Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) Explored By: Engr.

Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) Circuit Breakers D uring the operation of the power systems, it is often desirable and necessary to switch on or off the various circuits (e.g., transmission lines, distributors, generating plants etc.) under both normal and faulty conditions. Previously this function was performed by a switch and a fuse in series with the circuit. Howev er, such a means of control presents two disadvantages. Firstly, when fuse blows out, it takes quite sometime to replace it and restore the supply to the custom ers. Secondly, a fuse can not successfully interrupt the heavy fault currents th at occur on the modern high voltage power systems and large capacity circuits. T herefore, with the advancement in the power systems, there was a need to develop a more reliable means of control. The circuit breaker was developed to switch o n and off the various circuits of a power system. Devices used for circuit breaking (or making) 1. Fuse and ironclad switches Fuse is an over current switch in the sense that w hen the current exceeds a preassigned value in a circuit or device, it melts and causes the current interruption. The supply is restored only when a healthy fus e replaces the damaged (melted) one in the line. To permit this without any dang er of shock to the operator, fuses are connected on the load side of an ironclad switch. Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) 2. Isolators An isolat or is a switch connected after a circuit breaker. When a circuit or a busbar is taken out of service by tripping the circuit breaker, the isolator is then open circuited and the isolated line is earthed through earth switch so that the trap ped line charges are safely conducted to ground. 3. Circuit breakers A circuit b reaker is a complex circuit-breaking device with the following duties: Makes or breaks both normal and abnormal currents Appropriately manages the high-energy a rc associated with current interruption. The problem has become more acute due t o interconnection of power stations resulting in very high fault levels. Effects current interruption only when it is called upon to do so by the relay circuits . In fact they are required to trip for a minimum of the internal fault current and remain inoperative for a maximum of through fault current Rapid and successi ve automatic breaking and making to aid stable system operation Three pole (3-po le) and single pole (1-pole) auto-reclosing arrangement In addition to the makin g and breaking capabilities, a circuit breaker is required to do following tasks under the following typical conditions: Short-circuit interruption Interruption of small inductive currents Capacitor switching Interruption of short-line faul t Asynchronous switching A circuit breaker is a switching i.e. current interrupt ing or making device in switchgear. In more proper words, a circuit breaker is d efined as a piece of equipment which can do any one of the following tasks: Make s or breaks a circuit either manually or by remote control under normal conditio ns Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) Breaks a circuit autom atically under fault conditions Makes a circuit either manually or by remote con trol under fault conditions Figure 1: A Circuit Breaker with Internal Structure Thus a circuit breaker is used for incorporating manual as well as automatic control for the switching functio n. It is easy to percept what manual operation means for the circuit breakers. O n the other hand, the automatic control of the circuit breaker is incorporated w ith the help of relays and is only done in case of fault conditions. The main ad vantage associated with the use of circuit breaker is that, unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (eith er manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are m ade in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household ap pliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city. Operating Principle The primary function of the circuit breakers mechanism is to provide the means f or opening and closing the contacts. Initially, this seems to be a rather simple and straightforward requirement. However, when one considers the fact that most circuit breakers, once placed into service, will remain in the closed position for long periods of time, and yet on the few occasions when they are called upon to open or close, they must do so reliably, without any delay or sluggishness, then one realizes that the demands on the mechanisms are not as simple as was fi rst thought. A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts . These contacts are called electrodes. The need for carrying the continuous cur rent and for withstanding Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) a period of arcing mak es it necessary to use two sets of contacts in parallel, one is the primary cont act and the second is the arcing contact. The primary contact is always made of a high conductive material such as copper and the arcing contact is made of arc resistance material such as tungsten or molybdenum, which has a much lower condu ctivity than those used for primary contacts. When the circuit breaker opens to interrupt the current, the primary contacts open before the arcing contacts. Und er the normal operating conditions, these contacts remain closed and are not ope n automatically until and unless