Ireland EPA

WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANUALS
TREATMENT SYSTEMS for SINGLE HOUSES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

An Ghnomhaireacht um Chaomhn Comhshaoil P.O. Box 3000, Johnstown Castle Estate, Co. Wexford, Ireland. Telephone : +353-53-60600 Fax : +353-53-60699 Email: info@epa.ie Website: http://www.epa.ie/
Environmental Protection Agency 2000
Although every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the material contained in this publication, complete accuracy cannot be guaranteed. Neither the Environmental Protection Agency nor the author(s) accept any responsibility whatsoever for loss or damage occasioned or claimed to have been occasioned, in part or in full, as a consequence of any person acting, or refraining from acting, as a result of a matter contained in this publication. All or part of this publication may be reproduced without further permission, provided the source is acknowledged.
WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANUALS TREATMENT SYSTEMS FOR SINGLE HOUSES
Published by the Environmental Protection Agency, Ireland.
Mr. John Mulqueen, Teagasc and Dr. Michael Rodgers, NUI, Galway, are the external contributors to this manual. Mr. Gerard OLeary and Mr. Gerry Carty, EPA are the internal contributors.
ISBN Price
1 84095 022 6 IR15.00 19.05
06/00/1,000
CONTENTS i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iv LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vi LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii 1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTEWATER FROM A SINGLE HOUSE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 SEPTIC TANK SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 MECHANICAL AERATION SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 POLISHING FILTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 SITE DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 SITE CHARACTERISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
2. SITE CHARACTERISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

2.1 DESK STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 2.2 ON-SITE ASSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 2.3 INTEGRATION OF THE DESK STUDY AND ON-SITE ASSESSMENT INFORMATION . . . . . . .25
3. TREATMENT OPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 CHOOSING AN ON-SITE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 CHOOSING THE OPTIMUM DISCHARGE ROUTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 LICENCE REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
4. SEPTIC TANKS, PERCOLATION AREAS AND OTHER FILTER SYSTEMS 31

4.1 SEPTIC TANKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 4.2 PERCOLATION AREAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 4.3 CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS FOR PERCOLATION PIPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38 4.4 MAINTENANCE OF SEPTIC TANKS AND PERCOLATION AREAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38 4.5 FILTER SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39 4.6 SOIL FILTER SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40 4.7 SAND FILTER SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40 4.8 PEAT FILTER SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 4.9 OTHER INTERMITTENT MEDIA FILTER SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 4.10 CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 4.11 POLISHING FILTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
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5. MECHANICAL AERATION SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51 BAF SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51 RBC SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 SEQUENCING BATCH REACTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 OTHER TREATMENT SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 LOCATION OF MECHANICAL AERATION SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 POLISHING FILTERS FOR MECHANICAL AERATION SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 APPENDIX A: SITE CHARACTERISATION FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59 APPENDIX B: PERCOLATION TESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65 APPENDIX C: EVALUATION OF TREATMENT SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 APPENDIX D: SOIL/SUBSOIL CLASSIFICATION CHART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68 APPENDIX E: INDICATOR PLANTS OF DRAINAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 USER COMMENT FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
PREFACE iii
PREFACE
The Environmental Protection Agency was established in 1993 to license, regulate and control activities for the purposes of environmental protection. In Section 60 of the Environmental Protection Agency Act, 1992, it is stated that "the Agency may, and shall if so directed by the Minister, specify and publish criteria and procedures, which in the opinion of the Agency are reasonable and desirable for the purposes of environmental protection, in relation to the management, maintenance, supervision, operation or use of all or specified classes of plant, sewers or drainage pipes vested in or controlled or used by a sanitary authority for the.....treatment or disposal of any sewage or other effluent to any waters". The following is a list of the manuals published to-date: Wastewater Treatment Manuals Wastewater Treatment Manuals Wastewater Treatment Manuals Wastewater Treatment Manuals Centres and Hotels. - Preliminary Treatment; - Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Treatment; - Characterisation of Industrial Wastewaters; and - Treatment Systems for Small Communities, Business, Leisure
This manual has been prepared to provide guidance on the design, operation and maintenance of on-site wastewater treatment systems for a single house. The National Standards Authority of Ireland published standard recommendations in 1975 (revised in 1991) with the aim of achieving satisfactory practice in the design, construction and maintenance of septic tank drainage systems. This manual has been prepared having regard to the above and will inter alia assist planning authorities, developers, system manufacturers, system designers, system installers, system operators to deal with the complexities of on-site systems. Where reference in the document is made to proprietary equipment, this is intended as indicating equipment type and is not to be interpreted as endorsing or excluding any particular manufacturer or system. Chapter 1 of this manual contains an introduction to wastewater treatment and the types of on-site treatment systems available for a single house. Chapter 2 outlines the steps which should be taken to characterise a site. Characterisation of a site is divided into a desk study followed by an on-site assessment. The on-site assessment is subdivided into a visual assessment, a trial hole and a percolation test. The significance of the information collected during the desk study and the on-site assessment is summarised at the end of this chapter. Chapter 3 outlines a methodology for choosing the on-site treatment system and the optimum discharge route. Chapter 4 includes information on the design, construction and maintenance of a septic tank,soil percolation area, intermittent filters, constructed wetlands and polishing filters. Chapter 5 includes information on mechanical aeration systems and polishing filters. A site characterisation form for use with this guidance manual is included in Appendix A. This manual was prepared following completion of a research study carried out under the direction of the EPA in the period 1995 to 1997. A seminar on the conclusions of the study was held on the 12th February, 1998. The Geological Survey of Ireland (GSI) in conjunction with the Department of Environment and Local Government (DELG) and the EPA have developed a methodology for the preparation of groundwater protection schemes to assist the statutory authorities and others to meet their responsibility to protect groundwater. Groundwater protection responses have been developed for on-site systems for single houses (DELG/EPA/GSI, 2000). These responses should be consulted when reading this document. The Agency welcomes any suggestions which users of the manual wish to make. These should be returned to the Environmental Management and Planning Division at the Agency headquarters on the enclosed User Comment Form.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In order to examine the current position in relation to on-site systems (in Ireland and internationally) and to produce draft guidelines for their future use, a research project apropos on-site systems was part-financed by the European Union through the European Regional Development Fund as part of the Environmental Monitoring, R&D sub-pr ogramme of the Operational Programme for Environmental Services, 1994 -1999. The sub-programme is administered on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Local Government by the Environmental Protection Agency, which has the statutory function of co-ordinating and promoting environmental research. The consortium awarded the project was led by the Civil Engineering Department, National University of Ireland, Galway. The project leader was Dr. Michael Rodgers, assisted by Mr. John Mulqueen and Mr. Brian Gallagher. Other members of the project team were: Ms. Angela Casey, Mr. John Kenny, Mr. Padraic Ballantyne, Mr. Eamonn Waldron (P.J. Tobin & Co.), Mr. Brendan Fehily (Fehily Timoney & Co.), Ms. Mary Hensey (Hensey Glan Uisce Teo.), Ms. Sheila Davey (Neptune Labs) and Ms. Patricia Brannick (Central Marine Services Labs, NUI Galway). The project was monitored by a Technical Steering Group established by the EPA and included representatives of the EPA, the Department of the Environment and Local Government, the County and City Engineers Association and the project consortium. Members of the Technical Steering Group were (in alphabetical order): Mr. Gerry Carty, EPA Mr. Tony Cawley, Department of Environment and Local Government Ms. Lorraine Fegan, EPA Mr. Frank Gleeson, Sligo Co.Co., representing the City and Co. EngineersAssociation Mr. John Mulqueen, Teagasc Mr. John OFlynn, Waterford Co.Co., representing the City and Co. EngineersAssociation Mr. Gerard OLeary, EPA Dr. Michael Rodgers, NUI, Galway, Project leader
As part of this research study a detailed questionnaire was issued to local authority and health board personnel. The co-operation of those who returned a completed questionnaire is gratefully acknowledged. The output from the research study formed the basis for the development of this manual. The Agency wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Donal Daly, Geological Survey of Ireland and Mr. Billy Moore, Monaghan County Council in reviewing early drafts of the manual. The Agency would like to acknowledge the National Standards Authority of Ireland for the use of material and diagrams from SR6. The Agency wishes to acknowledge the contribution of those persons listed below, who took the time to offer valuable information, advice, comments and constructive criticism on the draft manual. Mr. Martin Beirne, Environmental Officers Association. Mr. Dan ORegan, National Standards Authority of Ireland. Ms. Louise Mulcair, National Standards Authority of Ireland. Ms. Yvonne Wylde, National Standards Authority of Ireland. Mr. Bruce Misstear, Trinity College Dublin. Mr. Paul OConnor, Environmental Assessments.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS v
Mr. Garvan Ward, Biocycle. Dr. Eugene Bolton, Bord na Mona. Dr. Hubert Henry, Bord na Mona. Mr. Jer Keohane, Geotechnical and Environmental Services. Mr. John Molloy, John Molloy Engineering. Mr. Seamus Butler, Butler Manufacturing Services. Mr. Albert Sneider, Aswatec. Mr. Terry OFlynn, Banks Douglas Environmental Science.
The Agency also wishes to acknowledge the contribution of the Engineering Inspectors of the Department of the Environment and Local Government, and the Sanitary Services sub-committee of the Regional Laboratory, Kilkenny, who commented on the draft manual. The authors would also like to acknowledge the assistance of Ms. Margaret Keegan, Mr. Donal Howley and Ms. Jane Brogan.
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6: Figure 7: Figure 8: Figure 9: Figure 10: Figure 11: Figure 12: Figure 13: Figure 14: Figure 15: Figure 16: Figure 17: Figure 18: Figure 19: Figure 20: Figure 21: Figure 22: Figure 23: Figure 24: Figure 25: Figure 26: A typical septic tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 Illustration of biomat formation on the base of a percolation trench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 Schematic diagram of a soil covered mound sand filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Types of constructed wetlands (Section) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 Selecting an on-site treatment system for a single house . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 Soil classification chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 Types of soil structure illustrated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 Relationship between structure type and water movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 Flow diagram for choosing an on-site system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Longitudinal section of a typical septic tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 Plan and section of a septic tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 Section of a percolation trench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 Plan and section of a conventional septic tank system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 Plan and section of a typical distribution box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38 Illustration of an intermittent filter or constructed wetland system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39 Schematic diagram of a soil covered intermittent sand filter for an impervious soil . . . . . . . . . .42 Sub-Surface (SFS) horizontal flow wetland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 Vertical flow wetland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 Intermittent filter overlying and loading a soil polishing filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 Secondary treatment unit followed by a soil polishing filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 Secondary treatment unit followed by a percolation trenc h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 Secondary treatment unit followed by a sand polishing filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 Schematic cross section of a sand polishing filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 Mechanical aeration and polishing filter system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 Percolation test hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 Percolation test hole for shallow soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Table 2: Table 3: Table 4: Table 5: Table 6: Table 7: Table 8: Table 9: Table 10: Table 11: Table 12: Table 13: Table 14: Table 15: Table 16: Characteristics of domestic wastewater from a single house . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 Attributes of a septic tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 Factors to be considered during a visual assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 Minimum separation distances in metres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 Soil/Subsoil textures and typical percolation rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 Factors to be considered during a trial hole examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Trial hole - site requirements which indicate adequate percolation characteristics . . . . . . . . . . .24 Information obtained from the desk study and on-site assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Typical capacities of septic tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 Typical design features of a septic tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 Minimum gradients for drain to septic tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 Minimum percolation trench length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 Details of a typical percolation trench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 Design criteria for intermittent sand filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 Minimum trench lengths in a soil polishing filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 Design criteria for the SBR process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
LIST
OF
ABBREVIATIONS vii
List of Abbreviations
C C Agency BAF BOD BOD5 COD DELG d DO DWF EPA FOG FWS g GSI h kg ISO l m m3 m/s mg mm NHAs NUI p.e. PFP RBC s SACs S.I. SBR SFS SS TSS TWL Capacity Degrees Celsius Environmental Protection Agency Biofilm aerated filters Biochemical oxygen demand Five-day biochemical oxygen demand Chemical oxygen demand Department of the Environment and Local Government Day Dissolved oxygen Dry weather flow Environmental Protection Agency Fats, oils and grease Free-water surface Gram Geological Survey Of Ireland Hour Kilogram International Organisation for Standardisation Litre Metre Cubic metres Metres per second Milligram Millimetre National Heritage Areas National University of Ireland Population equivalent Preferential flow paths Rotating biological contactors Second Special Areas of Conservation Statutory instrument Sequencing batch reactor Sub-surface flow system Suspended solids Total suspended solids Top water level
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1I
1. INTRODUCTION
NTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL In Ireland, the wastewater from over one third of the population - principally those living in dwellings not connected to municipal sewers - rely on systems designed to treat the wastewater at or near the location where it is produced. These wastewater treatment systems are called on-site systems. Many on-site systems are available for the treatment of wastewater from single houses and are designed to: treat the wastewater to minimise contamination of soils and water bodies; protect humans from contact with wastewater; keep animals, insects, and vermin from contact with wastewater; prevent direct discharge of untreated wastewater to the groundwater; minimise the generation of foul odours; and prevent direct discharge of untreated wastewater to surface water. BS 6297: 1983, Design and installation of small sewage treatment works and cesspools (British Standards Institution) deals mainly with the design of small sewage treatment works serving small communities, not primarily concerned with septic tank systems; and US EPA/625/R-92/005 Manual: Wastewater Treatment/Disposal for Small Communities.
In order to examine the current position relating to on-site systems (in Ireland and internationally) and to establish guidelines for their future use, so as to ensure sustainable development, a research study was carried out between 1995 and 1997 (as part of the Department of the Environment Operational Programme for Environmental Services, 19941999) . This study was co-ordinated by the D ep a rtment of Civil Engineering, The National University of Ireland, Galway under the direction of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and was funded through the E nv i ronmental Monitoring, Research and Development Sub-programme of the Operational Programme. Some of findings of the research regarding single house treatment systems were: conventional septic tank systems (septic tank and percolation area), properly installed and maintained, are satisfactory where suitable subsoil conditions exist; where suitable subsoil conditions do not initially exist for treatment by means of a conventional septic tank system, site development works may improve the subsoil conditions and make the subsoil suitable in certain circumstances; in certain situations such as when unsuitable subsoil conditions exist, other systems, which include mechanical aeration or intermittent filters for secondary treatment and followed by a polishing filter can be used; all treatment systems including wastewater collection systems must be designed, constructed, commissioned and maintained in accordance with recognised standards; and
The biological treatment of the wastewater in on-site treatment systems occurs, in the main, under aerobic conditions. For example, in a soil percolation area, aerobic conditions are present due to the unsaturated nature of the soil. Public health is threatened when on-site systems fail to operate satisfactorily. System failures can result in wastewater ponding or forming stagnant pools on the ground surface when the wastewater is not absorbed by the soil. In such circumstances of system failure, humans can come in contact with the ponded wastewater and be exposed to pathogens and foul odours can be generated. The three documents commonly used in relation to the design of on-site systems in Ireland are: SR6: 1991, Septic tank systems: Recommendations for domestic effluent treatment and disposal from a single dwelling house (National Standards Authority of Ireland);
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all surface water and groundwater should be excluded from entering any treatment system.
1.3 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION When selecting a treatment system to treat wastewater from single houses, the system chosen: should protect public health; should protect the environment; should be economical; should operate with minimal maintenance from the owner; and should have a long (> 20 years) lifespan.
1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTEWATER FROM A SINGLE HOUSE SYSTEM For the purposes of this manual, a single house system refers to a dwelling house of up to ten people with toilet, living, sleeping, bathing, cooking and eating facilities. Under no circumstances should rainwater, surface water or run-off from paved areas be discharged to on-site single house systems. To prevent the quantity of wastewater generated in a household, water reducing measures should be adopted. Such measures include: minimising the use of high water using equipment such as automatic washing machines and dishwashers, the use of showers instead of baths, the use of dual flush cisterns in WCs, and the prompt fixing of leaks in household plumbing system. The s t re n g t h of the inflow in terms of BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) into an on-site system will largely depend on the water usage in the house; for example, houses with dishwashers may have a wastewater strength reduced by up to 35% due to dilution even though the total organic load to the treatment system (kg/day) remains the same. Household garbage grinders can increase the BOD loading rate by up to 30% and because these appliances are becoming more popular their use is an important consideration. Other important constituents in domestic wastewater include nitrogen, phosphorus and microorganisms such as coliforms. Table 1 gives typical concentration values for a number of parameters in domestic wastewater. Typical daily hydraulic loading to an on-site system for single houses is 180 litres per person.
On-site systems for single houses can be divided into two main categories: septic tank systems; and mechanical aeration systems.
1.4 SEPTIC TANK SYSTEMS 1.4.1 CONVENTIONAL SYSTEM SEPTIC TANK
A conventional septic tank system comprises a septic tank followed by a soil percolation area. The septic tank functions as a primary sedimentation tank, removing most of the suspended solids from the wastewater; this removal is accompanied by a limited amount of anaerobic digestion. It is in the p e rc o l ation area that the wastewater undergoes secondary treatment and is purified. The wastewater from the septic tank is distributed to a suitable soil percolation area, which acts as a bio-filter. As the wastewater flows into and through the subsoil, it undergoes surface filtration, s t ra i n i n g, p hy s i c o chemical interactions and microbial breakdown.
TABLE 1: CHARACTERISTICS OF DOMESTIC WASTEWATER FROM A SINGLE HOUSE Parameter Typical concentration (mg/l unless otherwise stated) 400 300 200 50 10 107 - 108
Chemical Oxygen Demand COD (as O2) Biochemical Oxygen Demand BOD5 (as O 2) Total solids Total Nitrogen (as N) Total Phosphorus (as P) Total coliforms (MPN/ 100 ml)*
* MPN Most Probable Number
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After flowing through a suitable percolation area the wastewater is suitable for discharge. A typical septic tank is illustrated in Figure 1 and the attributes of a septic tank are given in Table 2. The tank, which should be two-chambered, allows the wastewater from the dwelling house time to settle out into three layers viz. the sludge layer, the liquid layer and the scum layer (Figure 1). The sludge layer is a blanket of heavy solids and some coagulated materials, which settle out on the tank floor. The liquid layer, while re l at ively free of coarse suspended solids, is high in decomposable dissolved and colloidal organic matter and contains bacteria, viruses, worm eggs, larvae etc.; it is allowed to flow to the percolation area through a tee-pipe for distribution and secondary treatment. The scum layer consists of greases, oils and gas-buoyed solids which accumulate as a layer on the surface. Detention times should be in excess of 24 hours. The subsoil through which the wastewater percolates acts as an attached growth medium for microorganisms. As the percolation trenches are
loaded with wastewater from a septic tank, a biomat layer quickly develops along the base and wetted sides of these trenches (Figure 2). The biomat layer consists of a deposit of microorganisms, slimes and sludge which coats the floor and walls of the trench and enters the subsoil for a short distance inside the infiltrative surface. The biomat drastically lowers the infiltration through the base and sides, causing ponding in the trenches. The ponding causes wastewater to flow over the entire trench base and in a short time leads to a uniform distribution of the wastewater over the total length of the trenches. Ponded wastewater gradually rises in the trenches accompanied by the development of a biomat along the wetted walls of the trench until an equilibrium is reached, causing flow through the sides and base. An adequate depth of gravel aggregate in the trench is important for hydraulic function. The biomat layer then determines the hydraulic loading. Therefore for long-term successful operation of a perc o l at i o n system, the system should be designed to cope with the impedance caused by the development of the biomat layer along the base and wetted walls of the percolation trench.
Manhole cover with ventilation
Manhole cover with ventilation
Inlet
TWL
Outlet
Scum Layer
Sludge layer
Liquid layer
CHAMBER NO. 1
CHAMBER NO. 2
SECTION A - A
FIGURE 1: A TYPICAL SEPTIC TANK
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TABLE 2: ATTRIBUTES OF A SEPTIC TANK A properly constructed septic tank will: Retain and remove 50% or more solids; outflow from tank contains about 80 mg/l solids Allow some microbial decomposition Accept sullage (i.e. water from baths, wash hand basins etc.) Accept water containing detergents Reduce clogging in the percolation area Not fully treat domestic wastewater Not work properly if inadequately maintained Not significantly remove microorganisms Not remove more than 15 - 30 % of the BOD Not operate properly if pesticides, paints, thinners, solvents, disinfectants or household hazardous substances are discharged to it Not accommodate sludge indefinitely Not operate properly if surface waters (i.e. roofs etc.) are discharged to it
Distribution box
initial operation - no biomat
Biomat formation (Order of weeks)
Biomat formation
Biomat formation with extension of clogging of the base and adjoining walls of trench
FIGURE 2: ILLUSTRATION OF BIOMAT FORMATION ON THE BASE OF A PERCOLATION TRENCH
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Geotextile Distribution gravel
Soil cap
Distribution laterals
Washed gravel Top soil Filter sand
filter gravel or permeable soil
Gravel, fractured bedrock, high water table or impervious soil
FIGURE 3: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A SOIL COVERED MOUND SAND FILTER A percolation area is considered "failing" when (i) it causes a backing up of wastewater in the distribution box or (ii) it does not keep untreated wastewater below the surface of the land or (iii) it does not treat the wastewater before it reaches groundwater or surface water. In Ireland, a significant number of septic tank systems do not function properly, mainly because they have been poorly constructed, installed, operated, maintained or, are located in areas with unsuitable subsoils, or percolation of the septic tank effluent is through a soakaway. It is important to note, however, that in the absence of a connection to a sewer system, one of the most appropriate and cost effective means of treating wastewater in a suitable site is a properly constructed and maintained conventional septic tank system. 1.4.2 FILTER SYSTEMS Where the subsoil is unsuitable for treating the wastewater from a septic tank, filter systems may be used. These include intermittent soil filters, sand filters, peat filters and other filters using materials such as plastic foam filters and geosynthetic strips. Intermittent soil filters comprise suitable soils placed often in the form of a mound, through which septic tank effluent is filtered and purified. Intermittent sand filters consist of one or more beds of graded sand underlain at the base by a filter gravel or permeable soil layer to prevent outwash or piping of the sand. Soil covered intermittent sand filters may be underground, part underground and part overground, or overground. The latter two constructions are commonly referred to as mound systems (Figure 3). Fibrous peat and plastic media for the other filters are usually installed in prefabricated containers (prefabricated intermittent filters). 1.4.3 CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS Constructed wetlands can also be used for the t re atment of wastewater from single houses. Wetlands are areas with high water tables which promote aquatic vegetation or water tolerant plants such as reeds. Primary treatment by a septic tank is used prior to discharge to a constructed wetland. In the wetland, the wastewater from a septic tank is treated by a combination of physical, chemical and biological processes that develop through the interaction of the plants (reeds), the growing media (gravel) and microorganisms. These processes include settlement and filtering of suspended solids, biodegradation, plant uptake and chemical interactions. There are two different types of constructed wetlands and they are characterised by the flow path of the water through the system (Figure 4). In horizontal flow constructed wetlands, wastewater is introduced at one end of a flat to gently sloping bed of reeds and flows horizontally across the bed to the outfall end. In the second type, called the vertical-flow wetland, the wastewater is dosed unifo rm ly over, and intermittently onto the media, and gradually drains vertically to a drainage network at the base of the media. Constructed wetlands should be securely fenced off to prevent access by unauthorised persons, especially children.
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Horizontal flow wetland
Septic tank
Vertical flow wetland
Septic tank
FIGURE 4: TYPES OF CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS (SECTION) 1.5 MECHANICAL AERATION SYSTEMS In recent years, many mechanical aeration systems have come on the market; these offer a solution in some cases where a site may be unsuitable for treating the septic tank wastewater, or an alternative to the conventional septic tank system. These systems include the following: biofilm aerated (BAF) systems; rotating biological contactor (RBC) systems; and sequencing batch reactors (SBR) systems. Site development works could include lowering the water table, raising the ground surface by filling with suitable soil, part replacement of the subsoil by suitable soil or subsoil loosening. After carrying out the necessary improvements, the site should be reassessed to establish whether the improved soil is satisfactory. 1.8 SITE CHARACTERISATION The objective of a site characterisation is to obtain sufficient information to determine if the site can be developed for an on-site system. Characterising the site involves a number of stage s . These should include: a desk study, which collects any information that may be available on maps etc. about the site; Polishing filters should be used to treat wastewater from intermittent filters, constructed wetlands and mechanical aeration systems. These filters consist of either soil or sand and are employed to reduce microorganisms, phosphorus, and nitrate nitrogen. Soil polishing filters may comprise in-situ, improved a visual assessment of the site, which defines the site in relation to surface features; a trial hole to evaluate the soil structure, depth to rock and water table; and percolation tests. soil or imported soil, whereas sand polishing filters comprise stratified layers of sand. 1.7 SITE DEVELOPMENT Where a site is initially unsuitable for a septic tank system, site development works may improve the site and make it suitable for the development of an on-site system.
BAF systems may consist of a primary settlement tank, aerated filter media and a secondary settlement tank. RBC systems consist of a primary settlement tank, a biological treatment compartment and a secondary settlement tank. These systems are similar to conventional trickling filter systems in that the microorganisms carrying out the secondary treatment are attached to an inert media surface. Sequencing batch reactors (SBR) consist of a primary settlement tank and a reactor in which biological treatment and clarification occur. 1.6 POLISHING FILTERS
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Figure 5 below summarises the protocol to be followed to select and design an on-site system. The concepts of risk, risk assessment and risk management have recently become important tools in environmental protection. Risk can be defined as the likelihood or expected frequency of a specified adverse consequence. Applied for example to groundwater, a risk expresses the likelihood of contamination arising from a proposed on-site treatment system (called the hazard). A hazard presents a risk when it is likely to affect something of value (the target, e.g. surface water). It is the combination of the probability of the hazard
NTRODUCTION
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occurring and its consequences that is the basis of risk assessment. Risk management involves site assessment, selection of options and implementation of measures to prevent or minimise the consequences and probability of a contamination event (e.g. odour nuisance or water pollution). The methodology for selection and design of an on-site system in this manual embraces the concepts of risk assessment and risk management. The remainder of this manual sets out how a site characterisation should be completed and a choice of on-site system made.
SITE RESTRICTIONS
DESK STUDY
NO SITE RESTRICTIONS
NOT SUITABLE
ON-SITE INVESTIGATION VISUAL ASSESSMENT TRIAL HOLE PERCOLATION TESTS SITE IMPROVEMENT
FILTER SYSTEM AND POLISHING FILTER

