Aquaculrural Engineering 3tl 984~ 191-206

A Model to Predict Water Temperature in Plasticcovered Outdoor Mass Algal Culture Systems

J.M. de Jager
Department of Agrometeorology, University of the Orange Free State. P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300. South Africa

and * R.D. Walmsley

Institute for Environmental Sciences. University of the Orange Free'State, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa

A BSTRA CT The design, consmtction and operation o f a 100 tn" rectangular plasticcorered culture system for green algae (chlorelta, scenedesmus) is described. A simple sfltudation model which predicts water temperature with an accuracy acceptable ]'or esthnating algal growth rate has been developed. Although shmdated and measured obsen'ations showed significant statistical agreement, the model tends to underestimate daily maximum temperature and overestimate daily mhtimum temperature. The model can be readih, adapated ]'or usage #t other parts o f the world.

NOMENCLATURE Area Surface area open to air (m 2) Transfer coefficient for conduction (W K m-'-) Heat exchange (loss) by conduction through the entire relevant surface (W) Hourly mean evaporative heat flux density (W m -2)

C
Con

* Present address: Department of Plant Sciences, Rhodes University, P.O. Box 94, Grahamstown 6140, South Africa. 191 Aquacultural Engineering 0144-8609/84/503.00 Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd, England, 1984. Printed in Great Britain

1~2

J. M. De Jager, R. D. Walmsley

',h l Is 3I R RN S Sg SH T AT Y tt
(7 T

Hourly total-heat increment in the w a t e r / J h -t) Light intensity 4einsteins m -2 s-ti Light saturation constant for cultured species (einsteins m-'- s-s) Mass l kg) Reflectivity Hourly mean net radiation flux density iW m-z) Slope of water vapour density-temperature curve ig m -3 K-tl Hourly mean incoming solar radiation IW m -z) Specific heat {J kg -t K -t) Temperature (K) Hourly temperature increment I K h -t) Psychrometric constant t g m -3 K -~) Emissivity Growth rate {day -t ) Stefan-Boltzman constant (5-67 10-s W m -= K -4) Tra nsmissivity

Subscripts
a

ap

atm
d
O

in out

P
S

ski
w

Of the air Of the air between tile plastic and the water surface Of the atmosphere On the dark side On to the ground Flow into the water Flow out o f the water Of the plastic On the sunny side From the sky Of tile water

INTRODUCTION The first attempts at the large-scale o u t d o o r culture o f algae involved the use of closed systems in which the algal culture was covered with transparent material. The latter reduced convective heat exchange between the culture and tile outside atmosphere and produced high

[:'a:er temperature prediction in plastic-covered mass algal s)'srems

193

culture temperatures which were detrimental to algal production tBurley, 1953: Tamiya, 1957), Consequently expensive heat exchangers were fitted t o regulate water temperatures. Subsequent developments it,, the technology of mass algal culture have exclusively favoured tb.e use of open culture systems fSetlik era!., 1970: Soeder and Binsack, t978: Shetef and Soeder, 1980). Nevertheless, it has been claimed that under certain circumstances closed systems do have distinct advantages over the more conventional open systems (Setlik et al., t970: Pirt, 1q79: Wa!msley et al., 1981). Temperature has been identified as one of the most important environmental variables regulating the quantity and quality of the material produced in o u t d o o r mass cultures (Goldman and Carpenter, 1974: Payer et al., 1978: Grobbelaar, 1981). Consequently, for planning purposes it is of considerable advantage to have the capability of predicting the water temperatt)re in an enclosed algal pond for a given site. The present paper describes a nlodel which was developed to predict water temperatures in an enclosed 100 m'- channeltype pond which was operated on lhe University of the Orange Free State experimental sitc at Bloemfontein.

MATERIALS AND METIIODS Pond design Design of fllis pond followed the conventional meandering channel design with channel walls and floors being constructed frorn brick axld concrete (see Fig. It. Six ch.ar~nels, each approxinlately 0.8 m wide aild 21 m in length, were constructed so as to include a walkway (0.5 m wide) between each alternate pair of channels. The channels were approximately 0.4 m high with the liquid depth approximately 0-3 m, The inlet channel was separated from the other five channels by means of an interconnecting duct. This was done so that this channel could be utilised us an evaporative cooling channel without disturbing the closed nature of the remaining channels. Cooling in this case could be achieved either by removing the plastic covering to permit evaporative cooling or by means o f a fan system which could blow air over the enclosed cultu re. Circulation and water turbulence were maintained by means of a low head centrifugal pump capable of pumping water at 1.2m 3s-L Water

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J. M. De Jager, R. D. B'almsley

Fig. 1.