the system becomes faulty. Of course, the conta cts can be opened manually or by remote control when ever desired. When a fault occurs on any part of the system, the trip coils of the circuit breaker get ener gized and the moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism, thus opening t he circuit. When the contacts of a circuit break are separated under fault condi tions, an arc is struck between them. The current is thus able to continue until the discharge ceases. The production of the arc not only delays the current int erruption process but it also generates enormous heat which may cause damage to the system or to the circuit breaker itself. Therefore, the main problem in the circuit breaker is to extinguish the arc within the shortest possible time so th at heat generated by it may not reach a dangerous value. In single phase (1-phas e) circuits (i.e., lighting circuits etc.), a switch is located in only one of t he two conductors to the load. However in the power circuits, a circuit interrup ting device (i.e., circuit breaker) is put in each phase or conductor. These are , sometimes, called 3-pole circuit breakers. Arc Phenomenon Arc in an ac circuit breaker occurs in two ways: 1. When the current-carrying co ntacts are being separated, arcing is possible even when the circuit e.m.f. is c onsiderably below the minimum cold electrode breakdown voltage, because of the i ons neutralizing the electronic space charge and thus allowing large currents to flow at relatively low voltage gradients. This way of occurrence of an arc is c ommon to both dc and ac circuit breakers. 2. The other way of occurrence of an a rc happens only in ac circuit breakers. In such case, the arc is extinguished ev ery time the current passes through zero and can restrike only if the transient recovery voltage across the electrodes, Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) already separated and continuing to separate, reaches a sufficiently high value causing breakdown. The function of an ac circuit breaker is to prevent restriking of the arc, which de pends upon the following important factors: The nature and pressure of the mediu m of arc The external ionizing and de-ionizing agents present The voltage across the electrodes and its variation with time The material and configuration of th e electrodes The nature and configuration of the arcing chamber Categories of Arcs Arcs in the circuit breakers are categorized as: a) b) High-pressure arcs: Vacuu m arcs: with ambient pressures of 1 atm and above with ambient pressures below 1 0-4 torr Arc is an essential part of any circuit breaker operation where contact is physi cally parted. Before they are opened by the protective system, a heavy current f lows through the contacts of circuit breaker, when a short circuit occurs. Figure 2: Arc Phenomenon in Circuit Breakers When two current carrying contacts op en, an arc bridges the contact gap and prevents an abrupt interruption of the cu rrent. At the instant when the contacts begin to Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) separate, the contact area decreases rapidly and large fault current causes increased current density and hence rise in temperature. The heat produced in the medium between contacts (usually the medium is oil or air) is sufficient to ionize the air or vaporize a nd ionize the oil. The ionized air or vapors act as conductor and an arc is stru ck between the contacts. The potential difference between the contacts is quite small and is just sufficient to maintain the arc. The arc provides a low resista nce path and consequently the current in the circuit remains uninterrupted so lo ng as the arc persists. The arc is useful in a way as it provides a low resistan ce path for the current after contact separation. It prevents current chopping a nd associated abnormal switching over-voltages in the system. The arc plays an i mportant role in the process of current interruption and therefore must not be r egarded as an undesirable phenomenon. It must also be realized that, in the abse nce of the arc, the current flow would be interrupted instantaneously, and due t o the rate of collapse of the associated magnetic field, very high voltage would be induced which severely stress the insulation of the system. On the other han d, the arc provides a gradual, but quick, transition from the current-carrying t o the current-breaking states of the contacts. Therefore, it permits the disconn ection to take place at zero current without indicating the potentials of danger ous values. The function of an arc-control device in a circuit breaker is theref ore clearly to employ the beneficent action of the arc as efficiently as possibl e. Significance of Arc Resistance During the arcing period, the current flowing between the contacts depends upon the arc resistance. The greater the arc resistance, the smaller is the current t hat flows between the contacts. The arc resistance depends upon the following fa ctors: Degree of Ionization Length of the Arc Cross-section of the Arc a. Degree of Ionization The arc resistance increases with the decrease in the number of ionized particle s between the contacts. b. Length of the Arc The arc resistance increases with the length of the arc i.e., separation of cont acts. Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) c. arc. Cross-section of the Arc The arc resistance increases with the decrease in the area of cross-section of t he Principle of Arc Extinction Prior to discussing the methods of arc extinction, it is essential to scrutinize the factors accountable for the maintenance of arc between the contacts. These are: Potential difference between the contacts Ionized particles between the con tacts i) Potential Difference between the Contacts When the contacts have small separation, the potential difference between them is sufficient to maintain the arc. One way to extinguish the arc is to separate the contacts to such a distance that potential difference becomes inadequate to maintain the arc. However this method is impracticable in high voltage systems w here a separation of many meters may be required. ii) Ionized Particles between the Contacts The ionized particles between the contacts tend to maintain the arc. If the arc path is de-ionized, the arc extinction will be facilitated. This may be achieved by cooling the arc or bodily removing the ionized particles from the space betw een the contacts. Classification of Circuit Breakers There are quite a few ways to classify the circuit breakers. However, the most g eneral way of classification is on the basis of medium used for the arc extincti on. Other bases for the classification of circuit breakers are summarized in the flow chart on the next page. Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) Circuit Breakers 1. Based on Voltage Low Medium High/Extra High Ultra High 2. Based on Location Indoor Outdoor 3. Based on External Design Dead Tank Live Tank 4. Based on Interrupting Media Air Break Air Blast Oil SF6 Vacuum Figure 3: Classification of Circuit Breakers Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) 1. Based on Voltage On the basis of the voltage levels for which they are used, the circuit breakers are classified as listed in table (with corresponding voltage ranges of use). Category Low voltage Medium voltage High/Extra High voltage Ultra High voltage Range of Voltage Less than 1 kV 1 kV to 52 kV 66 kV to 765 kV Above 765 kV Table 1: Classification of circuit breakers on Voltage Basis 2. Based on Location Circuit breakers are, based upon where they are located, classified as, indoor a nd outdoor types. Medium and low voltage breakers are categorized as Indoor circuit breakers, whereas the circuit breakers which have air as external insulating me dium are classified as outdoor circuit breakers. 3. Based on External Design Outdoor circuit breakers can be identified as either dead tank or live tank type circuit breakers, from the point of view of their physical structural design. In the dead tank circuit breakers, the switching device is located, with suitable insulator supports, inside a metallic vessel at ground potential and filled with insulating medium. In dead tank circuit breakers, the incoming and outgoing con ductors are taken out through suitable insulator bushings, and low voltage type current transformers are located at lower end of both insulator bushings, i.e. a t the line side and the load side. In live tank circuit breakers, the interrupte r is located I an insulator bushing, at a potential above ground potential. The live tank circuit breakers are cheaper (with no current transformer), and requir e less mounting space. Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) 4. Based on Interrupting Media The interrupting media has been a vital factor in the evolution of circuit break ers. It dedicates the overall design parameters of the breaker. The choice of air and oi l, as the interrupting media, was predominant till late 70s. but today, vacuum a nd SF6 are the only dominant interrupting technologies, for medium and high volt age segments of circuit breaker design respectively. The medium used for the arc extinction can be: Oil Air Vacuum Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) Accordingly, the c ircuit breakers may be classified into following categories (which will be treat ed in detail in the present report): Oil Circuit Breakers Air-blast Circuit Brea kers Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) Circuit Breakers Vacuum Circuit Breakers 1. Oil Circuit Breakers In such circuit breakers, some insulating oil (i.e., transformer oil) is used as an arc quenching medium. The contacts are opened under oil and an arc is struck bet ween them. The heat of the arc evaporates the surrounding oil and dissociates it into a substantial volume of hydrogen gas at a high pressure. This large volume of the hydrogen gas pushes the oil away from the arc. In an oil circuit breaker , the arc quenching process is entirely dependent on arc energy generated. The a rc drawn across the contacts is contained inside the interrupting pot, and thus the hydrogen gas formed by the vaporized oil (gas) is also contained inside the chamber. As the contacts continue to move, and the moving contact rod separates itself from the orifice of the chamber, an exit similar to a nozzle allows escap e of the hydrogen gas trapped inside the interrupting chamber. The escaping high pressure hydrogen gas, having a high thermal conductivity, takes away the heat, thus making the contact gap cool and free from ionization, immediately after cu rrent zero. However, the oil breakers have prolonged arcing times, due to insuff icient vapor pressure generated at lower interrupting currents. Periodic monitor ing of the oil Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) dielectric conduction and its maintenance is important for the effective operation of medium oil circu it breaker. However, maintenance required for oil circuit breakers is of low tec hnology. Figure 3: Oil Circuit Breaker The arc extinction is facilitated mainly by two pr ocesses: 1. 