Or UNSUITABLE** SITE CHARACTERISATION UNSUITABLE *
MECHANICAL AERATION SYSTEM AND POLISHING FILTER
* This option may not always be available SUITABLE ** Site may not always be suitable for an on-site system
FILTER SYSTEM /MECHANICAL AERATION SYSTEM AND POLISHING FILTER
CONVENTIONAL SEPTIC TANK SYSTEM

Or
FIGURE 5: SELECTING AN ON-SITE TREATMENT SYSTEM FOR A SINGLE HOUSE
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2. SITE CHARACTERISATION
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CHARACTERISATION 17
The purpose of a site assessment is to determine the suitability of the site for an on-site treatment system. The assessment will also help to predict the wastewater flow through the subsoil and into the subsurface materials. The key to installing a reliable on-site system that minimises the potential for pollution is to select and design a suitable treatment system following a thorough site assessment. For a subsoil to be effective as a medium for treating wastewater, it must retain the wastewater for a sufficient length of time, and it must be well aerated. Only after a site evaluation has been completed can an on-site system be chosen. The info rm at i o n collected in the evaluation will be used to select the on-site system. In designing a soil percolation area to treat wastewater, three factors must be considered: the suitability of the site; the suitability of subsoil and groundwater conditions, and the permissible hydraulic load on the subsoil. site
A desk study involves the assessment of available data pertaining to the site and adjoining area that may determine whether the site has any restrictions. Information collected from the desk study should include material related to the hy d ro l ogical, hydrogeological and planning aspects of the site, which may be available in maps or rep o rt s . Hydrological aspects include locating the presence (if any) of streams, rivers, lakes, beaches, shellfish areas and/or wetlands while hydrogeological aspects include: soil type; subsoil type; bedrock type; aquifer type; vulnerability class; and groundwater protection response (refer to the DELG/EPA/GSI groundwater protection scheme and groundwater protection responses for on-site systems for single houses).
To determine these considerations a characterisation is undertaken. This includes: 1) a desk study; and 2) an on-site evaluation, consisting of : a visual assessment; a trial hole; and percolation tests.
2.1 DESK STUDY The purposes of a desk study are to: obtain information relevant to the site, which will assist in assessing its suitability; identify targets at risk; and establish if there are site restrictions.
The Groundwater Protection Schemes provide guidelines for developers in assessing groundwater vulnerability and for the planning authorities in carrying out their functions, and a framework to assist in decision-making on the location, nature and control of developments and activities (including single house treatment systems) in order to protect groundwater. The density of on-site systems should be considered also at this stage. The protection responses required to protect groundwater from onsite systems should be satisfied. Where no scheme exists, interim measures as set out in the Groundwater Protection Schemes should be adopted. Each site is specific and local factors should be taken into account in using this guideline information. Planning aspects include: zoning in the development plan; presence of significant sites (archaeological, natural heritage, historical etc.); and past experience of the area.
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2.1.1 INTERPRETING THE RESULTS OF THE DESK STUDY The information collected from the desk study should be examined and the following should be considered for all treatment options: zoning (including groundwater protection schemes): Zoning for groundwater protection schemes outlines the aquifer classification in the general area and the vulnerability of the groundwater. The groundwater protection responses will provide an early indication of the probable suitability of a site for an on-site system. The on-site assessment will later confirm or modify such responses; presence of significant sites: Determine whether there are significant archaeological, natural heritage and/or historical features within the proposed site. To avoid any accidental damage, a trial hole assessment or percolation tests should not be undertaken in areas, which are at or adjacent to significant sites (e.g. SACs, NHAs etc.), without prior advice from Duchas, the Heritage Service; nature of drainage: A high frequency of watercourses on maps indicates high or perched watertables; and past experience: Is there evidence of satisfactory or unsatisfactory local experience with on-site treatment systems?
drained areas, or on convex slopes are most desirable. Sites which are in depressions, or on the bottom of slopes or on concave slopes are less desirable. The principal factors which should be considered are, relief, shape and form, rock outcrops, wells and wat e rc o u rs e s , land use, vege t at i o n , t ra m p l i n g damage to the soil by livestock, seepage, boundary of property, and old building foundations. Slope: It is more difficult to install pipework and ensure that the wastewater will stay in the soil if the land has an extreme slope. Where there is surface water run-off and interflow, low-lying areas and flat areas generally receive more water. This accounts to some extent for the occurrence of poorly drained soils in low-lying areas. Soils with poor drainage, however, may also be found on good slopes where the parent material or the subsoil is of low p e rm e ab i l i t y. Provision must be made for the interception of all surface run-off and seepage, and its diversion away from the proposed percolation area. Proximity to surface fe at u re s : M i n i mu m separation distances as set out in the following ch ap t e rs should be maintained from specified features. The presence/location of surface features such as wells/springs, watercourses, dwelling houses on adjacent sites, site boundaries, roads, steep slopes, etc. should be noted. Wells: Wells should be considered as targets at risk. The groundwater flow direction, where it can be inferred; the number of wells; the presence of any wetlands, and presence of any karst features should be noted. Drainage: A high density of streams or ditches tends to indicate a high water table and potential risk to surface water. Low density of streams indicates a free draining subsoil and or/bedrock. Type of vegetation: Rushes, yellow flags (irises) and alders indicate poor percolation characteristics or high water table levels. Grasses, trees and ferns may indicate suitable percolation characteristics. Plants and trees indicating good drainage and poor drainage are illustrated in Appendix E. Ground condition: The ground conditions during the on-site investigation should be noted. Trampling damage by livestock can indicate impeded drainage or intermittent high water tables, especially where accompanied by widespread ponding in hoof prints. The factors examined during a visual assessment and
2.2 ON-SITE ASSESSMENT 2.2.1 VISUAL ASSESSMENT The purposes of the visual assessment are to: assess the potential suitability of the site; assess potential targets at risk (adjacent wells); and provide sufficient information to enable a decision to be made on the suitability of the site for the wastewater to be treated and the location of the proposed system within the site. The principal factors which should be considered are listed below.
Topography and landscape: Topography reflects the relief of the site. Landscape position reflects the location of the site in the landscape e.g. crest of hill, valley, slope of hill. Sites which are on level, well
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CHARACTERISATION 19
TABLE 3: FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED DURING A VISUAL ASSESSMENT Factor Water level in ditches and wells Shape, slope and form of site Presence of watercourses Presence and types of rock outcrops Proximity to adjacent percolation areas and/or houses Land use and type of grassland surface (if applicable) Vegetation type Proximity to wells on-site and off-site, water supply sources, groundwater, streams, ditches, lakes, surface water ponding, beaches, shellfish areas, and wetlands Significance Indicates depth of unsaturated subsoil May indicate whether water will collect at a site or flow away from the site May indicate low permeability or a high water table Insufficient depth of subsoil to treat wastewater allowing it to enter the groundwater too fast May indicate too high a loading rate for the locality and/or potential nuisance problems Indicator of rate of percolation or groundwater levels Indicator of the rate of percolation or groundwater levels Indicates targets at risk
TABLE 4: MINIMUM SEPARATION Type of system Watercourse/ Wells/ stream springs*
DISTANCES IN METRES
Lake
Any Site Road Dwelling boundary
Slope breaks/ cuts
Septic tank; prefabricated intermittent filters; mechanical aeration systems In situ intermittent filters; percolation area; polishing filters
10
10
50
10
30
50
10
* This applies to wells down-gradient or where flow direction is unknown. For more information on wells alongside or up-gradient consult DELG/EPA/GSI ground water protection scheme 1.
their significance are summarised in Table 3 above. 2.2.2 INTERPRETING THE RESULTS OF THE VISUAL ASSESSMENT The minimum separation distances that should be used in the visual assessment are set out in Table 4. These apply to any on-site system. If any of these
1
requirements cannot be met, on-site systems cannot be developed on the site. The recommended minimum distances from wells should satisfy the requirements of the groundwater protection response, which should have been reviewed during the desk study. In some cases, the requirements of the groundwater protection scheme and responses may be greater than the distances set out in Table 4.
Department of Environment and Local Government, Environmental Protection Agency, Geological Survey of Ireland 2000. Groundwater Protection Responses for On-site Systems for Single Houses.
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2.2.3 TRIAL HOLE The purposes of the trial hole are to determine: the depth of the water table; the depth to bedrock; and the soil and subsoil characteristics.
hours to establish the depth to the water table (if present) and should be securely fenced. The soil ch a ra c t e ristics assessed are: t ex t u re, s t ru c t u re, presence of pre fe rential flow paths, density, compactness, colour, layering, depth to bedrock and depth to the watertable. If items of suspected archaeological interest are discove re d, contact should be made with the relevant authorities. Depth to bedrock and depth to water table: A depth of 1.2m of suitable free draining unsaturated subsoil, to the bedrock and to the water table below the base of the percolation trenches, must exist at all times to ensure sat i s fa c t o ry treatment of the wastewater. Sites assessed in summer when the water table is low, should be examined below the proposed invert of the percolation pipe for soil mottling - an indicator of seasonally high water tables. Soil texture: Texture is the relative proportions of sand, silt and clay particles in a soil after screening through a 2 mm size sieve. The rate and extent of many important physical processes and chemical reactions in soils are governed by texture. Physical processes influenced by texture include drainage and moisture retention, diffusion of gases and the rate of transport of contaminants. Texture influences the biofilm surface area in which biochemical and chemical reactions occur. The soil texture may be characterised using the chart in Figure 6 . To classify a soil/subsoil, it should be wetted and squeezed between the fingers. Soils/subsoils high in sand feel sandy, soils/subsoils high in silt are silky to feel and soils/subsoils high in clay are sticky and have tensile strength. A guide to assist the cl a s s i fi c ation of soil/subsoils is included in Appendix D. Various soil/subsoil texture classifications schemes exist; Table 5 compares three such classifications and indicates typical percolation rates.
TYPICAL PERCOLATION RATES
The trial hole will also help to predict the wastewater flow through the subsoil. The trial hole should be as small as practicable, e.g. 1.0 metre x 0.75 metre in plan, and should be excavated to a depth of at least 1.2 m below the invert of the lowest percolation trench. In the case of a level site the depth of the trial hole should be a minimum of 2.1 m below ground surface. In the case of a sloping site it is essential that an estimate of the depth of the invert of the percolation trench be made beforehand. The hole should remain open for 48
Example x:
50% Clay 30% Sand 20% Silt
FIGURE 6: SOIL CLASSIFICATION CHART
TABLE 5: SOIL/SUBSOIL TEXTURES AND Soil Class Classification sand loamy sand sandy loam loam / silt loam Subsoil Classification medium fine SAND silty, clayey SAND silty SAND sandy SILT
Unified Class Classification (min/25mm) sand; silty sand; clayey sand sand; silty sand; clayey sand silty sand; clayey sand silty fine sands - low plasticity
Typical Percolation Rate * 1-5 6 - 10 6 - 30 31 - 50**
* typical for soil in an uncompacted state and not indurated or hard. ** upper limit of 50 may need to be reviewed in the light of on-going research findings.
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Structure: Soil structure refers to the arrangement of the soil particles into larger units or compound particles in the soil. The soil particles,sand, silt, clay and organic matter, are generally clumped together to form larger units called peds. The shape and size of the peds have a large effect on the behaviour of soils. A ped is a unit of soil structure such as an aggregate, a crumb, a prism, a block or granules formed by natural processes. Soil texture plays a major part in determining soil structure. The structure of the soil influences the pore space, aeration and drainage conditions. Types of soil structure (shape of the ped) are illustrated in Figure 7 and are: Crumb - peds have curved surfaces. The faces of peds do not fit into the faces of neighbouring peds. Commonly found in top soils. Granular - peds composed of single grains with curved surface e.g. sands. Blocky - the faces of each ped are nearly equal and fit into the faces of neighbouring peds. They are common in loamy soils. Prismatic - the soil particles are arranged about a vertical axis and are bounded by relatively smooth vertical faces; the vertical faces are longer than the horizontal faces and fit into neighbouring peds; commonly found in clayey soils. Platy - peds consist of thin flat plates and are formed where soils dry out rapidly (rare in Ireland). Structureless - massive - soil is not separated into structural units but occurs as one large (often plastic) mass; typical of clays and silts. Structureless - single grain - soil has no visible aggregation; on immersion in water, soil readily disintegrates into its single grains of gravel, sand, silt and clay.
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illustrated in Figure 8. Where water is supplied to a soil at a rate less than its permeability, as in the case of septic tank effluent, the r ate of flow through the soil equals the rate of supply in soils of adequate permeability. The preferred structures from a wastewater treatment perspective are granular (as fine sand), blocky and structureless-single grain sandy loams, loams and silt loams. Unstructured massive plastic soils indicate seasonal or continuous saturation and are unsuitable. Likewise soils with extensive, large and continuous fissures and thick lenses of gravel and coarse sand may be unsuitable; this suitability will be assessed in the percolation test. Preferential flow paths: Preferential flow paths (PFPs) are formed in soils by biological, chemical and physical processes and their interactions. They may be randomly distributed or their formation may be systematic, reflecting the influence of agricultural practices. Research in recent years indicates that PFPs can have a significant influence on the movement of ponded or perched water in soil/subsoils where free (non capillary) water is in direct contact with PFPs. The presence of PFPs should be noted during the trial hole assessment because their presence may influence the percolation rate of the subsoil. Soil density: this refers to how tightly the soil grains are packed to gether. Dry bulk density is commonly classified as low, medium or high. Low - loose and easily disintegrated into structural peds when dry to moist; typical of many topsoils; Medium - dry bulk density of intermediate magnitude (e.g. 1.3 tonne/m 3); typical of many permeable soils; and High - compact and strong and resistant to penetration; typical of some deep permeable soils.
