What follows is the first paragraph of Chapter 29 of John Steinbeck's famous novel The Grapes of Wrath, first published

in 1939. As you read this paragraph, see if you can identify all the prepositional phrases used by Steinbeck to convey the dramatic return of rain after a long, painful drought. When you're done, compare your results with the second version of the paragraph (on page two), in which prepositional phrases are highlighted in

Original Paragraph by John Steinbeck

Over the high coast mountains and over the valleys the gray clouds marched in from the ocean. The wind blew fiercely and silently, high in the air, and it swished in the brush, and it roared in the forests. The clouds came in brokenly, in puffs, in folds, in gray crags; and they piled in together and settled low over the west. And then the wind stopped and left the clouds deep and solid. The rain began with gusty showers, pauses and downpours; and then gradually it settled to a single tempo, small drops and a steady beat, rain that was gray to see through, rain that cut midday light to evening. And at first the dry earth sucked the moisture down and blackened. For two days the earth drank the rain, until the earth was full. Then puddles formed, and in the low places little lakes formed in the fields. The muddy lakes rose higher, and the steady rain whipped the shining water. At last the mountains were full, and the hillsides spilled into the streams, built them to freshets, and sent them roaring down the canyons into the valleys. The rain beat on steadily. And the streams and the little rivers edged up to the bank sides and worked at willows and tree roots, bent the willows deep in the current, cut out the roots of cotton-woods and brought down the trees. The muddy water whirled along the bank sides and crept up the banks until at last it spilled over, into the fields, into the orchards, into the cotton patches where the black stems stood. Level fields became lakes, broad and gray, and the rain whipped up the surfaces. Then the water poured over the highways, and cars moved slowly, cutting the water ahead, and leaving a boiling muddy wake behind. The earth whispered under the beat of the rain, and the streams thundered under the churning freshets. NOTE: gray (American English for grey)

correct Over the high coast mountains and over the valleys the gray clouds marched in from the ocean. The wind blew fiercely and silently, high in the air, and it swished in the brush, and it roared in the forests. The clouds came in brokenly, in puffs, in folds, in gray crags; and they piled in together and settled low over the west. And then the wind stopped and left the clouds deep and solid. The rain began with gusty showers, pauses and downpours ; and then gradually it settled to a single tempo, small drops and a steady beat, rain that was gray to see through, rain that cut midday light to evening. And at first the dry earth sucked the moisture down and blackened. For two days the earth drank the rain, until the earth was full. Then puddles formed, and in the low places little lakes formed in the fields. The muddy lakes rose higher, and the steady rain whipped the shining water. At last the mountains were full, and the hillsides spilled into the streams, built them to freshets, and sent them roaring down the canyons into the valleys. The rain beat on steadily. And the streams and the little rivers edged up to the bank sides and worked at willows and tree roots, bent the willows deep in the current, cut out the roots of cotton-woods and brought down the trees. The muddy water whirled along the bank sides and crept up the banks until at last it spilled over, into the fields, into the orchards, into the cotton patches where the black stems stood. Level fields became lakes, broad and gray, and the rain whipped up the surfaces. Then the water poured over the highways, and cars moved slowly, cutting the water ahead, and leaving a boiling muddy wake behind. The earth whispered under the beat of the rain, and the streams thundered under the churning freshets.

1. - EXERCISE

sentence combining

This exercise will introduce you to sentence combining--that is, organizing sets of short, choppy sentences into longer, more effective ones. However, the goal of sentence combining is not to produce longer sentences but rather to develop more effective sentences--and to help you become a more versatile writer. Sentence combining calls on you to experiment with different methods of putting words together. Because there are countless ways to build sentences, your goal is not to find the one "correct" combination but to consider different arrangements before you decide which one is the most effective. An Example of Sentence Combining Let's consider an example. Start by looking at this list of eight short (and repetitive) sentences:

She was our Latin teacher. We were in high school. She was tiny. She was a birdlike woman. She was swarthy. She had dark eyes. Her eyes were sparkling. Her hair was graying. Now try combining those sentences into three, two, or even just one clear and coherent sentence: in the process of combining, omit repetitive words and phrases (such as "She was") but keep all of the original details.