2. Firstly, the hydrogen gas has high heat conductivity and cools th e arc, thus aiding the de-ionization of the medium between the contacts. Secondl y, the gas sets up turbulence in the oil and forces it into the space between co ntacts, thus eliminating the arcing products from the arc path. This results in extinguishing the arc and as a result the circuit current is interrupted. Advant ages: As an Arc extinguishing medium oil has the following advantages: 1. Oil ab sorbs the arc energy to produces hydrogen gas during arcing. The hydrogen has ex cellent cooling properties and helps extinguish the arc. (In addition to hydroge n gas, a small proportion of methane, ethylene, and acetylene are also generated in oil decomposition.) 2. The oil provides insulation for the live exposed cont acts from the earthed portions of the container. 3. Oil provides insulation betw een the contacts after the arc has been extinguished. 4. The oil close to the ar c region provides cooling surface. Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) Disadvantages: 1. Oil is inflammable and may cause fire hazards. When a defective circuit breaker fail s under pressure, it may cause an explosion. 2. The hydrogen generated during ar cing, when combined with air, may form an explosive mixture. 3. During arcing, o il decomposes and becomes polluted by carbon particles, which reduces its dielec tric strength. Hence, it requires periodic maintenance and replacement. Types of Oil Circuit Breakers The oil circuit breakers find extensive use in the power systems. They can be cl assified with the reference to the quantity of oil used. The types are: Bulk Oil Circuit Breakers Minimum Oil Circuit Breakers a) 1. 2. Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker s These circuit breakers use a large quantity of oil. The oil has to serve two p urposes: It extinguishes the arc during opening of contacts. It insulates the cu rrent conducting parts from one another and from the earthed tank. In the bulk o il circuit breakers, the interrupting unit is placed in a tank of oil at earth p otential and the incoming and outgoing conductors are connected through insulato r bushings. b) Minimum Oil Circuit Breakers These circuit breakers use a small q uantity of oil. In such circuit breakers, oil is used only for arc extinction; t he current conducting parts insulated by air or porcelain or organic insulating material. In these circuit breakers, the oil requirement can be minimized by pla cing the interrupting units, in insulating chambers at live potential, on an ins ulator column. Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) 2. Air-Blast Circuit Breakers These circuit breakers employ a high pressure air-blast as an arc quenching medium. The contacts are opened in a flow of air-blast established by the openin g of the blast valve. The air-blast cools the arc and sweeps away the arcing pro ducts of the atmosphere. Consequently, the arc is extinguished and flow of curre nt is interrupted. Whenever current at high voltages needs to be interrupted, mo re breaking units are used, in series. Dry and clean air supply is one of the mo st essential requirements for the operation of the air-blast circuit breakers. Figure 4: Air-Blast Circuit Breaker In addition, other gases such as Nitrogen, C arbon dioxide, and Hydrogen can also be used. But air is preferred because of th e fact that the Carbon dioxide tends to freeze, and the hydrogen gas is very exp ensive. This type of circuit breaker has been used earlier for open terminal HV applications, for voltages of 245 kV, and 400 kV up to 765 kV, especially where faster breaker operation was required. This type of breaker has been used for sp ecial applications wherein several super thermal power stations located in close vicinity to each other have been inter-connected. These one-cycle breakers from the inter-connecting link which, in the event of a fault in an outgoing feeder of a particular station, isolates the station from the neighboring ones thereby limiting the fault level for the feeder breaker. Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hu ssain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) The interrupting capab ility of air circuit breaker is usually increased by increasing the normal press ure range. Normally, the pressure level is around 30 to 35 bars. In order to mai ntain the insulation level and reliability of operation, it is also necessary fo r the condition of the air to be very dry. Currently, however, SF6 circuit break ers have practically eliminated the use of this technology. Advantages: 1. The r isk of fire is eliminated in these circuit breakers. 2. The arcing products are completely removed by the blast whereas the oil deteriorates with successive ope rations. So the expenditure of oil replacement is avoided in air-blast circuit b reakers. 3. The size of these breakers is reduced, as the dielectric strength gr ows so rapidly that final contact gap for the arc extinction is very small. 4. D ue to the rapid growth of the dielectric strength, the arcing time is also very small. It causes less burning of oil. The arc energy is also very small fraction of that in oil circuit breakers. 