderson, 1987)
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Figure 5: Roller-compacted concrete cost per cubic yard stresses are significantly less. Installed costs range from $5 to $20 per square yard. ACBs are wet- or dry-cast concrete blocks having a wide variety of configurations. Many ACBs have an open configuration for the establishment of vegetation, which gives additional strength, aids in water infiltration/exfiltration, and provides a more natural vegetated look. Select ACBs are also manufactured with openings allowing them to be cabled together laterally, vertically, or both. Pre-cabled ACB mattresses may be shipped from the manufacturer and installed en masse, affording contractors a cost savings. Shape characteristics and interlocking methods are proprietary. Rigorous testing has shown unvegetated ACBs to be capable of withstanding overtopping shear stresses exceeding 34 lb/ ft2 for extended periods of time. Failure of an ACB is defined as loss of intimate contact with the soil surface. Installed costs for ACBs range from $35 to $90 per square yard. RCC is also an overtopping countermeasure for dams and uses the same ingredients as traditional concrete but is worked in a much drier mixture. RCC uses much of the same heavy equipment as well. The principal difference is in the
placement process. Traditional concrete requires forms while RCC is dry enough that it may be dumped, spread by bulldozer, and compacted using vibratory rollers. RCC is typically more economical for large dam projects. Because concrete costs are typically in cubic yards, comparing the cost of a RCC installation versus ACB or HPTRM requires some knowledge of the final project design. Figure 5 presents a cost curve for cost per cubic yard of completed RCC projects. RCC typically has a greater erosion resistance threshold and has been documented withstanding overtopping flows in excess of 16 feet. ACBs provide an excellent design alternative when considering the level of protection afforded for the installed cost. With any overtopping design, geotechnical concerns are of great importance. The minimum site soil properties that should be obtained for use in the design process are: general soil classification according to ASTM D 2487, Standard Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System), particle size distribution, plasticity, and permeability. Prior to installation of any overtopping measure, slope stability must be ascertained as they are not intended for use in slope stabilization. An important component of the ACB overtopping countermeasure is a filter sub-layer. The filter may be a geotextile or granular filter composed of graded material. The filter is installed between the ACB and the base soil. Its primary function is to allow infiltration/exfiltration while retaining soil particles. A granular filter may also serve the dual purpose of providing a smooth, even surface assisting in the maintenance of intimate contact of the ACB with the soil surface. Careful design and installation of the appropriate filter material is crucial in the long-term performance of an ACB system. The choice of synthetic or gravel filter will dictate the filter design method. Gravel filter design is detailed in United States Army Corps of Engineers EM 1110-2-1913, Engineering
Table 1. Base factor of safety, SFB Example application Channel bed or bank Bridge pier or abutment Overtopping spillway SFB 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.8 2.0
Table 2. Consequence of failure multiplier, XC Consequence of failure XC Low 1.0 1.2 Medium 1.3 1.5 High 1.6 1.8 Extreme or loss of life 1.9 2.0
Table 3. Multiplier base on hydraulic model, XM Hydraulic model Deterministic Empirical or stochastic Estimates XM 1.0 1.3 1.4 1.7 1.8 2.0
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Bryan N. Scholl, is a research assistant for Colorado State University. He can be contacted at bnscholl@engr.colostate. edu. Christopher I. Thornton, Ph.D., P.E., is director of the Hydraulics Laboratory and Engineering Research Center at Colorado State University. He can be contacted at 970-4918394. Barrie King, E.T.I., is the supervisor of engineering for CONTECH Construction Product's Armortec product line. He can be contacted at kingb@contech-cpi.com.
Instructions:
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) a a a a a
Select one answer for each quiz question and clearly circle the appropriate letter. Provide all of the requested contact information. Fax this Reporting Form to 513-645-7993. (You do not need to send the Quiz; only this Reporting Form is necessary to be submitted.)
b b b b b c c c c c d d d d d 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) a a a a a b b b b b c c c c c d d d d d
Certification of ethical completion: I certify that I read the article, understood the learning objectives, and completed the quiz questions to the best of my ability. Additionally, the contact information provided above is true and accurate.
Signature: Date:
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REFERENCES
Ayres Associates, 2001, Highways in the River Environment,
River Engineering for Highway Encroachments, Hydraulic Design Series Number 6, National Highway Institute, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.
Chen, Y.H. and Anderson, B.A., 1987, Development of a
Second Edition, Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 23 FHWA NHI 01-003, Washington, D.C. (www.fhwa. dot.gov/bridge/hydpub.htm)
Oswalt, N.R., Buck, L.E., Hepler, T.E., and Jackson, H.E., 1994,
Methodology for Estimating Embankment Damage due to Flood Overtopping, FHWA Report No. FHWA-RD-86/126.
Clopper, P.E. and Chen, Y.H., 1988, Minimizing Embankment
Alternatives for Overtopping Protection of Dams, Report of the ASCE Task Committee on Overtopping Protection, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York.
Portland Cement Association, Roller Compacted Concrete,
www.cement.org/water/dams_rcc.asp.
Powledge, G.R., Ralston, D.C., Miller, P., Chen, Y.H., Clopper,
Design of Reinforced Grass Waterways, Construction Industry Research and Information Association, Report 116, London.
Lagasse, P.F., Zevenbergen, L.W., Schall, J.D., and Clopper, P.E.,
P.E., and Temple, D.M., 1989b, Mechanics of Overflow Erosion on Embankments, II: Hydraulic and Design Considerations, Report of the ASCE Task Committee on the Mechanics of Overflow Erosion on Embankments, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 115, No. 8.
Tetra Tech MPS, 2006, Drainage Manual, Michigan Department
3. D uring overtopping flow, Zone 1 can be characterized by a change from static energy head to what combination flow regime as the flow approaches the upstream portion of the dam crest. a) Turbulent and erosive head b) Static and dynamic head c) Static and turbulent head d) Pressure and static head
6. A long with a change in slope, what other condition may be the cause of a hydraulic jump in Zone 3? a) Subcritical headwater velocity b) Supercritical tailwater velocity c) Supercritical headwater velocity d) Subcritical tailwater velocity 7. D efine the failure criteria for highperformance turf reinforcement mats (HPTRMs).
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Over.
Under.
Around.
Through.
Away.
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