Answers Have you succeeded in combining the sentences? If so, compare your work with these sample combinations: 1. Our Latin teacher in high school was a tiny woman. She was swarthy and birdlike. She had dark, sparkling eyes and graying hair. 2. When we were in high school, our Latin teacher was a tiny woman. She was swarthy and birdlike, with dark, sparkling eyes and graying hair. 3. Our high school Latin teacher was a swarthy, birdlike woman. She was tiny, with dark, sparkling eyes and graying hair. 4. Our Latin teacher in high school was a birdlike woman, tiny and swarthy, with graying hair and dark, sparkling eyes.

Remember, there's no single correct combination. In fact, there are usually several ways to combine sentences in these exercises. After a little practice, however, you'll discover that some combinations are clearer and more effective than others. If you're curious, here is the sentence that served as the original model for this little combining exercise: Our high school Latin teacher was a tiny, birdlike woman, swarthy, with sparkling dark eyes, graying hair. (Charles W. Morton, It Has Its Charm) An unusual combination, you might say. Is it the best version possible?

Evaluating Sentence Combinations After combining a set of sentences in a variety of ways, you should take time to evaluate your work and decide which combinations you like and which ones you don't. You may do this evaluation on your own or in a group in which you will have a chance to compare your new sentences with those of others. In either case, read your sentences out loud as you evaluate them: how they sound to you can be just as revealing as how they look. Here are six basic qualities to consider when you evaluate your new sentences: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Meaning. As far as you can determine, have you conveyed the idea intended by the original author? Clarity. Is the sentence clear? Can it be understood on the first reading? Coherence. Do the various parts of the sentence fit together logically and smoothly? Emphasis. Are key words and phrases put in emphatic positions (usually at the very end or at the very beginning of the sentence)? Conciseness. Does the sentence clearly express an idea without wasting words? Rhythm. Does the sentence flow, or is it marked by awkward interruptions? Do the interruptions help to emphasize key points (an effective technique), or do they merely distract (an ineffective technique)?

These six qualities are so closely related that one can't be easily separated from another. The significance of the various qualities--and their interrelationship--should become clearer to you as you practice the combining exercises on this site.

2. - EXERCISE Adding Adjectives and Adverbs to the Basic Sentence Unit

In

this exercise we will apply the basic strategies outlined in Introduction to Sentence Combining. Combine the sentences in each set into a single clear sentence containing at least one adjective or adverb (or both). Omit words that are needlessly repeated, but don't leave out any important details. After you have completed the exercise, compare your new sentences with the original ones. Keep in mind that many combinations are possible, and in some cases you may prefer your own sentences to the original versions. 1. Willie had a beard and a moustache. The beard was bushy. The beard was long. The moustache was droopy. 2. The man handed me a photograph of a woman. He did this silently. The man was old. The woman was beautiful. 3. The man handed me a photograph of a woman. The photograph was torn. The photograph was faded. The woman was young. 4.The photograph brought back memories. The memories were brought back instantly. The memories were fine. The memories were old. 5. The photograph of the woman brought back memories. The memories were brought back instantly. The woman was beautiful. The woman was young. The photograph was torn. The photograph was faded. The memories were fine. The memories were old.

SAMPLE COMBINATIONS: 1. Willie had a long, bushy beard and a droopy moustache. 2. Silently, the old man handed me a photograph of a beautiful woman. 3. The man handed me a torn and faded photograph of a young woman. 4. The photograph instantly brought back fine old memories. 5. The torn and faded photograph of a beautiful young woman instantly brought back fine old memories.

3. - EXERCISE Adding Adjectives and Adverbs to the Basic Sentence Unit

As shown in Basic Sentence Structures, a common way of expanding a simple sentence is with modifiers--words that add to the meanings of other words. The simplest modifiers are adjectives and adverbs. Adjectives modify nouns, while adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. For instance, in the sentence below, the adjective sad modifies the noun smile (the subject of the sentence). The clown's sad smile touched us deeply. In this same sentence, the adverb deeply modifies the verb touched. Used carefully, adjectives and adverbs can make our writing clearer and more precise. Arranging Adjectives Adjectives most often appear just in front of the nouns that they modify: The old, cranky caretaker refused to answer our questions. Notice that when two (or more) adjectives precede a noun, they are usually separated by commas. But occasionally adjectives follow the nouns they modify: The caretaker, old and cranky, refused to answer our questions. Here the commas appear outside the pair of adjectives, which are joined by the conjunction and. Placing the adjectives after the noun is a way of giving them added emphasis in a sentence. Adjectives sometimes appear in a third position in a sentence: after a linking verb such as am, are, is, was, or were. As their name implies, these verbs link adjectives with the subjects they modify.