5. The arc extinction is facilitate by the hig h pressure air, and is independent of the fault current to be interrupted. Disad vantages: 1. These circuit breakers are very sensitive to the variation s in the rate of rise of restriking voltage. 2. The air-blast is supplied by the compres sor plant that needs considerable maintenance. 3. Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) Circuit Breakers In these circuit breakers, Sulpher hexafluoride gas (SF6) is used as the arc quenching medium. The SF6 is an electronegative gas and has a strong tendency to absorb free electrons. The contacts of the breaker are opened in a high pressur e flow of SF6 gas and an arc is struck between them. The conducting free electro ns in the arc are rapidly captured by the gas to form relatively immobile negati ve ions. This loss of conducting electrons in the arc quickly builds up enough i nsulation strength to extinguish the arc. The SF6 circuit breakers have been fou nd to be very effective for high power and high voltage services. Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) The excellent insulati ng properties of SF6 gas make it possible to design circuit breakers with smalle r overall dimensions, shorter contact gaps, which help in the construction of ou tdoor breakers with fewer interrupters. The behavior of the arc during current z ero and immediately afterwards, is of decisive importance for the reliable inter ruption of the current. In SF6 gas, the diameter of an arc is relative small. As a consequence, the thermal time constant of the arc, approaching current zero, is almost 100 times smaller than in air. The dielectric strength of the break in creases rapidly after current zero; so that the breaker is able to control even extreme rates of rise of the transient recovery voltage (TRV), in case of short line faults. These circuit breakers are available for complete range of medium v oltage and high voltage application up to 800 kV and above. This medium is most suitable for metal-clad and hybrid HV sub-stations. Although the share of SF6 ci rcuit breakers in medium voltage application is gradually shrinking, this techno logy is still emerging as the only choice in the HV range. Applications SF6 circuit breakers find use in systems with voltages ranging in 115 kV to 230 kV, as they are designed for this range with power ratings of 10 MVA to 20 MVA a nd interrupting time less than 3 cycles. Advantages: 1. Because of the high cond uctivity of the arc in the SF6 gas, the arc energy is low. (Arc voltage is betwe en 150 and 200V.) 2. Due to the low energy the contact erosion is small. 3. The gaseous medium SF6 possesses excellent dielectric and arc quenching properties. After arc extinction, the dissociated gas molecules recombine almost completely to reform SF6. This means that practically no loss/consumption of the quenching medium occurs. 4. Due to the superior arc quenching property of the SF6 gas, suc h circuit breakers have very short arcing time. Furthermore, they can interrupt much larger current. 5. These breakers give noiseless operation due to its close d gas circuit and no exhaust to atmosphere unlike the air-blast circuit breaker. Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) 6. The SF6 gas is not inflammable, so there is no risk of fire in SF6 breakers. 7. Since SF6 breakers are totally enclosed and sealed from the atmosphere, they are particularly suita ble where explosion hazards exist, i.e. in coal mines. Disadvantages: 1. These c ircuit breakers are expensive due to the high cost of SF6 gas. 2. Since SF6 gas has to be reconditioned after every operation of the breaker, additional equipme nt is required for this purpose. 3. The SF6 gas has been identified as a greenho use gas, and safety regulations are being introduced in many countries in order to prevent its release into the atmosphere. Therefore, the HV circuit breaker wo uld be designed to ensure that there is minimum leakage during the service perio d and that the utilities let out the least amount of SF6 gas into the atmosphere during maintenance. As SF6 gas has an impact 23 times stronger than the CO2 gas on the greenhouse effect, in order to minimize the emission of SF6 gas, N2- SF6 and CF4- SF6 gas mixtures use may be more prominent in future as an alternative to using pure SF6 gas. 4. Vacuum Circuit Breakers In such circuit breakers, the vacuum is used as the arc quenching medium. The vacuum circuit breaker takes the advantage of non-sustainability of electric arc in vacuum, and employs the principle of contact separation under vacuum where t here is no ionization due to medium. The initial arc caused by field and thermio nic emissions during the contacts separation, will die away soon, as there is no further ionization because of vacuum. The degree of vacuum in these circuit bre akers is in the range from 10-7 to 10-5 torr. Since vacuum offers the highest in sulating strength, it has far superior arc quenching properties than any other m edium. When the contacts in the vacuum circuit breakers are opened in vacuum, an arc is produced between the contacts by the ionization of metal vapors of conta cts. However, the arc is quickly extinguished because the metallic vapors, elect rons and ions produced during arc rapidly condense on the surface of the circuit breaker contacts. Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) Figure 5: A Vacuum Circuit Breaker Vacuum circuit breakers are cost-effective in the medium voltage range. Vacuum interrupters are sealed units and maintenancefree for 10,000 normal load operations. Construction The vacuum circuit breaker consists of fixed contact, moving contact and arc shi eld mounted inside the vacuum chamber. The movable member is connected to the co ntrol mechanism by stainless steel bellows. This enables the permanent sealing o f the vacuum chamber so as to eliminate the possibility of leak. A glass vessel or ceramic vessel is used as the outer insulating body. The arc shield prevents the deterioration of the internal dielectric strength by preventing metallic vap ors falling on the inside surface of the outer insulating cover. Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) Figure 6: Cross Sectional View of Vacuum Circuit Breaker Applications For a country like Pakistan, where distances are quite long and accessibility to remote areas are difficult, the installation of such outdoor, maintenance-free circuit breakers should prove a definite advantage. Vacuum circuit breakers are being employed for outdoor applications ranging from 22 kV to 66 kV. This techno logy has been found to be most suitable for medium voltage application though th e experimental interrupters for the 72.5 kV and 145 kV have been developed, they were not found to be commercially viable. Advantages: 1. The vacuum circuit bre akers are compact in size and have longer lives. 2. Operating energy requirement s are low, because the mechanism must move only relatively small masses at moder ate speed, over very short distances. 3. Because of the very low voltage across the metal vapor arc, energy is very low. (Arc voltage is between 50 and 100V.) 4 . Due to the very low arc energy, the rapid movement of the arc root over the co ntact and to the fact that most of the metal vapor re-condenses on the contact, contact erosion is extremely small. 5. There is no generation of gases during an d after the circuit breaker operation. 6. The outstanding feature of these break ers is that it can break any heavy fault current perfectly just before the conta cts reach a definite open position. Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2 009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) 7. They can successful ly withstand lightning surges. 8. It is now possible to produce cost-effective V I (vacuum interrupter) designs with electrical lives that exceed the required me chanical life of the circuit breakers, and that will even be able to satisfy a r ecent requirement of extended shortcircuit operating life. 5. Air Circuit Breakers Air circuit breaker is defined as a circuit breaker, in which the contacts open and close in air at atmospheric pressure. In general, the use of this type of circui t breakers is restricted to low voltage applications or high security installati ons where the risk of an oil fire or oil contamination of the environment is too high to be tolerated. Countries following the American practice used air circui t breakers almost exclusively for systems up to 15 kV until the advent of the ne w vacuum and SF6 technologies. The principles of arc interruption used in an air circuit breaker are rather different from those in any other type of circuit br eaker. However, the objective is the same for both categories of the circuit bre akers, i.e. to prevent the resumption of arcing after current zero by creating a situation wherein the contact gap will withstand the system recovery voltage; t he air circuit breaker does this by creating an arc voltage in excess of the sup ply voltage. This can be achieved in three ways: Intense cooling of the arc plas ma, so that the voltage gradient is very high Lengthening the arc path to increa se the arc voltage Splitting up the arc into a number of series arcs Although th ese circuit breakers are considered obsolete for medium voltage applications, th ey continue to be preferred choice for high current rating in low voltage applic ations. Circuit Breakers Ratings A circuit breaker must operate under all conditions, but its operation becomes c ritical when there is a fault on the system in which the breaker is used. During fault conditions, a circuit breaker must open the faulty circuit and break the fault current. The ratings of the circuit breakers are also for breaking and mak ing capabilities. There are three ratings for breakers as: Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) Breaking Capacity Maki ng Capacity Short-time Rating Breaking Capacity Breaking capacity is defined as the r.m.s. current that a circuit breaker is cap able of breaking at given recovery voltage and under specified conditions (i.e. power factor, rate of rise of restriking voltage). The breaking capacity is alwa ys stated at the r.m.s. value of fault current at the instant of contact separat ion. When the fault occurs, there is a considerable asymmetry in the fault curre nt due to the presence of a d.c. component. In the Britain, it is a usual practi ce to take breaking current equal to the symmetrical breaking current. However, in America, the practice is to take breaking current equal to asymmetrical break ing current. Therefore, the American rating given to a circuit breaker is higher than the British rating. It is a common practice to express the breaking capaci ty in MVA by taking into account the rated the rated breaking current and rated service voltage. Thus if I is the rated breaking current in Amperes and the rate d service voltage is V in volts, the breaking capacity for three-phase circuit i s: Breaking Capacity = sqrt 3 x V x I x 