The rate of flow of water through soils of the various structures is in the following order: crumb faster than blocky; blocky faster than structureless-single grain. Structureless massive structure have very low flow rates and can often be regarded as impervious ( e.g. with a permeability < 10 mm/day). The relationship between structure type and water movement is
Soils of low and medium dry bulk density are best as percolation soils. Colour: This is a good indicator of the state of aeration of the soil/subsoil. Free draining unsaturated soils/subsoils are in the oxidised state at all times and exhibit brown, reddish brown and yellowish brown colours. Many free draining soils of limestone origin with deep water tables are grey at depth. Saturated soils/subsoils are in a reduced state and exhibit dull grey or mottled colours. Mottling
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FIGURE 7: TYPES OF SOIL STRUCTURE ILLUSTRATED
FIGURE 8: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRUCTURE TYPE AND WATER MOVEMENT
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(comprising a reddish brown or rusty staining) of the soil layers can indicate the height to which the water table rises in periods of high rainfall; mottling in a grey matrix (grey with reddish brown mottles) indicates aeration along old root channels and cracks while the matrix remains reduced; this soil layer is saturated during part of the year. Layering: This is common in soils, arising during deposition and/or subsequent weathering. In soils, that are free draining in the virgin state, weathering can result in downward movement of some of the clay fraction leading to enrichment of a sub-layer
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with clay. In some areas a thin, hard, rust coloured impervious layer can develop (iron pans) as a result of the downward leaching of iron and manganese compounds and deposition at shallow depth (less t h a n 1 m ) . The underlying subsoil often has a satisfactory percolation rate. Enrichment with clay particles and precipitation of iron and calcium and magnesium compounds can lead to very low percolation rates. Such soils can often be improved by loosening or by breaking the impervious layer. The factors that are evaluated from the trial hole and their significance are summarised in Table 6 below.
TABLE 6: FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED DURING A TRIAL HOLE EXAMINATION Factors Soil structure and texture Mottling Depth to bedrock Depth to water table Water ingress along walls Season Significance Both influence the capacity of soil to treat and dispose of the wastewater; silts and clays are generally unsuitable Indicates seasonal high water tables Subsoil must have sufficient depth to treat wastewater Wet subsoils do not allow adequate treatment of wastewater Indicates high water table Water table varies between seasons
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2.2.4 INTERPRETING THE RESULTS OF THE TRIAL HOLE TEST Table 7 sets out the subsoil characteristics which indicate sat i s fa c t o ry percolation and other
ch a ra c t e ristics necessary for the treatment of wastewater. The percolation characteristics will be confirmed later by examining the percolation test results.
TABLE 7: TRIAL HOLE - SITE REQUIREMENTS WHICH INDICATE ADEQUATE PERCOLATION CHARACTERISTICS Subsoil Characteristics Minimum depth of unsaturated permeable subsoil below base of all percolation trenches Requirements 1.2 m Percolation trench cross section for a level site
Ground level Topsoil Gravel
Distribution pipe & Gravel
300 mm 150 mm 100 mm 250 mm 2000 mm
Gravel 450 mm Unsaturated Subsoil
1200 mm
Minimum depth of unsaturated subsoil to bedrock below invert level of all percolation trenches Minimum depth to water table below invert of all percolation trenches* Texture of unsaturated soil/subsoil
1.2 m
1.2 m
Sand (medium fine SAND), Loamy sand (silty, clayey SAND), Sandy loam (silty SAND), Loam and silt loam (sandy SILT); Granular, blocky; and structureless single grain Greyish brown, reddish brown, and yellowish brown; grey in the case of many free draining limestone soils No gravel or clay layer should be present
Structure of unsaturated soil/subsoil
Colour of unsaturated soil/subsoil
Layering in the walls of a percolation trench or below its invert Bulk density of unsaturated soil/subsoil
Low to medium
*where the dimensions of the percolation trench and unsaturated soil are as shown, the minimum depth to the water table is 2 m below ground surface.
2S
2.2.5 PERCOLATION TESTS A percolation (permeability) test assesses the hydraulic assimilation capacity of the subsoil i.e. the length of time for the water level in the percolation hole to fall from a height of 300 mm to 200 mm above the base of the test hole in a percolation area. The permeability of each soil class may vary within an order of 10 - 100 fold depending primarily on the particle size grading which reflects the va ry i n g amounts of fine particles, the structure and void ratio in each soil class. The procedure for carrying out a percolation test is set out in Appendix B. The results of percolation tests are expressed as a "T" value. This is the average time in minutes for the water level to fall 25 mm in each of two percolation test holes over the water depth range of 300 mm to 200 mm in the proposed percolation area. To carry out a percolation test (which should be within the proposed percolation area), a 300 mm square percolation test hole is excavated to a depth of 400 mm below the invert of the proposed distribution pipe. To establish the percolation value for shallow soils that may be used for polishing filters (discussed later) a modification of the T test is required. For this, the test hole is 400 mm below the ground surface as opposed to 400 mm below the invert of the distribution pipe for the T test. To avoid confusion with the previous test, this test is called a P test, and the values are referred to as P values. 2.2.6 INTERPRETING THE RESULTS OF THE PERCOLATION TEST A "T" value greater than 50 suggests that wastewater entering such subsoils would cause ponding on-site. A "T" value less than 1 suggests that the retention time for the wastewater would not be long enough to provide satisfactory treatment. If the percolation T value is within the range 1-50* then the site should be suitable for the development of a conventional septic tank system. Where the "T" value is less than 1 or greater than 50
ITE
CHARACTERISATION 25
the site is not suitable for the treatment of septic tank wastewater by soil percolation. Other options should be considered such as a constructed percolation area, mechanical aeration systems, intermittent filters or constructed wetlands. Where mechanical aeration systems, intermittent filters or constructed wetlands are used, the treated wastewater from such systems should discharge to receiving waters (surface or groundwater) through a polishing filter. Where shallow or impervious soils exist, a soil percolation area may still be possible by importing suitable soil and placing it in lifts in the proposed percolation area such that there is a minimum thickness of 2.0 m of unsaturated soil with drainage over the bedrock or impervious soil. A trial hole and percolation tests (T - tests) should then be carried out (see Appendix B - Percolation Tests for further details) in the same way as for in situ soils. Where such soil filling is not feasible, alternative systems followed by a polishing filter may be suitable. Where an alternative system and a polishing filter are employed, the nature of the soil or bedrock underlying the polishing filter determines the disposal route of the treated wastewater. For a polishing filter overlying impervious soils or rocks, the treated wastewater is collected in a suitable drainage system and discharged to surface waters. Polishing filters overlying permeable soils, gravels or bedrock with a T/P value less than 50 may d i s ch a rge the treated wastewaters to the groundwater. A flow diagram to assist in the choice of an on-site system is shown in Figure 9.
2.3 INTEGRATION OF THE DESK STUDY AND ON-SITE ASSESSMENT INFORMATION Table 8 summarises the information that can be obtained from the data collected from the desk study and the on-site assessment. This information is used to characterise the site and used later to choose and design an on-site system. An integrated approach will ensure inter alia that the targets at risk are identified and protected.
* upper limit of 50 may be reviewed depending on experience.
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TABLE 8: INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM THE DESK STUDY AND ON-SITE Information Collected Zoning (County development plan, groundwater protection scheme, groundwater protection response etc.); Hydrological features; Density of houses; Proximity to significant sites; Experience of the area; Proximity to surface features; Depth to bedrock Sufficient subsoil to allow treatment of wastewater Identifies planning controls and targets at risk Relevance
ASSESSMENT
Factor Determined
Site restrictions
Depth to bedrock
Texture; Structure; Bulk density; Layering; Colour; Mottling; Depth to water table; Drainage (permeability); Percolation test; A minimum thickness of 1.2 m of unsaturated soil is required to successfully treat septic tank effluent Identifies suitable soils that have adequate but not excessive percolation rates Indicators of the suitability of the subsoil for percolation and of its percolation rate Unsuitability if prismatic, structureless-massive silt or clay.
Depth of the water table
(T or P value)
To assist in the selection of the on-site system and to standardise the assessment process, a site characterisation form has been prepared (Appendix A ) . The completed form should accompany all
planning applications for on-site systems for a single house. A verification section is included at the end of the form and this should be completed by the planning authority.
3T
3. TREATMENT OPTIONS
REATMENT OPTIONS
27
3.1 INTRODUCTION The information collected from the desk study and on-site assessment should be used in an integrated way to determine whether an on-site system can be developed, and if so, the type of system that is appropriate and the optimum final disposal route of the treated wastewater. Depending on the characteristics of the site, more than one option may be available. 3.2 CHOOSING AN ON-SITE SYSTEM Figure 9 sets out how the information from the desk study and on-site assessment is used to choose an onsite system. The procedure for deciding how to dispose of the treated wastewater, i.e., whether it can be disposed of by soil percolation to groundwater or be discharged directly to surface water, is set out in the lower half of the diagram. The wastewater from an on-site system cannot be disposed of by soil p e rc o l ation to groundwater unless the subsoil characteristics are suitable for this purpose. The desk study information is first examined. Areas with significant sites e.g. archaeological, natural heritage or historical features should be ruled out of further consideration. If past experience indicates that there have been problems with the proposed system in the locality, further investigation may be warranted before proceeding to the next step. If the Desk Study conclusion is that the site is potentially suitable for an on-site system, an on-site assessment should be carried out. As previously mentioned, the on-site assessment consists of a visual assessment, a trial hole and percolation tests. The minimum separation distances to pass the visual assessment are set out in Table 4 . These apply to any treatment system. If any of these requirements cannot be met, on-site systems cannot be developed on the site. Where a site is marginal, further investigation may be warranted to identify whether or not site improvements will suffice. If the visual assessment indicates that the site is potentially suitable, proceed to the trial hole stage of the on-site assessment. Table 7 sets out the subsoil characteristics which indicate satisfactory percolation and other subsoil
2
ch a ra c t e ristics suitable for the treatment of wastewater. The percolation characteristics will be confirmed later by examining the percolation test results. It is important to remember that the subsoil characteristics (i.e. depth and type of subsoil) as set out in Table 7, and the control measures outlined in the groundwater protection responses should both be satisfied. In some cases the requirements of the groundwater protection responses will be greater than 1.2 m of subsoil below the invert of the percolation trench. 3.2.1 SYSTEMS USED WHERE ON-SITE ASSESSMENT IS SUCCESSFUL If the site satisfies all the specified requirements and has a T value between 1 and 50, the site is suitable for the development of a septic tank with a soil percolation area (conventional septic tank system). A septic tank followed by either an intermittent filter or a constructed wetland, or a mechanical aeration unit can also be developed on sites that have suitable percolation characteristics. 3.2.2 SYSTEMS USED IN THE EVENT OF ONSITE ASSESSMENT FAILURE For sites which fail the on-site assessment (refer to Figure 9), site improvement works may allow the development of an on-site system. These improvement works may include lowering the water table by drainage, increasing the soil depth by importing suitable soil or replacing existing unsuitable soil. The conditions that give rise to a high water table are site specific; these include topography, nature of soils, bedrocks and outfalls. Some of the problems resulting from these conditions are readily solved. Detailed design procedures are available in drainage manuals2 . Imported soil may be placed in mounds - as illustrated in Figure 3 - or level with the ground surface. The mounds may be constructed partially or totally overground. Free draining unsaturated soils as detailed in Table 5 should be used. The fill should be placed in layers not exceeding 300 mm thick and lightly compacted. Great care should be taken not to overcompact the soil as this will lead to ponding. After each lift is placed, percolation tests should be
Mulqueen, Rodgers, Hendrick, Keane, McCarthy (1999). Forest Drainage Engineering. COFORD Dublin.
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carried out. A 150 mm square hole is excavated to a depth of 150 mm in the placed soil. After presoaking to completely wet up the soil, 0.5 litres of water is poured into the hole and the time in minutes for the water to soak away is recorded. This time should be between 10 minutes and 2 hours. After these works have been completed, a second test hole must be excavated in an appropriate location in the improved soil and a percolation test carried out. Where a minimum of 0.6 m of permeable soil is present or can be placed over the rock and/or the water table (i.e. shallow soils) and all other requirements of the on-site assessment are satisfied, an on-site system can be developed using this soil as a polishing filter in anyone of the following: a septic tank and an intermittent filter followed by a polishing filter;
a mechanical aeration system followed by a polishing filter; or a septic tank and constructed wetland system followed by a polishing filter may be installed on the site.
The treated wastewater from systems other than a conventional septic tank system should be percolated through a polishing filter to reduce microorganisms. The polishing filter may comprise the in situ soil, where there is adequate depth of suitable soil, imported suitable soil or a combination of the in situ and imported soil. Polishing filters may also be constructed from medium fine sands placed in layers alternating with layers of 10-20 mm clean washed gravels. Typical designs for polishing filters are given in Chapter 4.
3T
REATMENT OPTIONS
29
Desk DeskStudy study