See if you can identify the adjectives in the sentences below: His voice was rough. Your children are cruel. This seat is wet. In each of these sentences, the adjective (rough, cruel, wet) modifies the subject but follows the linking verb (was, are, is). Arranging Adverbs Adverbs usually follow the verbs they modify: I dance occasionally. However, an adverb may also appear directly in front of the verb or at the very beginning of a sentence: I occasionally dance. Occasionally I dance. Because not all adverbs are this flexible in all sentences, you should try them out in different positions until you find the clearest arrangement. Practice in Adding Adjectives Many adjectives are formed from nouns and verbs. The adjective thirsty, for example, comes from thirst, which may be either a noun or a verb. Complete each sentence below with the adjective form of the italicized noun or verb. When you're done, compare your answers with those at the end of the exercise. 1. In 2005, Hurricane Katrina brought great destruction to the Gulf coast. It was one of the most _____ hurricanes in recent decades. 2. All of our pets enjoy good health. Our collie is exceptionally _____, despite its advanced age. 3. Your suggestion makes a great deal of sense. You have a very _____ idea.

4. Microsoft made record profits last year. It is one of the most _____ companies in the world. 5. Dr. Kraft's job requires patience and skill. He is a _____ negotiator.

Answers 1. destructive; 2. healthy; 3. sensible; 4. profitable; 5. patient.

Practice in Adding Adverbs Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective. The adverb softly, for instance, comes from the adjective soft. Note, however, that not all adverbs end in -ly. Very, quite, always, almost, and often are some of the common adverbs that are not formed from adjectives. Complete each sentence below with the adverb form of the italicized adjective. When you're done, compare your answers with those at the end of the exercise. 1. The exam was easy. I passed _____.

2. Leroy's careless act set the warehouse on fire. He _____ tossed a cigarette into a tank of gasoline. 3. . 4. Paige is a brave little girl. She fought _____ against the poltergeists Howard is a graceful dancer. He moves _____.

5. Tom's apology sounded quite sincere. He said that he was _____ sorry for misusing the tax funds.

Answers 1. easily; 2. carelessly; 3. bravely; 4. gracefully; 5. sincerely.

4. - EXERCISE If you have read our Introduction to Sentence Combining, you're now ready to try combining sentences to form a complete paragraph. What follows are the opening two paragraphs of the essay "New York Is a City of Things Unnoticed," by Gay Talese (first published in 1960 and recently collected in The Gay Talese Reader, Walker, 2003). Read these paragraphs to get a sense of the author's subject and style. Then complete the exercise, which consists of 23 sentences arranged in seven sets. Be guided by the sets (the sentences in each may be combined into a single sentence), but don't be restricted by them. Feel free to combine the sets or to make two or more sentences out of one set. You may rearrange the sentences in any fashion that seems suitable. from "New York Is a City of Things Unnoticed" by Gay Talese New York is a city of things unnoticed. It is a city with cats sleeping under parked cars, two stone armadillos crawling up St. Patrick's Cathedral, and thousands of ants creeping on top of the Empire State Building. The ants probably were carried up there by wind or birds, but nobody is sure; nobody in New York knows any more about the ants than they do about the panhandler who takes taxis to the Bowery; or the dapper man who picks trash out of Sixth Avenue trash cans; or the medium in the West Seventies who claims, "I am clairvoyant, clairaudient, and clairsensuous." New York is a city for eccentrics and a center for odd bits of information. New Yorkers blink twenty-eight times a minute, but forty when tense. Most popcorn chewers at Yankee Stadium stop chewing momentarily just before the pitch. Gum chewers on Macy's escalators stop chewing momentarily just before they get off--to concentrate on the last step. Coins, paper clips, ballpoint pens, and little girls' pocketbooks are found by workmen when they clean the sea lions' pool at the Bronx Zoo. 1. A saxophone player stands on the sidewalk. He stands there each afternoon. He is in New York. He is rather seedy. He plays Danny Boy. 2. He plays in a sad way. He plays in a sensitive way. He soon has half the neighborhood peeking out of windows. They toss nickels, dimes, and quarters at his feet. 3 Some of the coins roll under parked cars. Most of them are caught in his hand. His hand is outstretched.