10-6 MVA However, the agreed internation al standard of specifying breaking capacity is defined as the rated symmetrical breaking current at a rated voltage. The MVA breaking capacity is illogical in a sense that when the short circuit current is flowing there is only a small volt age across the breaker contacts, while the service voltage appears across the co ntacts only after the current has been interrupted. Thus MVA rating is the produ ct of two quantities which do not exist simultaneously in the circuit. Making Capacity It is the peak value of current (including d.c. component) during the first cycl e of current wave after the closure of circuit breaker. There is always a possib ility of closing or making the circuit breaker under the short circuit condition s. The capacity of a circuit breaker to make current depends upon its ability to withstand and close successfully against the effects of electromagnetic forces. These forces are proportional to the square of maximum instantaneous current Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) on closing. Therefore, making capacity is stated in terms of a peak value of current instead of r.m.s. value. Mathematically stated, making capacity is given as: Making Capacity = 2. 55 x symmetrical breaking capacity Short-time Rating The period for which the circuit breaker is able to carry fault current while re maining closed is known as short-time rating. This rating is needed because some times a fault on the system is of a temporary nature and persists for only a sec ond or two after which the fault is automatically cleared. For the sake of conti nuity of the supply, the breaker should not trip in such situations. This means that the circuit breakers should be able to carry high current safely for some s pecified period while remaining closed. This means that they should have a speci fied short-time rating. However, if the fault persists for a duration longer tha n the specified time limit, the circuit breaker will trip, disconnecting the fau lty section. The short-time rating of a circuit breaker depends upon its ability to withstand: The electromagnetic force effects The temperature rise TYPE TESTS Sr.# 1 Type test Dielectric tests tests: I) Purpose To check characteristics of Circuit breaker for the following Dry, wet, power frequency II) Lightning impulse voltage III) Switching impulse voltage ( applicable CB and above) 2 Radio Interference voltage test To determine RIV on CB pole in both cl ose & open position for 420 kV Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) 3 Resistance of the ma in circuit 4 5 Temp. rise test Short-time withstand current & peak withstand cur rent 6 Mechanical operation test at ambient temp. 7 Short-circuit current making / breaking tests 8 Capacitive current charging tests: -Line charging current bre aking tests -Cable charging current breaking tests To check withstand capability of the CB for no load transient lines, cables , and capacitor banks To check th e characteristics of the breaker for 2000 operations on each pole ( with multipl e circuit breaker with individual drive) OR complete assembled breaker (mechanic ally gang-operated breaker with one common drive) To check ability of the CB to clear the current on different tests in symmetrical & asymmetrical conditions as per provisions of IEC To ensure capability of contacts to carry rated normal cu rrent within specified temp. rise limits To check the ability of the circuit to carry the maximum rated short-circuit withstand current ( 2.5 times the RMS valu e) at 50 Hz in close position during the specified short-term duration of 1 or 3 sec. To record circuit resistance during temp. rise test at 200 C Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) ROUTINE TESTS S. No. 1 Dielectric test on main circuit 2 Dielectric test on auxiliary & contro l circuit 3 Design identification test 4 Mechanical operating test 1) 5 open-clo se operations at max. rated and minimum control voltage 2) 3) 5 Measurement of r esistance of main circuit THE ROUTINE TESTS ARE TO BE COSIDERED AS ACCEPTANCE TE STS 5 close-open operation at rated control voltage recording opening & closing times at the rated operating pressure & voltage To record contact resistance of CB for mechanical operations to be within specified limits To check the dielectr ics withstand capability of live terminals to live terminals and to earth in both close & open condition of CB To check the dielectrics withstand capability of au xiliary & control circuit of CB subject to short duration (60 sec) voltage withs tand test for 2 kV . ( For motor or other devices , they are subjected to a diel ectric test as per appropriate specs.) Verifies the CB for compliances in terms of language of name plate, identification of aux. Equipment, colour & quality of paint etc. Includes Routine test Purpose Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) Important Terms and Definitions Here are described some vital terms, used in the circuit breakers analysis, with simple definitions and a short description. Arc Voltage Arc voltage is defined as the voltage that appears across the contacts of the ci rcuit breaker during the arcing period (the period in which the arc persists). A s soon as the contacts of the circuit breaker are separated, an arc is formed be tween them. The voltage that appears across the contacts during this period, unt il the arc is extinct, is called the arc voltage. The value of this voltage is h