Desk study Pass
Fail
Unsuitable
Archaeological Archaeological site, NHA

This option may not always be available
Site improvement
On-site On-site Assessment Assessment
Visual Assessment Pass Fail Trial Hole Pass Percolation Test (T- Test) Fail
Site may not be suitable for any onsite system Fail
Pass
Conventional septic tank system
Wetland system
Intermittent filter system
Mechanical aeration system
Percolation Test (P- Test)*
soil polishing filter
sand polishing filter
Discharge to groundwater
Discharge**
* A P (or T) test is required to design a soil polishing filter. The hydraulic loading r ate depends on the soil or bedrock and recommended loading rates are as follows: up to 20 l/m2.d for P/T values of 20 or less; up to 10 l/m2.d for P/T values from 21 to 40 and up to 5 l/m2.d for P/T values 41 -50. ** The treated wastewaters from the polishing filter may discharge to g roundwater or surface water depending on the nature of the strata underlying the filter. The discharge of treated wastewater from the polishing filters overlying permeable soils or bedrocks may go to groundwater. A soil or bedrock with a P/T value of 50 or less is suitable to percolate effluent from a polishing filter to groundwater. The treated wastewater from the polishing filters overlying soils or bedrocks with P/T values greater than 50 is collected in a suitable drainage system and discharged to surface waters.
FIGURE 9: FLOW DIAGRAM FOR CHOOSING AN ON-SITE SYSTEM
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3.3 CHOOSING THE OPTIMUM DISCHARGE ROUTE Once the on-site treatment system has been decided upon, the disposal of the treated wastewater needs to be considered. For septic tank systems with a soil percolation area the treated wastewater will normally be discharged to the groundwater. In the case of filters, mechanical aeration systems and wetland systems, treated wastewater from the polishing filter may be discharged to the ground or to surface water (Figure 9). In the case of a discharge to surface water a licence to discharge is required from the local authority under the Water Pollution Acts 1977-1990. Where such a licence is required, the final wastewater quality from the on-site system should comply with the requirements set out in the licence. 3.4 LICENCE REQUIREMENTS The discharge of any sewage effluent to "waters3" requires a licence under the Water Pollution Acts 1977-1990. Licence applications are processed by the local authorities. Domestic sewage, however, not exceeding 5 m3/day, which is discharge d to an aquifer from a septic tank or other disposal unit, by means of a percolation area , soakage pit or other method is not subject to the licensing provisions of the 1977-1990 Acts. If an on-site system does not comply with all the conditions above, a discharge licence is required for the on-site system. However, it should be noted that a "soakage pit" or similar method is not an acceptable means for treating septic tank effluent and does not comply with the requirements set out in this document.
Where it is proposed to discharge wastewater to "waters", local authorities should assess the impact of the discharge from the on-site system on the receiving water. The parameters to be examined should include: Flow; BOD; Nitrates; Ammonia; Phosphates; and Microorganisms.
When assessing the impact of an on-site system, local authorities should consider the beneficial uses of the receiving water. The principal beneficial uses of surface water are, water intended for human consumption after treatment, agriculture, bathing, b o at i n g, coarse fishery, cooling, game fishery, general amenity, or industry. Principal beneficial uses of groundwater are agriculture, d ri n k i n g, industry and raw water intended for human consumption after treatment. Once the beneficial use of the water has been established, local authorities should consult relevant Regulations, water quality management plans and any published standards to obtain the relevant discharge standard. The treated wastewater from the on-site system should comply with the water quality standard set for the receiving waters.
includes any (or any part of any) river, stream, lake, canal, reservoir, aquifer, pond, watercourse or other inland waters, whether natural or artifical.
4S
EPTIC
TANKS, PERCOLATION AREAS AND OTHER FILTER SYSTEMS 31
4. SEPTIC TANKS, PERCOLATION AREAS AND OTHER FILTER SYSTEMS

4.1 SEPTIC TANKS Septic tanks are primary settlement tanks providing a limited amount of anaerobic digestion. Septic tanks should comprise two chambers. For best performance, septic tanks should have the following characteristics: septic tanks should be much longer than they are wide to promote settlement of suspended solids; larger septic tanks are better than smaller tanks because of greater settlement of solids and larger storage volume for liquid and solids; properly designed baffles provide quiescent conditions and minimise the discharge of solids to the percolation area; and the inlet and outlet of the septic tank should be separated by a long flow path for the wastewater; if the outlet is too close to the inlet, solids settlement and grease separation may be inadequate. 4.1.1 SEPTIC TANK CAPACITY The septic tank should be of sufficient volume to provide a retention time for settlement of the suspended solids while reserving an adequate volume for sludge storage. The volume required for sludge storage is the determining factor in sizing the septic tank and this sizing depends on the potential occupancy of the dwelling which can be estimated from the maximum number of people that the house can accommodate taking into account the number and types of bedrooms. The tank capacity may be calculated from the following formula:
C = 180 . P + 2000
where C = the capacity of the tank (litres)
P = the design population with a minimum of 4 persons A minimum capacity of 2720 litres (2.72 m 3) should be provided. This assumes that desludging of the septic tank is carried out at least once in every 12month period. When kitchen grinders are installed, additional sludge solids are discharged with the wastewater and the capacity of the septic tank should be increased by 70 litres for each additional person. Typical septic tank capacities and dimensions for rectangular tanks are shown in Table 9, Table 10, Figure 10 and Figure 11.
Septic tanks must be a ble to (i) withstand corrosion (ii) carry safely all lateral and vertical soil pressures and (iii) accommodate water pressure from inside and outside the tank without leakage occurring. Septic tanks must be watertight to prevent (i) wastewater escaping to the soil outside, and (ii) surface water and groundwater entering the tank. A leaking tank can cause pollution problems.
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TABLE 9: TYPICAL CAPACITIES OF SEPTIC TANKS No of Persons Required Storage Capacity (litres) length C = 180 . P + 2000 3 4 5 6
* refer to Figure 11
Dimensions (m)
width d* 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 b* 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
depth c* 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
a* 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.5
2720 2720 2900 3080
Cover Ventilation cowl Inlet T-piece Outlet T-Piece
Scum layer
75
TWL
300 Freeboard OUTLET
INLE INTLET T
350 Sedimentation 2200 550 Gas Buoyed Flotation
350 200 1000
liquid layer Sludge Layer
SECTION A-A
FIGURE 10: LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A TYPICAL SEPTIC TANK (ALL DIMENSIONS IN MM)
4S
EPTIC
TWL
200
450
Section B-B
A 2200 a
1000
b 1000 d
B Floor Plan
FIGURE 11: PLAN AND SECTION OF A SEPTIC TANK (ALL DIMENSIONS IN MM)
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TABLE 10: TYPICAL DESIGN FEATURES OF A SEPTIC TANK Tank Characteristics Tank capacity Tank length to width ratio Number of compartments Volume of inlet compartment Concrete compressive strength Wall thickness Roof thickness Interior height Liquid depth Freeboard (roof height above liquid) Baffle wall liquid opening Inlet and outlet pipes Bottom end of T-piece Difference in elevation of inlet and outlet Joints Ventilation Access covers Recommended Requirements 2720 litres for 4 persons 2 to 3 : 1 2 2/3 to 3/4 of the total tank capacity 35 N/mm2 at 28 days, minimum 100 mm minimum reinforced concrete or equivalent 125 mm minimum 1.2 m minimum 0.9 m minimum 300 mm 450 mm to centre of opening from floor of tank (Figure 10 and Figure 11) Minimum internal diameter of 100 mm 550 mm above floor of tank 75 mm Watertight joints required 100 mm diameter pipe in roof with a cowl in each chamber 600 mm x 600 mm (2 no.)
4.1.2 CONSTRUCTION OF A SEPTIC TANK The design features of a septic tank system are outlined in Table 10. Septic tanks may be cast in situ or may be prefabricated from steel, reinforced concrete, glass fibre reinforced concrete or plastic. Two-chambered tanks may be accommodated by having two separate tanks connected together using a tee-piece baffle in each tank. The principles given for rectangular tanks should be followed for cylindrical tanks where reasonably practical. Some upward adjustment to volumes may be necessary. The roof, outer walls and floors of the tank and all joints should be watertight. 4.1.3 WATERTIGHTNESS OF SEPTIC TANKS A septic tank should be watertight up to the top of the tank. Methods employed to test such tanks should be in accordance with CEN E u ro p e a n
4
Standard EN 12566 watertightness test method 4. For concrete septic tanks the loss of water measured after 30 min. should be 0.1 litre per m2 of the internal wet surface area of external walls. For polyethylene and glass reinforced plastic (GRP) septic tanks, no leakage is permitted. 4.1.4 IN SITU TANKS The following construction recommended for in situ tanks: standards are
the floors should be of concrete with a minimum thickness of 225 mm; the walls should be a minimum of 100 mm thick reinforced concrete or equivalent such as 225 mm solid block rendered wall; the roof should be either cast in situ or precast reinforced concrete; and
CEN/TC 165 "Wastewater Engineering" is preparing a series of European standards on small wastewater treatment systems.
4S
EPTIC
TANKS, PERCOLATION AREAS
AND
OTHER FILTER SYSTEMS 35
for safety, the roof should be strong and stable enough to prevent interference from children and others.
4.1.5 PREFRABICATED TANKS Prefabricated tanks should be manufactured from suitable materials (e.g. pre-cast concrete, glass reinforced plastic, glass reinforced concrete) and the requirements stated above for capacity, hydraulics, strength and water-tightness should be observed. Prefabricated septic tanks are to be preferred to those cast in situ because quality control and testing can be undertaken at the factory. In the case of light prefabricated tanks, attention should be paid to the risk of flotation of the tanks as a result of groundwater pressure or surface run-off gaining access to the excavation. 4.1.6 LOCATION OF SEPTIC TANKS Recommended minimum distances of separation of septic tanks and percolation areas and filters from a variety of features are shown in Table 4. Provision should be made for access for a sludge tanker and maintenance equipment to desludge the tank. 4.1.7 ANCILLARY MATERIALS CONSTRUCTION
It should be vented by means of a vent pipe above the eaves of the house (Figure 13). A manhole should be provided for rodding the drain and should be located within one metre of the septic tank. The drain should include, at an appropriate location an access junction, to facilitate a future connection to a sewer network. 4.2 PERCOLATION AREAS The most important component of a conventional septic tank system is the percolation area. Septic tanks remove most of the suspended solids and grease from the wastewater, but it is in the percolation area that the wastewater is treated. In the conventional percolation trench method, the wastewater is allowed to flow by gravity into a distribution box which distributes the flow evenly into the several distribution pipes in the percolation trenches. Wastewater flows out through orifices in the distribution pipes into a gravel underlay which then distributes it on to the soil, where it undergoes biological, physical and chemical interactions that eliminate or reduce the contaminants. For effective treatment, the wastewater must enter the soil; if the base or walls of the percolation trench are compacted or glazed or otherwise damaged during excavation, they should be scratched with a steel tool such as a rake to expose the natural soil surface. It is equally important that the wastewater remains long enough in the soil; the residence time is controlled by the hydraulic loading and the rate of flow into the sides and base of the trench. 4.2.1 HYDRAULIC LOADING RATES
All materials used in the construction of the works should comply with the requirements of the Building Regulations and the releva n t Technical Guidance Document. 4.1.8 DRAIN FROM HOUSE TO SEPTIC TANK The drain to the septic tank should be at least 100 mm in diameter. It may be of earthenware, concrete, or uPVC or similar materials. It should be jointed to give a watertight drain and should be laid to the minimum gradients listed in Table 11.
TABLE 11: MINIMUM GRADIENTS FOR DRAIN TO