4. The saxophone player is a street musician. He is named Joe Gabler. 5. He has serenaded every block in New York City. He has been serenading for the past thirty years. He has sometimes been tossed as much as $100 a day. This $100 is in coins.

6. He is also hit with buckets of water. He is hit with beer cans. The cans are empty. He is chased by wild dogs . 7. He is believed to be the last of New York's ancient street musicians.*

*Notice that the seventh set contains just one sentence. Because most paragraphs are made up of both long and short sentences, you will sometimes find one-sentence sets in the exercises. You have the choice of either copying these sentences just as they are or combining them with the sentences in another set.

Combination A A rather seedy saxophone player stands on the sidewalk each afternoon in New York playing Danny Boy. He plays in such a sad, sensitive way that he soon has half the neighborhood peeking out of windows tossing nickels, dimes, and quarters at his feet. Some of the coins roll under parked cars, but most of them are caught in his outstretched hand. The saxophone player, Joe Gabler, is a street musician. He has serenaded every block in New York for the past thirty years, and he has sometimes been tossed as much as $100 a day in coins. He is also hit with buckets of water and empty beer cans and eggs, and he is chased by wild dogs. He is believed to be the last of New York's ancient street musicians. Combination B Each afternoon in New York a rather seedy saxophone player stands on the sidewalk playing Danny Boy in such a sad and sensitive way that he soon has half the neighborhood peeking out of windows tossing nickels, dimes, and quarters at his feet. Some of the coins roll under parked cars, but most of them are caught in his outstretched hand. The saxophone player is a street musician named Joe Gabler; for the past thirty years he has serenaded every block in New York and has sometimes been tossed as much as $100 a day in coins. He is also hit with buckets of water, empty beer cans and eggs, and chased by wild dogs. He is believed to be the last of New York's ancient street musicians. Combination C Each afternoon in New York a rather seedy saxophone player, Joe Gabler, stands on the sidewalk playing Danny Boy in a sad and sensitive way. For the past thirty years he has serenaded every block in New York and has sometimes been tossed as much as $100 a day in nickels, dimes, and quarters. Some of the coins roll under parked cars, but most of them are caught in his outstretched hand. He is also hit with buckets of water, empty beer cans and eggs, and chased by wild dogs. Joe Gabler is believed to be the last of New York's ancient street musicians.

Evaluating Combinations As seen in our Introduction to Sentence Combining, we can evaluate our combined sentences according to the same criteria that we use to judge our own writing: meaning, clarity, coherence, emphasis, conciseness, and rhythm. Let's briefly consider the effectiveness of the three combinations just seen. Most readers would agree that paragraphs A, B, and C are fairly clear, concise, and smooth. The seven sentences in paragraph A follow the order of the seven sets in the exercise; the sentences are logically ordered and clearly related to one another. Paragraph B is similar to A, but here there are just five sentences as a result of joining sets 1 and 2 and sets 4 and 5. Paragraph C also contains five sentences, but the information has been rearranged, and a couple of details have been omitted. As it happens, Combination B appears in Gay Talese's original essay. That makes it good-but not the only "correct" answer. 6. EXERCISE Prepositional Phrase Instructions: Expand each sentence below by adding one or more prepositional phrases that answer the question(s) in parenthesis.

The cat jumped and pounced. (What did the cat jump off of? What did the cat pounce on?) The cat jumped off the stove and pounced on the gerbil. There are countless ways to expand each sentence.

1.

The students laughed. (What did the students laugh at?) The man tripped. (What did the man trip over?) Visitors arrived yesterday. (Where were the visitors from?)

2. 3.

Here are sample answers to the sentence-expanding exercise Keep in mind that countless versions of each sentence are possible. 1. 2. The students laughed at the monkey on a scooter. The man tripped over his own feet.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Visitors from the Disney World arrived yesterday. The candles on the handles of my bicycle flickered. Gus hid the candy bar in a dirty sock. Last night I watched a YouTube video about green kangaroos. Sid sat in a tub of Jell-O with his cat. The teacher spoke to the principal about a pay raise. The spaceship from Pluto landed in the desert.