ighest at the zero current point. This peak value of the arc voltage helps maint ain the current flow in the form of arc. Restriking Voltage Restriking voltage is the transient voltage that appears across the contacts at or near current zero during the arcing period. The current interruption in the c ircuit depends upon the high frequency transient voltage, the restriking voltage . If the restriking voltage rises more rapidly than the dielectric strength of t he medium between the contacts, the arc will persist for the next half-cycle. On the other hand, if the dielectric strength of the medium builds up more rapidly than the restriking voltage, the arc fails to restrike and the current will be interrupted. Recovery Voltage Recovery voltage is defined as the normal (50 Hz) voltage that appears across th e contacts of the circuit breaker immediately after the final arc extinction. It is approximately equal to the system voltage. When the contacts of the circuit breaker are opened, current drops to zero after every half cycle. At some curren t zero, the contacts are separated adequately apart and dielectric strength of t he medium between the contacts attains high value due to the elimination of ioni zed particles. At such an instant, the medium between the contacts is strong eno ugh to prevent the breakdown by restriking voltage. Consequently, the final Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) arc extinction takes p lace and circuit current is interrupted. Immediately after the final current int erruption, the voltage that appears across the contacts has a transient part. Ho wever, these transient oscillations cave in rapidly due to the damping effect of the system resistance and normal circuit voltage appears across the contacts. T he voltage across the contacts is of normal frequency and is identified as recov ery voltage. Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) Summary The basic requirements of switching in power system practice are two-fold; to pe rmit apparatus and circuits to be conveniently put into or taken out of service, and to permit appropriate and safe isolation of apparatus and circuits automati cally, in a pre-determined time period, when they develop faults. Circuit breake rs are preferred over fuses because they are needed to be replaced after every f ault in the power system, as they blow out in such case. The isolators are used to isolate a faulty circuit breaker from the rest of the system to aid in repair ing it. When a circuit break operates under fault conditions, an arc is struck b etween the contacts. The arc delays the current interruption and also generates enormous heat which may cause damage to the system or to the circuit breaker its elf. Therefore, the arc must be extinguished within the shortest possible time. In the oil circuit breaker, the oil absorbs the arc energy to produces hydrogen gas during arcing; the hydrogen helps extinguish the arc, due to its excellent c ooling properties. The oil also provides insulation for the live exposed contact s from the earthed portions of the container. In the air-blast circuit breakers, the risk of fire is eliminated, the arcing products are completely removed by t he blast, and the size of these breakers is reduced. Although the air circuit br eakers are considered obsolete for medium voltage applications, they continue to be preferred choice for high current rating in low voltage applications. Circui t breakers are classified (on the basis of medium used) as; oil circuit breakers , air-blast circuit breakers, sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) circuit breakers, vacuu m circuit breakers. It is important that for the maintenance of SF6 gas equipmen t like circuit breakers, the technical personnel involved should have a complete understanding of the system. They should not only know how to personnel involve d should be a complete understanding of the system. They should not only know ho w to perform maintenance tasks, but also why and when these should be performed. Condition-based maintenance (CBM) and Reliability center maintenance (RCM) Engr . Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009

Circuit Breakers (Theory, Classification, & Applications) are being proposed to replace periodic maintenance of EHV circuit breakers, in order to minimize the m aintenance costs. Vacuum circuit breakers are being employed for outdoor applica tions ranging from 22 kV to 66 kV. The vacuum circuit breakers are compact in si ze and have longer lives. Operating energy requirements are also low, as the mec hanism must move only relatively small masses at moderate speed, over very short distances. The circuit breaker ratings as making capacity, breaking capacity, a nd the shorttime rating are to be considered carefully while selecting the type of breaker in a particular application. The type and routine tests of the circui t breakers are stated in tabular form, making it easier for the reader to quickl y go through them. The important terms and their definitions are necessary in co ntext with the circuit breaker theory. I stated the terms; arc voltage, restriki ng voltage, and recovery voltage. For comments and any sort of questions regarding this article, you can contact m e from 10:00 hours to 23:00 hours (Pakistan Standard Time; PST) on: +92-333-805-3114 Or by e-mail: engr.munavvar@yahoo.com engr.munavvar@gmail.com Engr. Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain 10/18/2009