SEPTIC TANK
The percolation rate through the trench base and sidewalls is controlled by the biomat on the floor and sides of the trench rather than by the subsoil itself in the case of all suitable subsoils. The percolation rates, measured as they are on virgin subsoil using clean water, cannot be used for the design of the hydraulic distribution system and length of percolation trench (Figure 2). A loading rate of 20 l/m2.d is recommended to take into account the effect of the biomat. The minimum length of percolation trench required is given in Table 12. e.g. at a loading rate of 20 l/m 2.d and a wastewater use of 180 l/person.d, the invert area of percolation trench required for a 4-person household is 36 m2 . If the width of the invert of the percolation trench is 450 mm, then the length of percolation trench required is 80 m.
Drainpipe Material Earthenware Concrete uPVC
Minimum 1 in 40 1 in 40 1 in 60
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TABLE 12: MINIMUM PERCOLATION TRENCH LENGTH Number of People in the House 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Required Length of Trench (m) 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
4.2.2 GENERAL No wat e rm a i n s , service pipes, access roads, driveways or paved areas should be located within the percolation area. The layout of the distribution pipes should make optimum use of the available site and be consistent with the recommendations in Table 4 and Table 13. Land drainage pipes have narrow slots and are likely to clog; hence they are unsuitable as percolation pipes. A plan and section of a conventional septic tank system layout is given in and a distribution box is detailed in Figure 13 and Figure 14.
TABLE 13: DETAILS OF A TYPICAL PERCOLATION TRENCH Percolation Trench Characteristics Length of distribution pipe in each trench Minimum separation distance between percolation trenches (Figure 13) Diameter of pipe from septic tank Slope of pipe from tank to distribution box Slope of percolation trench from distribution box Distribution (percolation) pipes 20 m maximum 2 m (2.45 m centre to centre) Recommendations
100 mm 1 in 40 for earthenware or concrete, 1 in 60 for uPVC 1 in 200 100 mm bore, perforated (typically at 4,6 and 8 oclock) smooth wall PVC drainage pipes with perforations of 8 mm diameter at about 75 mm centres along the pipe; or pipes with similar hydraulic properties. 450 mm About 800 mm below ground surface depending on site 250 mm of 20-30 mm washed gravel or broken stone aggregate on invert; pipe laid at a 1 in 200 slope surrounded by 20-30mm clean washed gravel or broken stone aggregate and with 150 mm of similar aggregate over pipe; geotextile layer followed by topsoil to ground surface.
Width of percolation trench* Depth of percolation trench (Figure 12) Backfilling of percolation trench (Figure 12)
* any compaction or glazing of the soil surfaces on the invert and sidewalls on the trench should be undone by scratching to expose a natural soil surface with a steel tool such as a steel rake or trowel.
4S
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AND
Ground level Topsoil

Geotextile
300 mm 150 mm 100 mm 250 mm 800 mm
Gravel
Distribution Pipe Base of the percolation trench Gravel
Gravel
450 mm
1200 mm
Unsaturated Suitable Soil
FIGURE 12: SECTION
OF A PERCOLATION TRENCH
Access chamber (for rodding and possible later connection to public sewer) Percolation area 2m 100 mm 7m (min) to septic tank 100 mm Vents 2.45m Distribution box 20 m (max.) length 2.45m
House
10 m (min) to percolation area
PLAN
Eaves vent
Percolation pipework Septic tank Distribution box vents
1 in 40 slope for earthware or concrete: 1 in 60 for uPVC
1 in 200 slope
SECTION
FIGURE 13: PLAN AND SECTION OF A CONVENTIONAL SEPTIC TANK SYSTEM
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100 mm
600 mm
100 mm
100 mm
effluent from tank
Varies to suit site

50 mm 100 mm
Effluent from tank

A A
600 mm
100 mm
100 mm
SECTION
PLAN
FIGURE 14: PLAN AND SECTION OF A TYPICAL DISTRIBUTION BOX 4.3 CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS FOR PERCOLATION PIPES 4.3.1 PERFORMANCE OF WORK INSTALLATION OF THE SYSTEMS AND accessible, and of suitable size (minimum 600 x 600 mm) for maintenance and inspection. 4.3.5 VEGETATION Th e growth of any type of tree or plant which develops an extensive root systems should be limited to a minimum distance of 3 m from the percolation area. This restriction also applies to the cultivation of crops necessitating the use of machinery, likely to disturb the percolation trenches. 4.4 MAINTENANCE OF SEPTIC TANKS AND PERCOLATION AREAS Regular maintenance of the septic tank and percolation area is very important for the satisfactory performance of the system. The septic tank should be desludged a minimum of once per year or when: scum is noticeable in the second chamber of the tank; and/or the depth of sludge in the second compartment is greater than 400 mm.
Earth moving machinery should not circulate over the percolation area after pipework and backfilling of trenches have been completed. Access manholes should be located at ground surface so that they are a c c e s s i bl e. The distribution box (Figure 14) comprises a chamber which divides the effluent from the septic tank equally between the distribution pipes supplying the percolation area. The distribution box must be designed and constructed to ensure equal distribution among the various distribution pipes. If necessary, special fittings may be used to facilitate this. 4.3.2 GENERAL MEASURES FOR TRENCHES PRECAUTIONARY EXCAVATION OF
Earthworks should normally be carried out on dry ground. Trenches should be backfilled as soon as possible after excavation. 4.3.3 INSPECTION OF PERCOLATION PIPES Cutting and drilling of pipes should be clean and smooth. Before installation, the holes in the percolation pipes should be inspected to ensure that they are not blocked. 4.3.4 ACCESS AND INSPECTION Access and inspection covers should be visible and flush with the ground surface without allowing the entry of surface water. All covers should be
The depth of sludge can be checked using the following technique: (i) use a 2 m pole and wrap the bottom 1.2 m with a white rag; (ii) lower the pole to the bottom of the tank and hold there for several minutes to allow the sludge layer to penetrate the rag; and (iii) remove the pole and note the sludge line, which will be darker than the coloration caused by the liquid waste.
4S
EPTIC
AND
The percolation area should be inspected regularly. Signs of ponding indicate blockage or insufficient permeability. 4.4.1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CONVENTIONAL SEPTIC TANK SYSTEMS The advantages of a septic tank and soil percolation system include: easy management; no external power requirements; no noise emissions; natural treatment process yielding a high quality effluent;
4.5 FILTER SYSTEMS As discussed in Chapter 3, apart from a soil percolation area (conventional septic tank system) as already outlined, the wastewater from a septic tank can be treated by the following filter systems: a soil percolation system such as a placed soil often in the form of a mound (intermittent soil filter system) as already outlined; an intermittent sand filter followed by a polishing filter (intermittent sand filter system); an intermittent peat filter followed by a polishing filter (intermittent peat filter system); an intermittent plastic and other media filter followed by a polishing filter (other intermittent media filter systems); or a constructed wetland followed by a polishing filter.
cost effective treatment system; and no need for polishing filter. The disadvantages of a septic tank and soil percolation system include: size of area required; greater depths of subsoil to treat the wastewater relative to other systems; and unsuitable for some subsoil types.
The typical layout for the treatment of wastewater using an intermittent filter or a constructed wetland is illustrated in Figure 15. The site conditions will influence the requirement for pumping the wastewater through the different treatment units; however, intermittent filters and most polishing filters require pumping.
SEPTIC TANK
INTERMITTENT FILTER SYSTEM or CONSTRUCTED WETLAND
POLISHING FILTER**
PUMPING CHAMBER*
PUMPING CHAMBER*
* Pumping is always required for intermittent filters. If the topography or the design permits, gravity systems may be possible for constructed wetlands and polishing filters ** The intermittent filter and the polishing filter may be combined into one unit in certain cases
FIGURE 15: ILLUSTRATION OF AN INTERMITTENT FILTER OR CONSTRUCTED WETLAND SYSTEM
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4.6 SOIL FILTER SYSTEMS 4.6.1 INTERMITTENT SOIL FILTER An intermittent soil filter system is principally applicable to a placed or improved soil with a 1 T/P 50 but can also be used on in situ soil with a top layer removed to accommodate gravel. Wastewater from the septic tank is allowed to flow into a pumping chamber, in which pump and flow controls are housed. The effluent is then pumped intermittently, 3-4 times per day onto a manifold with lateral distribution pipes provided with orifices. These laterals are arranged in parallel and surrounded by a gravel layer, resting on top of the soil that often is a mound but can also be level with ground surface; the gravel distributes the wastewater evenly onto the soil surface. The wastewater dose enters the soil and percolates slowly downwards. If the native in situ soil surrounding the placed soil is a coarse sand or gravel, the percolation soil and gravel overlay should be lined at the sides; if the native in situ soil is impervious, an underlay of gravel with a pumping sump is required to remove the purified effluent to a surface water body e.g. watercourse, for which a discharge licence may be re q u i re d. Hydraulic loading is 4 l/m2.d on the plan area of the soil. The layout and arrangement of the pipework are described in greater detail in Section 4.7 under Sand Filter Systems. 4.6.2 ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF SOIL FILTER SYSTEMS The advantages of soil filter systems include: easy management; high quality effluent; high operational flexibility that can be used for nitrification, denitrification and phosphorus removal; stable treatment process; and no need for a polishing filter.
4.7 SAND FILTER SYSTEMS 4.7.1 INTERMITTENT SAND FILTERS Intermittent sand filter systems can be used to treat wastewater from a septic tank. They are normally used where the soil is unsuitable for a soil p e rc o l ation system. Intermittent sand filters are effective and easy to operate. They require only small areas and are relatively cheap to construct. Two types of intermittent sand filters are commonly used, namely, soil covered and open. Soil covered intermittent sand filters may be underground (Figure 16), part underground and part overground, or overground (Figure 3). The latter two constructions are commonly referred to as mound systems. Open intermittent sand filters are constructed similar to the covered sand filters, but without the soil cover i.e. the gravel distribution layer is exposed at the surface to allow for inspection and periodic maintenance. They are preferably underground with the top of the gravel at ground surface. Intermittent sand filters are single-pass slow sand filters, which support biofilms. They consist of one or more beds of graded sand commonly 600 - 900 mm deep, underlain normally by a layer of filter gravel about 200 mm thick to prevent outwash or piping of the sand. Septic tank wastewater is pumped intermittently 3-4 times per day onto the surface of the sand bed through 25 mm diameter lateral pipes with orifices, embedded in a 200 mm thick layer of d i s t ri bution gravel. In soil covered fi l t e rs , a geotextile is used to separate the soil cover from the distribution gravel. The wastewater from the septic tank flows through the sand bed where it receives treatment. The wastewater treatment takes place under predominantly unsaturated and aerobic conditions. In a soil covered filter, both the distribution gravel over the sand and the drain filter gravel under the sand are vented; the vents are extended vertically above ground or mound level and capped with a cowl or grid. In an open filter only the drain filter gravel is vented. In impervious soils, all surface run-off and seepage from the surrounding soil should be cut off by shallow interceptor drains, the depth of which depends on the depth to the impervious layer. The interceptor drain should be 2 m distant from the edge of the sand filter. These drains comprise land drainage pipes overlain to ground surface with permeable gravel or broken stone aggregate. These i n t e rc eptor drains are brought to the nearest watercourse or stream into which they outfall. In the case of overground sand filters, the collector drains
The disadvantages of soil filter systems include: pumping is required for influent distribution; odours may occur from open filters; and filter may clog giving rise to waterlogging.
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to remove the filtrate are excavated in the soil top layer at appropriate spacings into the top of the impervious layer, piped and backfilled with filter gravel to original ground surface. The wastewater from the intermittent filter is normally collected in a chamber, from where it is discharged to a polishing filter. In some cases, the in situ topsoil underneath the intermittent filter may have sufficient depth (see section 4.11) on its own or with placed imported soil (i.e. site improvement works) to act as a polishing filter. In very permeable (gravelly) sites, the filtrate from the intermittent sand filter, after passing through a polishing filter, may percolate to the groundwater; filter gravel at the base of the sand filter is not required where the polishing filter is directly underneath the intermittent filter. An impermeable liner is used to seal off the sides of the intermittent sand filter to prevent possible bypass into the gravelly soil when the filter is underground; this bypass could occur when a flooding dose is applied to the distribution gravel. Where the polishing filter is offset, the entire intermittent filter must be enclosed in a leak proof liner. 4.7.1.1 DESIGN CRITERIA Sand selection is decided first and is based on grading curve characteristics. Effective grain sizes (D10) for soil covered and open sand filters are in the range 0.7 - 1.0 mm and 0.4 - 1.0 mm respectively
with uniformity coefficients (D60/D10) less than 4 (Table 14). The smaller the effective grain size, the higher the level of tre at m e n t , the lower the permissible hydraulic loading and the more frequent the need for maintenance. The lower the uniformity coefficient, the longer the filter's life-span and the less the potential for elutriation downwards of the finer particles which could result in clogging. All filter gravels must be designed on filter principles after for example, viz.: D15 Filter gravel/D85 Sand < 5; 4 < D 15 Filter gravel/D15 Sand < 20; D50 Filter gravel/D50 Sand < 25, where D15, D50 and D 85 are the particle sizes from a grading curve at 15, 50 and 85% finer by weight ordinates, respectively. 4.7.1.2 LOADING RATES Loading rates vary with the characteristics of the filter sand and the type of design. Rates typically vary from 40 - 100 l/m2.d* . Soil covered filters should have the lowest hydraulic loadings. Higher rates than those above result in impaired wastewater quality and an increase in the frequency of maintenance. Design criteria are shown in Table 14.
* USEPA (1992). Wastewater Treatment/Disposal for Small Communities. Manual No. EPA/625/R-92/005
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Effluent from septic tank
Threaded 100 mm perforated underdrain with 5 mm holes Inspection lid 3 mm holes facing up 25 mm PVC lateral
PLAN
Geotextile Top soil Distribution pipes Inspection/vent Existing ground level
Grass embankment
Sand
900 mm
Filter gravel
75 mm
Clean washed gravel or broken stone
SECTION
FIGURE 16: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A SOIL COVERED INTERMITTENT SAND FILTER FOR AN IMPERVIOUS SOIL
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TABLE 14: DESIGN CRITERIA FOR INTERMITTENT SAND FILTERS Design Factor Effective grain size (D10), mm Uniformity coefficient (D60/D10) Depth of sand filter, m Hydraulic loading, l/m2.d Dosing frequency, no./day USEPA, 1992 4.7.1.3 APPLICATION OF SEPTIC TANK WASTEWATER The wastewater should be applied uniformly to the surface of the filter sand at intervals such that the wastewater completely infiltrates the sand. This allows ample aeration of the filter sand to effect aerobic treatment. Even distribution may be obtained by pumping the wastewater through evenly spaced lateral pipes with evenly spaced orifices embedded in a distribution gravel. Dosing frequencies are related to the type of filter sand. A dosing frequency of 3 - 4 times daily is recommended. Dosing tanks are sized for the maximum daily dose to be used. In a typical design for a 4-person household with a hydraulic loading of 0.72 m3/day using a loading rate of 100 l/m2.d, a plan area of 7.2 m2 of intermittent filter is required. This can be accommodated in a typical layout of 8 number 25 mm diameter lateral pipes each 1.5 m long and spaced 0.6 m apart, and served by a central manifold. Orifices with a diameter of 3 mm are drilled in the lateral pipes at equal spacings of 0.3 m to uniformly distribute the wastewater onto the filter media. The wastewater is pumped onto the intermittent filter in 4 doses, each of 180 litres over a duration of about 2 minutes. 4.7.1.4 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE 4.8 PEAT FILTER SYSTEMS Intermittent sand filters require little control and maintenance. The main tasks are servicing of the dosing equipment,monitoring of the wastewater, and possible maintenance of the sand surface in open sand filters. Soil covered sand filters are expected to work without maintenance throughout their working life. When desludging the septic tank, the pump sump should also be desludged. Fibrous peat filters are used as intermittent open filters to treat septic tank wastewater. The peat fibres are placed in modules and compressed. The thickness or depth of the compressed peat is about 0.7 m and its dry density is about 200 kg/m3. The surface area of one commercial fibrous peat filter is sized at 1 m2/person. The hydraulic loading rate on peat filters varies depending on the type of peat employed. Commercial fibrous peat filters are 4.7.2 ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF SAND FILTER SYSTEMS The advantages of sand filters include: easy management; high quality effluent; high operational flexibility that can be used for nitrification, denitrification and phosphorus removal; and stable treatment process. Soil Covered 0.7 - 1.0 < 4.0 0.6 - 0.9 40 - 60 2-4 Open 0.4 - 1.0 < 4.0 0.6 - 0.9 50 - 100 1-4
The disadvantages of sand filters include: need for a polishing filter; costs are higher than natural percolation areas; pumping is required for influent distribution and in most cases for the distribution of the filtrate to a polishing filter; odours may occur from open filters; and filter may clog giving rise to waterlogging.
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presently designed at hydraulic loading rates in excess of 100 l/m2.d. A layer of lightweight coarse grained aggregate such as shells is placed on top of the peat to promote uniform distribution and minimise disturbance. A pipe distribution network fitted with orifices as illustrated in Figure 16 or a spray irrigation system is used to evenly distribute the wastewater that is pumped from the second chamber of the septic tank or from a plastic sump fitted with a baffle filter, downstream of the septic tank. Each module of a modular unit should be provided with a cover. 4.8.1 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE The surface of the peat filter should be examined periodically for signs of ponding. When desludging the septic tank, the pump chamber should also be desludged. 4.8.2 ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF PEAT FILTER SYSTEMS The advantages of peat filters include: easy management; high quality effluent; high operational flexibility that can be used for nitrification, denitrification and phosphorus removal; and stable treatment process.
4.9 OTHER INTERMITTENT MEDIA FILTER SYSTEMS Other intermittent media filter systems may from time to time be introduced to treat wastewater. Such filter products could include geotextile strips and other media that can be used to attach biofilms. Many, such as geotextile strips will operate in a manner similar to fibrous peat filters while others may employ novel ways to attach biofilms. Where such products are introduced, i n d ep e n d e n t evaluation should be carried out to verify the manufacturers design loadings. Other intermittent media filters should be followed by polishing filters. 4.10 CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS A constructed wetland system is another option used to treat wastewater from a septic tank ( Figure 17 and Figure 18)5. As mentioned in Chapter 1, constructed wetlands can be characterised by the flow path of the wastewater through the system. In horizontal flow constructed wetlands, wastewater is introduced at one end of a flat to gently sloping bed of reeds and flows across the bed to the outfall end. If the surface of the wastewater is at or above the surface of the wetland media, the system is called a free-water surface (FWS) hori zo n t a l - fl ow wetland. If the surface of the wastewater is below the surface of the wetland media, the system is called a sub-surface (SFS) horizontal flow wetland. As it fl ow s , microorganisms attached to the reeds and support media purify the wastewater. The media can consist of soil (free-water surface), gravel or other suitable material. In the vertical-flow wetland (Figure 18), the wastewater is distributed uniformly over, and intermittently onto the media, and gradually drains vertically to a drainage network at the base of the media; as the wastewater drains vertically, air reenters the pores in the media. The media used in the vertical-flow wetland can consist of a layer of sand overlying a laye r o f grave l . The sand must be protected from erosion and piping.
The disadvantages of peat filters include: need for a polishing filter; costs are higher than natural percolation areas; pumping is required for influent distribution and in most cases for the distribution of the filtrate to a polishing filter; odours may occur from open filters; and filter may clog giving rise to waterlogging.
5 Cooper, P.F., Job, G.D., Green, M.B. and Shutes, R.B.E. (1996). Reed beds and constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment. Water Research Centre, Swindon, U.K.
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AND
Phragmites Level surface Roots & Rhizomes
Inlet Typical depth 0.6m Adjustable discharge outlet
Sand & Gravel Gravel