Practice Exercise: Building & Combining Sentences with Adverb Clauses Combine the sentences in each set below by turning the sentence(s) in bold into an adverb clause. Begin the adverb clause with an appropriate subordinating conjunction. When you are done, compare your new sentences keeping in mind that multiple combinations are possible.

Example: Sailors wear earrings. The earrings are made of gold. Sailors always carry the cost of a burial. They carry the cost on their own bodies.

Combination 1: So that they always carry the cost of a burial on the bodies, sailors wear gold earrings. Combination 2: Sailors wear gold earrings so that they always carry the cost of a burial on their bodies. 1. It is unlikely that Cleopatra actually committed suicide with an asp. The species is unknown in Egypt. 2. The boy hid the mouse. No one would ever find it. 3. Our neighbors installed a swimming pool. The pool is in their backyard. They have gained many new friends. 4. My parents and I watched in awe. We watched on a hot August evening. Erratic bolts of lightning illuminated the sky. The bolts of lightning were from a distant storm. 5. Benny played the violin. The dog hid in the bedroom The dog whimpered. 6. Natural rubber is used chiefly to make tires and inner tubes. It is cheaper than synthetic rubber. It has greater resistance to tearing when wet. 7. A Peruvian woman finds an unusually ugly potato. She runs up to the nearest man. She smashes it in his face. This is done by ancient custom. 8. Credit cards are dangerous. They encourage people to buy things. These are things that people are unable to afford. These are things that people do not really need. 9. I kissed her once. I kissed her by the pigsty. She wasn't looking. I never kissed her again. She was looking all the time. 10. Some day I shall take my glasses off. Some day I shall go wandering. I shall go out into the streets. I shall do this deliberately. I shall do this when the clouds are heavy. I shall do this when the rain is coming down. I shall do this when the pressure of realities is too great.

answers 1. Because the species is unknown in Egypt, it is unlikely that Cleopatra actually committed suicide with an asp.

It is unlikely that Cleopatra actually committed suicide with an asp. The species is unknown in Egypt. 2. The boy hid the mouse where no one would ever find it. The boy hid the mouse. No one would ever find it. 3. Since our neighbors installed a swimming pool in their backyard, they have gained many new friends. Our neighbors installed a swimming pool. The pool is in their backyard. They have gained many new friends. 4. On a hot August evening, my parents and I watched in awe as erratic bolts of lightning from a distant storm illuminated the sky. My parents and I watched in awe. We watched on a hot August evening. Erratic bolts of lightning illuminated the sky. The bolts of lightning were from a distant storm. 5. Whenever Benny played the violin, the dog hid in the bedroom and whimpered. Benny played the violin. The dog hid in the bedroom The dog whimpered. 6. Natural rubber is used chiefly to make tires and inner tubes because it is cheaper than synthetic rubber and has greater resistance to tearing when wet. Natural rubber is used chiefly to make tires and inner tubes. It is cheaper than synthetic rubber. It has greater resistance to tearing when wet. 7. By ancient custom, when a Peruvian woman finds an unusually ugly potato, she runs up to the nearest man and smashes it in his face. A Peruvian woman finds an unusually ugly potato. She runs up to the nearest man. She smashes it in his face. This is done by ancient custom. 8. Credit cards are dangerous because they encourage people to buy things that they are unable to afford and do not really need. Credit cards are dangerous. They encourage people to buy things.

These are things that people are unable to afford. These are things that people do not really need. 9. I kissed her once by the pigsty when she wasn't looking and never kissed her again although she was looking all the time.

I kissed her once. I kissed her by the pigsty. She wasn't looking. I never kissed her again. She was looking all the time. (Dylan Thomas, Under Milk Wood)Some day, when the clouds are heavy, and the rain is coming down and the pressure of realities is too great, I shall deliberately take my glasses off and go wandering out into the streets, never to be heard from again. Some day I shall take my glasses off. Some day I shall go wandering. I shall go out into the streets. I shall do this deliberately. I shall do this when the clouds are heavy. I shall do this when the rain is coming down. I shall do this when the pressure of realities is too great.