The closed 100 m" pond.

[low was regulated by means of butterfly valves situated at the outlet and inlet pipes to tile pond. A dye experiment indicated that under optimal conditions (in which no strain was placed on the pump) a constant flow velocity of 0.3 m s-1 could be maintained at a height of 0.2 m in the liquid. The pond was il~iti~,!ly covered i.q the following manner. Curved polycarbonate frames, placed at 2 m intervals along each chaqnel, were fastened to the upper surface of the channel wall (Fig. 2(a)). Strips of transparent plastic {Uvideck, Gundle Plastics) were then placed over the trames and glued on to the outside wall of each channel. At the corners and bends, the system was arranged such that a felt zipper seam joined the strips of plastic from adjoining channels. This arrangement allowed for rapid and easy access to the channels for maintenance and sampling. However, this system was later found to be unsatisfactory since the condensate from the underside of the plastic ran down the outside of the channels and weakened the glue bonding between the plastic and the concrete. Subsequently the polycarbonate frames were then clamped to the inside walls by means of a wooden strip screwed in place by bolts (Fig. 2!b)). This structure proved to be more successful since it was fairly robust, allowed access to the channels and also ensured that condensate trickled back into the culture.

Water temperature prediction in plastic-covered mass algal systems

195

POLYCARBONATE FRAME PLASTIC

GAS PHASE

;.
ALGAL CULTURE
s

--CHANNEL

WALL

,,

. -'

.
-

POLYCARBONATE FRAME PLASTIC

GAS

PHASE

s .o

l
~,

ALGAL

CULTURE

Fig. 2. Cross-sections through channel of closed 100 m 2 pond to illustrate the metl~od of enclosing the system with plastic. (a) Plastic glued on the outside of the channels: (b) plastic held in place on the upper surface of the channels~

Pond operation Green algae (chlorella, s c e n e d e s m u s ) were grown in a repeated fed batch fashion and each morning (08.30 hours) a fixed volume (6000 litres) was removed and immediately replenished with fresh medium.

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J. M. De Jager, R. D. Walmsley

Both outflow and inflow taps were attached to volume meters thus allowing for an accurate record to be made of water input and output. A continuous record was kept of the climatic variables, hourly incoming total solar radiation, daily maximum and minimum air temperature and daily rainfall. The water temperature of the culture, when operating, was recorded manually 3-5 times daily by means of a thermoprobe or a standard glass thermometer. Whilst flow was mostly laminar-type along the channels, turbulent flow was encountered at comers and bends. This had the advantage to a large extent of destroying temperature gradients in the liquid. Temperature differentials at a given time seldom exceeded IC. Model development A mathematical model was developed with the main objective of predicting the daily maximum and minimum water temperatures for the pond under the above-mentioned operating conditions. The model was evolved from a plastic glasshouse model described by North et al. (1978). It simulated water temperature given the pond's physical characteristics and weather input data.

ASSUMPTIONS Thirteen assumptions were necessary to make possible the development of the model for describing water thermodynamics in terms of environmental inputs and physical dimensions of the pool. These were: 1. Hourly mean air temperature tbllows a sinusoidal relationship with time. 2. The minimum air temperature for the first day next month is set equal to the minimum air temperature measured on the last day of the relevant month. 3. Tski = 273 K 4. Tap = (Tw + T.)/2 5. Con is proportional to the difference between air and water temperature and the area of water surface. 6. E - S + 3'
S

RN -t-

Area 3600

E i n 4- Eou t

Water temperature prediction in plastic-covered mass algal systems

197

7.

8. 9. I 0. 11. 12.

13.

The constant 3 6 0 0 s h -t serves to convert the units of ,.Xh to conform with those for E. At night, due to the air entrapped beneath the plastic being saturated and negligible input of energy, E o u t = 0. Furthermore, by assumption I 1, Ei, = 0. Hence at night E = 0. Air temperature maximum occurs at 14.00 hours and the minimum occurs at sunrise. Aggressive mixing of the water at the bends in the channels leads to a homogeneous temperature throughout the liquid. The water vapour beneath the plastic canopy is saturated. E~n, the heat of condensation on the plastic, is entirely dissipated by convective heat exchange to the atmosphere. The thermal energy available to evaporate water is equal to the algebraic sum of net radiation and the heat utilised in changing the temperature of the water (cf. assumption 6), To = T a