Impervious liner Slope 1%
Gabion inlet zone
FIGURE 17: SUB-SURFACE (SFS) HORIZONTAL FLOW WETLAND

Legend: 1 2 Intermittent dosing pipe 3 Phragmites 4 Sharp sand 6mm washed pea-gravel 12mm round washed gravel 30-60mm round washed gravel
Inlet Solid pipe ~ 80mm Perforated pipe ~ 150mm ~ 100mm ~ 150mm 1 2 3 4 Outlet Graded filter material
liner
drainage pipes
1% slope
FIGURE 18: VERTICAL FLOW WETLAND 4.10.1 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE Constructed wetlands should be inspected weekly. Flow distribution should be carefully examined for channelling and orifice blockage. Sidewalls should be maintained. Rabbits, weeds and plant diseases can cause damage to the reeds. Solids from the wastewater will reduce the pore space in the media especially at the inlet end of a horizontal-flow wetland and it may be necessary to replace some of the media after a period of time. Vegetation growth, flows, and influent and wastewater quality should be monitored. The wetland should be securely fenced off. 4.10.2 DESIGN CRITERIA For a horizontal-flow sub-surface wetland, the plan area (Ap) requirement for BOD removal is about 5 m2/person. The depth of the bed is about 0.6 m placed on a base with a slope of 0.5-2.0%. The width of the constructed wetland can be calculated from the following equation: Ac = Q/( k.i) where Ac is the cross sectional area (m2) of the wetland at the inlet, Q is the average wastewater flow
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rat e ( m3/d), k is the permeability (m/d) of the wetland media and i is the hydraulic gradient equal to the slope of the bed. For a four-person household, Ap is 20 m2; for a wetland media, with a depth of 0.6 m and a permeability of 50 m/d (sand), laid at a gradient of 1%, a suitable width is 2.5 m and the length would then be 8 m. 4.10.3 ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS The advantages of constructed wetlands include: low construction and running costs; easy management; excellent reduction of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) and suspended solids (SS) from septic tank effluents; and secondary benefits in terms of potential wildlife habitat enhancement.
4.11.1 SOIL POLISHING FILTERS Soil polishing filters may comprise in situ soil, improved soil or imported soil. Where grass growth is allowed, there can be a large reduction in NO3-N. These soils should have percolation values (P or T) in the range of 1-50. Dosing may be by gravity or by pumped arrangements. In typical layouts, the polishing filter: (i) may underlie an intermittent filter such as a peat filter with the effluent being spread out over a shallow gravel layer (Figure 19); any exposed polishing filter area may be soil covered and grassed (Option 1); (ii) may underlie or may be offset from a secondary treatment unit; loading may be by a pumped arrangement as in an intermittent sand filter (Figure 20) (Option 2); and (iii)may be offset from the secondary treatment system; loading may be by gravity into percolation trenches (Figure 21) (Option 3). Recommended loading rates for polishing filters are:
The disadvantages of constructed wetlands include: lack of agreed design criteria; need for a polishing filter; systems remain unproven for other than BOD5 and SS removal; security and safety; concern about disease vectors; and difficulty in maintaining uniform distribution of flow at inlet.
up to 20 l/m 2.d for P/T values 1-20; and up to 10 l/m 2.d for P/T values 21-40; and up to 5 l/m 2.d for P/T values 41-50.
4.11.1.1 Option 1- Direct Discharge In the case of spreading the secondary effluent over a polishing filter using a distribution gravel and with direct discharge from the polishing filter to groundwater through soil or bedrock the loading rates on the soil or bedrock should not exceed (Figure 19); 20 l/m2.d for P/T values 1-20, 10 l/m2.d for P/T values 21-40 and 5 l/m2.d for P/T values 4150.
4.11 POLISHING FILTERS All intermittent filter systems, constructed wetlands and mechanical aeration systems (discussed later) require a polishing filter following the secondary treatment stage (Figure 15). The polishing filter can reduce microorganisms, phosphorus, and nitrate nitrogen in otherwise high quality wastewater effluents. Figure 19, Figure 20, Figure 21 and Figure 22 illustrate three possible loading arrangements for polishing filters. Polishing filters may be of two types: soil or sand.
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Secondary treatment unit e.g. intermittent peat filter
Ground Level grassed soil overlay distribution gravel
soil polishing filter (size dependent on P or T value)
to groundwater
FIGURE 19: INTERMITTENT FILTER OVERLYING AND LOADING A SOIL POLISHING FILTER
3 mm holes facing up
Secondary treatment unit
25 mm lateral
pumping chamber Polishing filter
FIGURE 20: SECONDARY TREATMENT UNIT FOLLOWED BY A SOIL 4.11.1.2 Option 2 - Pumped Discharge In the case of hydraulic loading by pumping, in a soil with a P/T value between 21 and 40 the minimum area of polishing filter required for a 4 person household (i.e. 4 x 180 l/person/d) is 0.72m3/0.01m = 72m 2 (9m long x 8m wide). Figure 20 illustrates the loading arrangement for such a soil polishing filter. The treated wastewater from the secondary t re atment unit is pumped to a manifold and distribution pipes provided with 3 mm diameter orifices. The distribution pipes are embedded in a 100-200 mm thick layer of gravel.
POLISHING FILTER
4.11.1.3 Option 3 Gravity Pipe Discharge In the case of loading through percolation trenches with a P/T value of 1-50 (Figure 21), a greater area is required. For trenches 450 mm wide at 2 m spacing the minimum length required for a 4 person household is 64m and the land area is 157m2, based on a P/T value of 21-50 and a loading rate of 25 l/m2.d on the trench base. The loading rate can be increased to 50 l/m2.d for subsoils with a P/T value in the range 1-20. The length of percolation trench for secondary treated wastewater for the different percolation values is give n i n Tabl e 1 5 . Treated wastewater from the secondary filter flows by
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gravity to a distribution box which distributes the flow evenly into the several trenches. All soil polishing filters must have a minimum thickness of 600 mm of free-draining unsaturated soil between the point of infiltration of the effluent and the water table and bedrock. They may be at ground surface or partially or totally above ground surface (Figure 3). Where the native soil at the site
is impervious, a graded gravel layer with drains should underlie the polishing filter and these drains should outfall to a watercourse or stream. Where a polishing filter is constructed in contact with a very permeable gravel or sand stratum in the soil and is pressure dosed into a surface gravel layer, the sides of the filter must be enclosed by an impervious liner to prevent bypass of flooding doses directly to the groundwater.
2.45 m Secondary treatment unit Gravity flow
Vents
Percolation trench Distribution box
FIGURE 21: SECONDARY TREATMENT UNIT FOLLOWED BY A PERCOLATION TRENCH
TABLE 15: MINIMUM TRENCH LENGTHS IN A SOIL POLISHING FILTER Estimated maximum number of people in the house based on number of bedrooms Required length of trench* (m) for T/P values 21-50 (loading at 25 l/m 2.d) 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 Required length of trench* (m) for T/P values 1-20 (loading at 50 l/m 2.d) 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
* 450 mm trench
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4.11.2 SAND POLISHING FILTERS
EPTIC
AND
Sand polishing filters comprise stratified sand filters ( Figure 22 and Figure 23)6. In a typical layout, three layers of sand decreasing in coarseness with depth are separated from each other by thin layers of washed pea-sized gravel. The surface layer comprises a pea-sized gravel, e.g. 10-20 mm gravel aggregate of 100 mm thickness in which pressure distribution pipes are placed overlain by a geotextile and soil cover. The gravel layer serves to distribute the secondary effluent evenly over the underlying sand layer. The top layer of sand is a 200 mm thick layer of 0.4 - 1.4 mm coarse sand with a D10 of 0.56 mm and a uniformity coefficient of 1.7. This rests
on a 75 mm layer of pea-sized gravel. The middle sand layer is 100 mm of medium-fine sand 0.2-0.7 m m w i t h a D10 of 0.29 mm and a uniformity coefficient of 1.7. This layer rests on a 75 mm la yer of pea-sized gravel. The bottom sand layer is a 200 mm layer of fine sand 0.1-0.5 mm with a D10 of 0.18 mm and a uniformity coefficient of 1.7. This layer rests on a 100 mm layer of pea-sized gravel, which is underlain by a laye r o f graded gravel in which drainage pipes are placed. A thin (50 mm) layer of sand below the graded gravel protects the liner from damage. The hydraulic loading should not exceed 60 1/m2.d. The filter can be soil covered and sown with grass.
3 mm holes facing up
Secondary treatment unit
25 mm lateral
pumping chamber Sand polishing filter
FIGURE 22: SECONDARY TREATMENT UNIT FOLLOWED BY A SAND POLISHING FILTER 100 mm distribution gravel (10-20 mm) 200 mm sand (0.4-1.4 mm); D10 = 0.56 75 mm pea gravel (10-20 mm) 100 mm sand (0.2-0.7 mm); D10 = 0.29 75 mm pea gravel (10-20 mm) 200 mm sand (0.1-0.5 mm) D10 = 0.18 100 mm pea gravel (5-10 mm) 150 mm graded gravel (5-30 mm) 50 mm sand (0.2-0.7 mm); D10 = 0.29 FIGURE 23: SCHEMATIC CROSS SECTION OF A SAND
POLISHING FILTER
4.11.3 PAST EXPERIENCE (DESK STUDY) All intermittent filter systems, constructed wetlands and mechanical aeration systems require a polishing filter following the secondary treatment stage. The polishing filter produces a high quality effluent. The advice provided above allows effluent from a polishing filter to discharge to ground provided the subsoil has a P/T value less than 50. Otherwise the discharge must be directed to surface water and a licence obtained from the local authority. However, where previous experience (Desk study) suggests, that a subsoil with a T/P value greater than 50 will not result in ponding, consideration may be given in such circumstances to permit the effluent to discharge to ground. In any case, where soil is used as the polishing filter (as an alternative to a stratified sand filter), such soil must have a T/P value in the range 1-50.
6 Nichols, D.
J., Wolf, D. C. Gross,M. A.,and Rutledge, E. M., Renovation of Septic Effluent in a Stratified Sand Filter". ASTM STP 1324. American Society for Testing and materials, 1997.
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5. MECHANICAL AERATION SYSTEMS
ECHANICAL
AERATION SYSTEMS 51
5.1 GENERAL Mechanical aeration systems may be used to treat wastewater from a dwelling house where a site is unsuitable for a conventional septic tank system or they may be used as an alternative to septic tank systems on suitable sites. The effluent from all mechanical aeration systems should be treated on a polishing filter. Many systems are available on the market and include the following: biofilm aerated filter (BAF) systems; rotating biological contactor (RBC) systems; and sequencing batch reactors (SBR).
units, with all chambers in one unit. BAF systems are normally constructed in either glass reinforced plastic (GRP), concrete or steel. The BAF system is a biofilm system. The microorganisms are attached to the filter media in the secondary treatment stage. The media normally have a high specific surface area (m2/m3) and can consist of plastic modules or a granular material. Where granular media are used the system may require backwashing to prevent clogging of pore spaces. The required surface area of the media can be determined using an organic loading rate of 5 g BOD/ m2.d of settled sewage. For a single house with 4 persons,the required area is about 32 m2 based on a per capita loading of 40 g BOD/d of settled sewage. Normally the BAF system provides carbonaceous oxidation but can be designed to provide nitrification. Grease should not be allowed to enter the aerated zone. 5.2.1 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE In the case of BAF systems the owner normally takes out a maintenance contract with the manufacturer. This is advisable due to the high level of skill necessary to service and maintain pumps and compressors. BAF systems require desludging, and a properly designed BAF system should provide for adequate sludge storage capacity in the primary settlement compartment. Sludge levels should never be allowed to rise, as any entry of sludge into the media compartment will cause problems. All mechanical and electrical components require periodic checking. In many cases, manufacturers install an alarm system to alert the owner of malfunction. 5.2.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Mechanical aeration systems should be assessed under the following headings: Costs: these should include the capital, running and maintenance costs; Experience with proposed system: information sought from other users should include: durability of the components of the system; ease of operation and inspection; and frequency of maintenance. Appendix C contains an evaluation form which should be completed to compare the available on-site treatment systems. 5.2 BAF SYSTEMS Biofilm aerated filter (BAF) systems can be used to t re at wastewater from single dwellings. A BAF system may consist of a primary settlement tank, an aerated submerged biofilm filter and a secondary settlement tank. Solids are sometimes returned from the secondary settlement chamber to the primary settlement chamber to facilitate desludging and to avoid sludge rising due to denitrification. There should be adequate sludge storage capacity in the p ri m a ry settlement chamber. Normally BAF systems which are used to treat wastewater from single dwellings can be purchased as prefabricated
In terms of treating wastewater from single dwellings, the BAF system offers the following advantages: ease of operation; low noise level; can function under conditions of shock loading, which are common in single dwelling situations;
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possibility of nitrification and denitrification if properly designed; and low fly nuisance.
5.3.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES The advantages of an RBC system for use in single dwelling situations include: ability to function under conditions of shock loading, which is common in single house situations; low noise levels; no fly nuisance; low head loss through the system; and possibility of nitrification and denitrification, if properly designed.
Disadvantages include: need for a polishing filter; package plants may have small sludge storage volumes that could lead to overloading of the biofilm; pumps and compressor, which are usually required, will need skilled maintenance; and grease, if allowed to enter the aeration zone may cause problems with media.
Disadvantages include: 5.3 RBC SYSTEMS A rotating biological contactor (RBC) system consists of a primary settlement tank, a secondary treatment compartment and a secondary settlement tank. In this system the microorganisms are attached to an inert media surface and the inert media are mounted on a shaft that is turned by an electric motor. These media are partially submerged in the wastewater. A biofilm develops on the media over time; it is this biofilm which treats the wastewater. The settled sludge in the secondary settlement tank is sometimes returned to the primary settlement tank. There should be adequate sludge storage capacity in the primary settlement chamber. RBC units can be purchased as packaged treatment units for single dwellings; these units normally contain all three compartments in one unit. The required surface area of the media can be determined using an organic loading rate of 5 g BOD/ m2.d of settled sewage. For a single house with 4 persons, the required media surface area is about 32 m2 based on a per capita loading of 40 g BOD/d of settled sewage. Grease should not be allowed to enter the contactor zone. 5.3.1 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE In the case of the RBC system, the owner normally takes out a maintenance contract with the m a nu fa c t u re r. A properly designed RBC system should provide for adequate sludge storage capacity in the primary settlement compartment. RBC systems require desludging. All mechanical and electrical components require periodic checking. The structural condition of the RBC unit should be checked periodically. Any unusual noise from the unit should be investigated. need for a polishing filter; package plants may have small sludge storage volume that could lead to overloading of the biofilm; grease, if allowed to enter the contactor zone may cause problems by coating the media; and skilled personnel are required to service and maintain motor and pumps.
5.4 SEQUENCING BATCH REACTOR The sequencing batch reactor (SBR) process is a form of activated sludge treatment in which aeration, settlement, and decanting can occur in a single reactor. The process employs a five-stage cycle: fill, react, settle, empty and rest. Wastewater enters the reactor during the fill stage; typically, it is aerobically treated in the react stage; the biomass settles in the settle stage; the supernatant is decanted during the empty stage; sludge is withdrawn from the reactor during the rest stage; and the cycle commences again with a new fill stage. For single house systems the reactor is preceded by a primary settlement tank. Grease should not be allowed to enter the reactor. Critical components of an SBR system include the aeration/mixing process, the decant process, and the control process. SBR systems are capable of producing a high-quality effluent. They can be modified to remove nitrogen and phosphorus. Since the SBR system provides batch treatment of
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ECHANICAL
AERATION SYSTEMS 53
TABLE 16: DESIGN CRITERIA FOR THE SBR PROCESS* Parameter Total tank volume Number of tanks Solids retention time (days) Aeration system Cycle times (hr) wastewater, it can accommodate wide variations in flow rates that are typically associated with single houses. The SBR technology is well established in other countries. Design criteria for the SBR process are summarised in Table 16. 5.4.1 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE In the case of the SBR system, the owner normally takes out a maintenance contract with the m a nu fa c t u re r. A properly designed SBR system should provide for adequate sludge storage capacity in the primary settlement compartment. SBR systems require desludging. All mechanical and electrical components require periodic checking. The structural condition of the SBR unit should be checked periodically. Any unusual noise from the unit should be investigated. 5.4.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SEQUENCING BATCH REACTORS SBR systems have the following advantages: simple and reliable; ideally suited for wide flow variations; high quality wastewater achievable; and high operational flexibility, which can be used for nitrification, denitrification and phosphorus removal. Recommended minimum distances of separation of mechanical aeration treatment systems should be as listed in Tabl e 4 . The recommended minimum distances from wells should satisfy the requirements of the groundwater protection response, which should have been reviewed during the desk study. In some cases, the requirements of the groundwater protection scheme may be greater than the distances set out in Table 4. All mechanical aeration systems require desludging, usually, at yearly intervals and Range 0.5 - 2.0 times average daily flow Typically 2 or more 20 - 40 Sized to deliver sufficient oxygen during aerated fill and react stage 4-12 (typical) reactor; need for a polishing filter; package plants may have small sludge storage volume that could lead to overloading of the system; pumps and valves are used and these require skilled maintenance; and grease may cause problems if allowed to enter the reactor.
5.5 OTHER TREATMENT SYSTEMS Other treatment systems may be introduced from time to time to treat wastewater. Such systems include other activated sludge systems, membrane bioreactors and composting units. Where such products are introduced independent eva l u at i o n should be carried out to verify the manufacturers design loadings. In addition, the evaluation criteria set out in Appendix C should be consulted. Polishing filters should typically follow such systems to reduce micro-organisms to re q u i re d levels. 5.6 LOCATION OF MECHANICAL AERATION SYSTEMS
SBR systems have the following disadvantages: complex control system; frequent sludge wasting required in the
* USEPA, 1992
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provision should be made for access for a sludge tanker. 5.7 POLISHING FILTERS FOR MECHANICAL AERATION SYSTEMS The treated wastewater from mechanical aeration systems should be treated in a polishing filter system, the primary purpose of which is to reduce microorganisms numbers in the treated wastewater to required levels. If the mechanical aeration system
does not produce an outflow with a low BOD and suspended solids concentrations, the polishing filter may clog. Polishing filter systems should be designed in accordance with the procedures outlined in 4.11Polishing Filters. A typical layout for the treatment of wastewater using a mechanical aeration system is illustrated in Figure 24.
MECHANICAL AERATION SYSTEM
POLISHING FILTER
PUMPING CHAMBER* * If the topography or the design permits, gravity systems may be possible.
FIGURE 24: MECHANICAL AERATION AND POLISHING FILTER SYSTEM
REFERENCES
AND
FURTHER READING 55
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Cooper, P.F., Job, G.D., Green, M.B. and Shutes, R.B.E. (1996). Reed beds and constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment. Water Research Centre, Swindon, U.K. Department of Environment and Local Government, Environmental Protection Agency, Geological Survey of Ireland (1999). Groundwater Protection Schemes. Geological Survey of Ireland, Dublin. Department of Environment and Local Government, Environmental Protection Agency, Geological Survey of Ireland (2000). Groundwater Protection Responses for On-site Systems for Single Houses. Geological Survey of Ireland, Dublin. EPA (1999). Wastewater Treatment Manuals: Treatment Systems for Small Communities, Business, Leisure Centres and Hotels. Mulqueen J., Rodgers M., Hendrick E., Keane M., McCarthy R., (1999). Forest Drainage Engineering. COFORD Dublin. Nichols, D. J., Wolf, D. C. Gross, M. A., and Rutledge, E. M., (1997). Renovation of Septic Effluent in a Stratified Sand Filter. ASTM STP 1324. American Society for Testing and materials,. US EPA, (1992). Wastewater Treatment/Disposal for Small Communities , Manual No. EPA/625/R92/005.
56
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GLOSSARY
Biofilm: a thin layer of microorganisms and organic polymers attached to a medium such as soil, sand, peat, and inert plastic material; a treatment system normally consisting of a primary settlement tank, an aerated biofilm and, possibly, a secondary settlement tank. The system is similar to the conventional percolating filter system except that the media are commonly submerged and forced air is applied; BOD is a measure of the rate at which microorganisms use dissolved oxygen in the biochemical breakdown of organic matter in wastewaters under aerobic conditions. The BOD 5 test indicates the organic strength of a wastewater and is determined by measuring the dissolved oxygen concentration before and after the incubation of a sample at 20C for five days in the dark. An inhibitor may be added to prevent nitrification from occurring; a biologically active layer that covers the bottom and sides of percolation trenches and penetrates a short distance into the percolation soil. It includes complex bacterial polysaccharides and accumulated organic substances as well as microorganisms;
Biofilm aerated filter (BAF):
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD):
Biomat:
Chemical oxygen demand COD is a measure of the amount of oxygen consumed from a chemical oxidising (COD): agent under controlled conditions. The COD is generally greater than the BOD as the chemical oxidising agent will often oxidise more compounds than microorganisms; Constructed wetlands (CW): a wastewater treatment system which includes a septic tank, providing mainly primary treatment, followed by a wetland system supporting vegetation, which provides secondary treatment by physical and biological means. Constructed wetlands are also used for tertiary treatment; a wastewater treatment system that includes a septic tank mainly for primary treatment, followed by a percolation system in the soil providing secondary and tertiary treatment; a chamber between the septic tank and the percolation area, arranged to distribute the tank wastewater, in approx i m at e ly equal quantities, through all the distribution pipes leading from it; control measures, conditions or precautions recommended as a response to the acceptability of an activity within a groundwater protection zone as set out in the DELG/EPA/GSI document Groundwater Protection Responses for On-site Systems for Single Houses ; a scheme comprising two main components: a land surface zoning map which encompasses the hydrogeological elements of risk and a groundwater protection response for different activities; the occurrence of reddish/brown spots or streaks in a matrix of dark grey soil; the reddish/brown spots or streaks are due to intermittent aeration and the grey colours may be due to anaerobic conditions; mainly composed of proteins, carbohydrates and fats. Most of the organic matter in domestic wastewater is biodegradable. A measure of the biodegradable organic matter can be obtained using the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) test;
Conventional septic tank system:
Distribution box:
Groundwater protection response:
Groundwater protection scheme:
Mottling:
Organic Matter:
GLOSSARY 57
Pathogenic Organisms:
these potential disease producing microorganisms can be found in domestic wastewaters. Organisms, such as E. coli, and Faecal streptococci, with the same enteric origin as the pathogens are used to indicate whether pathogens may be present or not in the wastewater; a filter system consisting of peat used to treat wastewater from a primary settlement tank (usually a septic tank) by biological and physical means; unconfined groundwater separated from an underlying body of groundwater by an impervious or perching layer; a wastewater treatment system consisting of primary settlement and biological treatment (effected by distributing the settled liquid onto a suitable inert medium to which a biofilm attaches) followed by secondary settlement; a system consisting of trenches with pipes and gravel aggregates, installed for the purpose of receiving wastewater from a septic tank or other treatment device and transmitting it into soil for final treatment and disposal. This system is also called a drain field, seepage field or bed, distribution field, subsurface disposal area, or the treatment and disposal field; a generic term used to describe the process whereby water movement follows favoured routes through a porous medium bypassing other parts of the medium. Examples include, pores formed by soil fauna, plant root channels, weathering cracks, fissures and/or fractures; a contactor consisting of inert plastic modules mounted in the form of a cylinder on a horizontal rotating shaft. Biological wastewater treatment is effected by biofilms that attach to the modules. The biological contactor is normally preceded by primary settlement and followed by secondary settlement; a filter system consisting of sand used to treat wastewater from a primary settlement tank (usually a septic tank) by biological and physical means; the material which settles in the bottom of the primary/secondary settlement tank;
Peat filter:
Perched water table:
Percolating filter system:
Percolation area (soil absorption system)
Preferential flow
Rotating biological contactor (RBC):
Sand filter:
Sludge:
Soil structure:
the combination or arrangement of individual soil particles into definable aggregates, or peds, which are characterised and classified on the basis of size, shape, and degree of distinctiveness; the relative proportion of various soil components, including sands, silts, and clays, that make up the soil layers at a site; the upper layer of soil in which plants grow; the soil material beneath the topsoil and above rock; includes all suspended matter, both organic and inorganic. Along with the BOD concentration, SS is commonly used to quantify the quality of a wastewater; mass concentration of the sum of Kjeldahl (organic and ammonium nitrogen), nitrate and nitrite nitrogen; mass concentration of the sum of organic and inorganic phosphorus;
Soil texture:
Soil (topsoil): Subsoil: Suspended solids (SS):
Total nitrogen:
Total phosphorus
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Trench:
also referred to as a percolation trench, means a ditch into which a single percolation pipe is laid, underlain and surrounded by gravel. The top layer of gravel is covered by soil; a soil in which some pores are not filled with water; these contain air; the discharge from sanitary appliances, e.g. toilets, bathroom fittings, kitchen sinks, washing machines, dishwashers, showers etc.; the level of the surface of the groundwater in a trial hole or other test hole.
Unsaturated soil: Wastewater:
Water table:
APPENDIX A 59
APPENDIX A: SITE CHARACTERISATION FORM

1.0 GENERAL DETAILS (From planning application)
PLANNING APPLICATION Ref. no.: NAME & ADDRESS OF APPLICANT:
SITE LOCATION AND TOWNLAND: TELEPHONE NO: MAXIMUM NO. OF RESIDENTS: PROPOSED CAPACITY OF SEPTIC TANK (litres) (if applicable): PROPOSED WATER SUPPLY: (tick as appropriate)
mains
FAX NO: NO. OF DOUBLE BEDROOMS:
E-MAIL: NO. OF SINGLE BEDROOMS:
NUMBER OF CHAMBERS:
private well/borehole group well/borehole
2.0 DESK STUDY

Soil type: Subsoil type: Vulnerability class: Bedrock type: Aquifer type: Groundwater protection response:
Presence of significant sites (archaeological, natural and historical):
Zoning in county development plan: Past experience in the area:
Comments: (Integrate the information above in order to comment on: the potential suitability of the site, potential targets at risk, and/or any potential site restrictions).
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Sketch of site showing measurement to Trial Hole location and Percolation Test Hole locations, wells and direction of groundwater flow, proposed house (incl. distances from boundaries) adjacent houses, watercourses, significant sites and other features. North point should always be included. [A copy of the site layout drawing should be used if available]
APPENDIX A 61
3.0 ON-SITE ASSESSMENT 3.1 Visual Assessment

TOPOGRAPHY: LANDSCAPE: GEOLOGY: SLOPE: STEEP (>1:5) SHALLOW (1:5-1:20)
RELATIVELY FLAT (<1:20)
SURFACE FEATURES: OUTCROPS HOUSES DITCHES* WELLS* SPRINGS KARST FEATURES ROADS WATERCOURSE* LAKES/SURFACE WATER PONDING/ BEACHES/SHELLFISH AREAS/WETLANDS SITE BOUNDARIES EXISTING LAND USE * note water level LOCAL DRAINAGE: TYPE OF VEGETATION: GROUND CONDITION: COMMENTS: (Integrate the information above in order to comment on: the potential suitability of the site, potential targets at risk, the suitability of the site to treat the wastewater and the location of the proposed system within the site).
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3.2 Trial Hole

Hole should be approximately 1m x 0.75m in plan and a minimum of 2.1 m deep Depth of Trial Hole (m): Date and time of Excavation: Date and time of Examination:
Depth from ground surface to bedrock (m): Depth from ground surface to water table (m): Soil type: Subsoil type: Additional Soil/Subsoil Information 0.1 m 0.2 m 0.3 m 0.4 m 0.5 m 0.6 m 0.7 m 0.8 m 0.9 m 1.0 m 1.1 m 1.2 m 1.3 m 1.4 m 1.5 m 1.6 m 1.7 m 1.8 m 1.9 m 2.0 m 2.1 m 2.2 m 2.3 m 2.4 m 2.5 m Other information (e.g. depth of water ingress) Texture Structure Bulk density Colour* Preferential flowpaths
* All
signs of mottling should be recorded
APPENDIX A 63
3.3 Percolation Test

Type of test: T-Test or P-Test
Percolation Test Hole Depth from ground surface to top of hole (mm) (A) Depth from ground surface to base of hole (mm) (B) Depth of hole (mm) [B - A] Dimensions of hole [length x breadth (mm)]
Each hole must be pre-soaked twice before the test is carried out (from 10.00 am to 5.00 pm and from 5.00 pm to next morning) Date of test: Date pre-soaking started: Time filled to 400 mm Time water level at 300 mm Percolation Test Hole No. Fill no. Start Time (at 300 mm) 1 2
Finish Time (at 200 mm)
t (min)
Start Time (at 300 mm)
Finish Time (at 200 mm)
t (min)
1 2 3 Average t Average t/4 = [Hole No.1] _____(t1) T value = (t 1 + t2)/2 =_______(min/25 mm) Result of Test : Comments: T= Average t Average t/4 = [Hole No.2] _____(t2)
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4.0 CONCLUSION:
(Integrate the information from the desk study and on-site assessment (i.e. visual assessment, trial hole and percolation tests) above and conclude the type of system that is appropriate. This information is also used to choose the optimum final disposal route of the treated wastewater).
Suitable for (delete as appropriate):

(a) septic tank and soil percolation system (b) septic tank and intermittent filter system and polishing unit; or septic tank and constructed wetlands and polishing unit
(c) mechanical aeration system and polishing unit and SUITABLE for discharge to surface water/groundwater (delete as appropriate)
5.0 RECOMMENDATION:
Propose to install:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
and discharge to surface water/groundwater (delete as appropriate)
Signed: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Date of Report: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phone: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fax:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E-mail: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.0 VERIFICATION (by Local Authority):
Site visit
Date:
Inspection of Trial Hole
Date:
Inspection of Percolation Test Holes
Date:
Comments
SIGNED:
Date:
APPENDIX B 65
APPENDIX B: PERCOLATION TESTS

The percolation test comprises the measurement of the length of time for the water level in the percolation test hole to fall from a height of 300 mm to 200 mm above the base of the hole. PERCOLATION TEST (T Test) PROCEDURE Day 1: Two percolation test holes should be dug in the proposed percolation area. Each hole should be 0.3 m x 0.3 m and 0.4 m deep below the proposed invert level of the distribution pipe (Figure 25). The bottom and sides of the hole should be scratched with a knife or wire brush to remove any compacted or smeared soil surfaces and to expose the natural soil surface. Clear water should be carefully poured into the hole at about 10.00 am so as to fill it to the full height of 0.4 m. The water should then be allowed to percolate. At about 5.00 pm the hole should once again be filled to the full height of 0.4 m and allowed to percolate overnight. Day 2: The hole should be filled with clear water at about 10.00 am and the water should be allowed to drop such that there is 0.3 m of water in the hole. Thereafter, the time in minutes required for the water to drop 100 mm, that is from 0.3 to 0.2 m, in the hole should be recorded. The hole should then be refilled to the 0.3 m level again and the water allowed to drain to the 0.2 m level and the time again recorded. The filling and measurement of the percolation rate through the hole should be repeated two times three tests in all. The average value in minutes of the three recordings should then be divided by 4 to give the time required for a fall of 25 mm or the percolation value "t". The same procedure should be repeated in the second hole in the percolation area. TEST RESULTS The time for the 25 mm drop ("t") for each of the test results in the percolation area should be averaged to give the value "T". A proposed percolation area whose "T" value is less than 1 or greater than 50 should be deemed to have failed the test.
Ground level
proposed invert of distribution pipe
Invert of pipe
Water level 0.4 m 0.3 m
0.3 m square
FIGURE 25: PERCOLATION TEST HOLE
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PERCOLATION TEST (P Test) FOR SOIL POLISHING FILTERS To establish the percolation value for soil polishing filters and to determine the discharge route for secondary treated effluent where shallow subsoils exist, a modification of the percolation test as described above is required. The test procedure is identical to that outlined above but in this situation the trial hole dimensions should be 0.3 m x 0.3 m and 0.4 m deep below the ground surface (Figure 26). To avoid confusion with the previous test, this test is called a P type percolation test and the values are referred to as P values. TEST RESULTS The time for the 25 mm drop ("t") for each of the test results in the percolation area should be averaged to give the value "P". A proposed percolation area whose "P" value is less than 1 or greater than 50 should be deemed to have failed the P test.
Ground surface
Water level 0.4 m 0.3 m
0.3 m square
FIGURE 26: PERCOLATION TEST HOLE FOR SHALLOW SOILS
APPENDIX C 67
APPENDIX C: EVALUATION OF TREATMENT SYSTEMS

Factor Capital cost Construction costs prior to delivery Additional costs prior to commissioning Annual running cost /annum Installation and commissioning service available Maintenance agreement available Cost of annual maintenance agreement Design criteria* Performance - % reduction in BOD, COD, TSS Performance - % reduction Total P and Total N Performance - % reduction Faecal coliforms Beneficial uses of the receiving water Guarantee available AGRMENT certification Recommendations from other users Expected life of the system Power requirements kW/d Power requirements single phase/three phase Ease of operation Daily, weekly and annual maintenance requirements Licence required (Water Pollution Act Licence) Access requirements for sludge removal Sludge storage capacity (m 3) * in the case of biofilm systems the organic and hydraulic loading rates in g/m 2.d and l/m 2.d respectively should be quoted Treatment Option No. 1 Treatment Option No. 2
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APPENDIX D: SOIL/SUBSOIL CLASSIFICATION CHART

START HERE:
Rub moist Soil/Subsoil between thumb and fingers
Soil Classification (Soil Scientist or Agricultural) YES OR Sand
Subsoil Classification (Geotechnical)2 SAND
Range of T values 1-5
Sandy and rasping sound?
NO
Loamy Sand
silty or clayey SAND
6 - 10
Slighty sandy, faint rasping sound? NO Smooth soapy feel, no grittness? NO Very smooth, slighty sticky to sticky? NO Very smooth, sticky to very sticky? NO
YES
Sandy Loam 1
very sandy SILT
6 - 30
YES
Silt Loam
clayey, sandy SILT
31 - 50
YES
Clay loam
silty, sandy CLAY
>50
YES
Clay
CLAY
>50
START again or soil is organic
1 Loam:A soil composed of a mixture of sand, silt and clay such that the properties of no one group dominate its characteristics is called a Loam. 2
Classification system used in BS 5930:1981.
APPENDIX D 69
APPENDIX E: INDICATOR PLANTS OF DRAINAGE

The following illustrate plants which: indicate dry conditions throughout the year (good drainage); and indicate wet conditions through the year (poor drainage).
Some of the plates below illustrate the plants in flower, this aspect should be ignored. Plants in flower, or otherwise, do not change their indicator status. Note that an alder is a tree.
DRY CONDITIONS
Creeping Thistle
Bracken
Common Ragwort
WET CONDITIONS
Alder
Soft Rush Big
Iris
USER COMMENT FORM

NOTE: Completed comments to be forwarded to: The Environmental Management and Planning Division, Environmental Protection Agency, P.O. 3000, Johnstown Castle Estate, Wexford. Document Title: Wastewater Treatment Manuals: Treatment Systems for Single Houses
____________________________________________________________________________________ CONTENTS:
____________________________________________________________________________________ STYLE:
____________________________________________________________________________________ INFORMATION:
____________________________________________________________________________________ SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE EDITIONS:
____________________________________________________________________________________
NAME................................................................... ORGANISATION.......................................................
ADDRESS.....................................................................................................................................................
DATE.............................................. PHONE ....................................... FAX...........................................

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WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANUALS

TREATMENT SYSTEMS for SINGLE HOUSES

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

Environmental Protection Agency 2000

WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANUALS TREATMENT SYSTEMS FOR SINGLE HOUSES

Published by the Environmental Protection Agency, Ireland.

1 84095 022 6 IR15.00 19.05

2. SITE CHARACTERISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

3. TREATMENT OPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

4. SEPTIC TANKS, PERCOLATION AREAS AND OTHER FILTER SYSTEMS 31

WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANUALS TREATMENT SYSTEMS

5. MECHANICAL AERATION SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANUALS TREATMENT SYSTEMS FOR SINGLE HOUSES

WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANUALS TREATMENT SYSTEMS

viii WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANUALS TREATMENT SYSTEMS

WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANUALS TREATMENT SYSTEMS

1.4 SEPTIC TANK SYSTEMS 1.4.1 CONVENTIONAL SYSTEM SEPTIC TANK

Manhole cover with ventilation

Manhole cover with ventilation

FIGURE 1: A TYPICAL SEPTIC TANK

WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANUALS TREATMENT SYSTEMS

initial operation - no biomat

Biomat formation (Order of weeks)

FIGURE 2: ILLUSTRATION OF BIOMAT FORMATION ON THE BASE OF A PERCOLATION TRENCH

Geotextile Distribution gravel

Washed gravel Top soil Filter sand

filter gravel or permeable soil

Gravel, fractured bedrock, high water table or impervious soil

WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANUALS TREATMENT SYSTEMS

Horizontal flow wetland

Vertical flow wetland

FILTER SYSTEM AND POLISHING FILTER

MECHANICAL AERATION SYSTEM AND POLISHING FILTER

FILTER SYSTEM /MECHANICAL AERATION SYSTEM AND POLISHING FILTER

CONVENTIONAL SEPTIC TANK SYSTEM

FIGURE 5: SELECTING AN ON-SITE TREATMENT SYSTEM FOR A SINGLE HOUSE

WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANUALS TREATMENT SYSTEMS

WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANUALS TREATMENT SYSTEMS

TABLE 4: MINIMUM SEPARATION Type of system Watercourse/ Wells/ stream springs*

Any Site Road Dwelling boundary

Slope breaks/ cuts

WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANUALS TREATMENT SYSTEMS

50% Clay 30% Sand 20% Silt

FIGURE 6: SOIL CLASSIFICATION CHART

Typical Percolation Rate * 1-5 6 - 10 6 - 30 31 - 50**

WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANUALS TREATMENT SYSTEMS

FIGURE 7: TYPES OF SOIL STRUCTURE ILLUSTRATED

FIGURE 8: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRUCTURE TYPE AND WATER MOVEMENT

WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANUALS TREATMENT SYSTEMS

300 mm 150 mm 100 mm 250 mm 2000 mm

Gravel 450 mm Unsaturated Subsoil

Structure of unsaturated soil/subsoil

Colour of unsaturated soil/subsoil

* upper limit of 50 may be reviewed depending on experience.

WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANUALS TREATMENT SYSTEMS

Depth of the water table

WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANUALS TREATMENT SYSTEMS

Desk DeskStudy study

Archaeological Archaeological site, NHA

On-site On-site Assessment Assessment

Site may not be suitable for any onsite system Fail

Conventional septic tank system

Intermittent filter system

Mechanical aeration system