COblPUTATIONAL PROCEDURE In order to predict the maximum and minimum water temperatures it was necessary to predict a diurnal temperature pattern for each day. The model utilised an iterative interval o f 1 h. Computation was carried out as described in Fig. 3. The prograname is designed so that where detailed input data are not available, simply the latitude and longitude of the site, monthly mean maximum and monthly mean minimum air temperature and mean monthly sunshine duration could be utilised. The assumption regarding conductive heat loss (Con) is coarse, but probably reasonably reliable since the energy dynamics are primarily radiation controlled. The latter (iCon) and the evaporation (E) assumptions could be refined, but this woulcl probably result in only limited improvement. Mathematical simulation of the thermodynamics of the system The convention prescribing that heat uptake by a medium be given a negative sign was adopted and simulation of the system depicted in Fig. 4 was undertaken.

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J. ,1,[. De .lager, R. D. l+'almsley

I START
T

f
J

~nter initia) conditions

[s,ablish parameter)

Compute time OF I sunrise and sunset

l
......

FOR [ACH HOUR O ~ TH[ DAY

ESTIP.ATE:
Hourly mean air temperature

COMPUTE :

I. Net radiation 2. Conduction heat losses, 3. Influence of adding water at OghO0 4. Increment in water temperature
5. Water temperature at the end

of each hour

1 ( ,~x, .0uR)- ........

l COMPUT[: Oai|y maxigum and
minimum water tomoeratur,o

,1
I
l Plot daily maximum and minimum for each day of the raonth

I I

[,,o, hoot', .'r .nO -ator tomporatoro',l

for the day selecrod

Fig. 3.

Schematic t]ow diagram t'or the computations of the model to be carried out by the computer program DANNY.

Water temperature prediction in plastic-covered mass algal systems

199

CONd --,

~-CON s

1
CON

Fig. 4.

Diagram of tile major energy flows utilised in the model.

The fundamental energy equation for the system was found to be ~h=-Areaw" R N + 3600

l + S / ( S + "y

The constant 3600 s h -1 equates units on both sides o f the equation. It was derived as follows: First, the radiation balance equation was derived using the fundamental Stefan-Boltzman radiation law for the long-wave radiation c o m p o n e n t s together with the fundamental emissivity and transmissivity relationships. Sg, the measured incoming solar radiation was available to the model as an input. Thus,
R N = e s k i " OTsaki - - r S g ( 1

--R,,.)--%aT~+ewaT4w

(1)

Conductive heat exchange with the water in the system is small compared to radiative exchange. Hence all four conductive terms were combined into a single conductive term for the entire system, Con. Such that Con = C o n d + C o n g + Cons + C o n a Which was evaluated utilising assumption 5. Thus Con = Areaw Ca " (T,,. -- Ta) (2)

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J.M. De Jager, R. D. ICalmsley

Accommodating tile evaporative term in the energy budget was difficult. It was assumed {assumption 10) that the water vapour beneath the plastic canopy was always saturated. Under such circumstances the equilibrium evaporation rate, as defined by Davies 11972), gives a good estimate of actual evaporation rate. Hence this defining equation was adopted, viz. S E - - x (energy available to evaporate water) S+3" {3)

It was assumed (assumption 11 ) that all heat generated by condensation on the plastic was dissipated by conduction through the plastic, then by convection to the atmosphere and hence out of the system. In this event Conatm = Cona + Ep " Areap Ein = 0 and
E = Eout (5)

(4)

Furthermore, it was assumed (assumption 12) that the thermal energy available to evaporate water equals the algebraic sum of net radiation and the heat necessary to change the temperature of the water: From eqns (3), (4) and (5) it was deduced that
E = Eout _ S S +~

/ktt RN + Area-~3600)

(6)

Now, the fundamental energy budget equation for the body of water is: /kh Areaw(RN + E) + Con + - - 0 3600 (7)

Substitution of eqn (6) into eqn (7) and simple algebra yield the fundamental energy balance for the entire body of water, viz. Ah=--[ArEawRN+ I +S/(sCn+3')]3600 (8)

The objective of hourly iterations was to calculate the hourly increment in water temperature, ATw. ATw may be calculated directly from the

Water temperature prediction in plastic-covered mass algal systems

201

first law of thermodynamics. Thus. AT,.. Ah .44,,. SHw (9)

In order to evaluate AT,v, the computer program requires the following input data: For eqn (1)

Sg, Tsk i, Tp and 7_,,..

Sg is measured: by assumption 3, 77,ki = 273 K" by assumption 13, T~, = T~ and the T,,. at the end of the previous hour is taken for Tw. For eqn (2) As above, T,,. and Ta are calculated assuming th.at air temperature varies sinusoidally between its minimum and maximum values which occur at sunrise and 14.00 hours respectively. Each of the unknowns on the right-hand-side of eqn (8) (RN from eqn (1) and Con from eqn (2)) can thus be evaluated. AT,,. can then be calculated by substituting the resultant of eqn (8) into eqn (9) and T~ calculated by adding AT,,. to the water temperature at the end of the previous hour. THE INITIAL CONDITIONS REQUIRED TO MAKE THE COMPUTATION POSSIBLE Certain initial conditions have to be established before computation of water temperature may proceed. The required information is entered by the operator and includes:

(it (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii)

initial water temperature: temperature of the water added each morning: number of clays in the relevant month: number of days for which hourly values are to be plotted: latitude and longitude of the site: length, width and depth of the pond: and mass of fresh water added each day.

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J. M. De Jager, R. D. Walmsley

Copies of the model, written in Hewlett Packard BASIC language, are available upon request.

RESULTS Validation of the model The value of a mathematical model lies in its ability to accurately c o m p u t e measured values o f given variables in a system. Validation of the model was therefore executed by comparing model predicted values with observed values which had been collected during six months of pond operation (January-June 1981). During this period water temperatures in the pond ranged between a minimum of 14.4C and a maximum of 43.0C. The results are given in Table 1. Simulated daily maximum and minimum water temperatures were compared to measured values. The test criteria of Wilhnott (1982) were utilised. These are (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) mean mean index mean mean square systematic error (MSEs); square unsystematic error (MSEu); of agreement (d): absolute error (MAE); and square error (MSE).

TABLE 1

Validation Tests on the Model. MSEs, MSEu, d, MAE, r 2, a and b for Comparison of Computed Against Observed Values of Daily Maximum and Minimum Water Temperatures. N is the Number of Samples Utilised and MSEs and MSEu tile Mean Square Systematic and Unsystematic Errors, Respectively
Variable (daily water temperature) N MSE S {CZ) Value of validation test parameter MSEu (C2) d MAE (C)

r"

a ('C)

Max. Min.

52 110

0.79 2.6

3.42 2.9

0.94 0.87

2.4 2-8

0.81 0-73

-3.98 -0.95

1.12 0-94

Water temperature prediction in plastic-covered mass algal systems

203

The coefficient of determination (r-') of the comparison and slope (b) and intersection (a) of the regressions of calculated and measured maximum and minimum water temperatures are determined. Correlation coefficients between simulated and observed maximum and minimum temperature values were highly significant (P < 0.001). The high (d > 0.7) values of d in Table 1 indicate that the model reliably simulates water temperature. It does however tend to underestimate (MAE) maximum temperature and overestimate (MAE) the minimum by, on average, 2.4C and 2-8C, respectively. The prediction of daily maximum water temperatures is more reliable (see MSEu values) than that for minimum temperatures. The accuracy of prediction of hourly water temperatures between the two daily extremes should be better than 2C.

DISCUSSION The present model was developed to simulate the expected temperature regime which would occur in the 100 m 2 algal culture system. To this end the model was successful for both maximum and minimum daily temperatures over the entire temperature range (14.5-45C) encountered at the Bloemfontein site between midsummer and midwinter. It may therefore be concluded that the model should be used to estimate water temperatures with useable accuracy for any day of the year for which input data are available. An example is given ill Fig. 5. The computational procedures also provide simulated hourly water temperatures (see Fig. 6). The error of estimation (2.5C for daily maxima and minima and 2C for intermediate values) is acceptable for the purposes of estimating algal production. Although designed to calculate water temperatures on the Bloemfontein site under the described operating conditions, the model should provide valid simulations in other parts of the world if appropriate parameters and input data are produced. Simulations such as those presented in Figs 5 and 6 have proved invaluable for estimating periods of heat stress. Most mass culture species exhibit low growth rates at 10C and 40C whilst optima can vary between 18C and 35C (Payer e t a l . , 1978). Certain species, however, are able to tolerate a few hours exposure per day at temperatures as high as 45C, but production is considerably diminished (Payer e t al.,

204
50

J. M. De Jager, R. D. Walmsley

45

~,o 3s

5
~- 25
F-

15

I0 0

10

15

20

25

30

DAY

OF

THE

MONTH

Fig. 5.

Daily variation in simulated daily maximum and minimum water temperatures for January 1981. (-- -) Maximum; ( ) minimum.

1978). The model may therefore be used to indicate when cooling is required. The growth rate of algae is a function of nutrients, light intensity and temperature (Toerien, 1981). Since outdoor culture production takes place under nutrient saturated conditions, it follows that growth rate is a function of light intensity and temperature. A relationship between growth rate, light intensity and temperature has been described by Toerien (1981) who utilised the equations of Goldman and Carpenter (1974) for temperature, and Shelef e t al. (1968) for light. The Toerien ( t 981) equation reads = (5-39 X 109)-6572/T(1 - - e -//rs)

(10)

Water temperature prediction in plastic-covered mass a[gai s)'stems

a5

205

~0

0 v kld I'r-,taJ

35

~:

30

o_
t.tJ t-LIJ I---

25

20

15

10

12

18

Z z*

HOUR

F i g . 6 . Simulated air and water temperatures at the end o f each hour o n 1 5 January 1981. ( ...... ) Simulated water t e m p e r a t u r e : ( ) simulated air t e m p e r a t u r e : (o) measured values.

Toerien (1981) utilised tile above equation accurately to predict the production of open cultures on the same Bloemtontein site. The model developed ill this paper finds use in providing input for tile term involving T in eqn ( I 0 ) and can thus ultimately lead to estimation of production rates in the I00 m 2 closed system.

ACKNOWLEDGEM ENT Tile financial support provided by Sentrachem made this work possible and is herewith gratefully acknowledged.

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J. M. De ,lager, R. D. ~almsley
REFERENCES

Burlew, J. S. (ed.) (t953). Algal Culture from Laboraton' to Pilot Plant, Carnegie Institute of Washington, Publ. No. 600. Washington DC. Davies. J. A. (1972). Actual, potentia[ and equilibrium evaporation for a bear field in southern Ontario. Agric. Meteor.. 10.331-48. Goldman, J. C. & Carpenter, E. J. (L974). A kinetic approach to the effect of temperature on algal growth. Limnol. Oceanogr.. 19,756-66. Grobbelaar. J. V. (1981). Open semi-defined systems for outdoor mass culture of algae. Universio' of the Orange Free State Publ. Series C, 3, 24-30. North, M. S., De Jager, J. M. & Allen. P. (1978). The environment inside a plastic covered tunnel greenhouse, in relation to the outside conditions. Proc. S. Afr. Soc. Crop Prod.. 7,139-46. Payer. H. D.. Pithakpol, B., Nguitragool. M.. Prabharaksa, C., Thananunkul, D. & Chava. S. (1978). Major results of the Thai-German microalga[ project at Bangkok. Arch. Hvdrobiol. ergebtl. Limltol.. 11,41-55. Pitt, S. J. (1979). Algal culture in solar panels: a primary source of fuel. food and carbon feedstocks. In: Proceedings of a S.ww~osi,~,n o~z Processes/br Chemicals a,zd Measurable Raw Materials. Institute for Chemical Engineers, London. Setlik, l., Sust. V. & .Malek. I. (1970f Dual purpose open circulation t, nits for large scale culture of algae in temperate zones. 1. Basic design considerations and scheme of pilot plant. Algol. Stud.. 1, 111-64. Shelef, G., Oswald, W. J. & Golueke. C. G. (1968). Kinetics of algal systems in waste treatment. Light intensity and nitrogen concentration as growth-limiting factors. SERL Report 68-4, University of California at Berkeley. Shelef. G. & Soeder. C. J. (eds) (1980). Algae Biomass, Product&n a,,d Use, Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press. Amsterdam. Soeder. C. J. & Binsack, R. (eds) (1978). Microalgae for food and feed - a status analysis. Ergebn. LimJzol., 11. 1-300. Tamiya, H. (1957). Mass culture of algae. Plant Physiology, 8,309-34. Toerien. D. F. (1981). Growth kinetic prediction of algal growth in mass cultivation systems. U~ziversitv of the Ora~ge Free State PubL, Series C, 3,168-72. Wahnsley, R. D.. Wurts. T. &Carr. L. (1981). Concepts and considerations for the mass culture of algae in closed ponds. University of the Orange Free State PubL, Series C.. 3. 136-45. Wilhnott. C. J. (1982). Some comments on the evaluation of model performance. Bull. Amer. Met. Soc.. 63 (I 1), 1309-13.