Combustion and Flame 138 (2004) 295303 www.elsevier.

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Experimental investigation of combustion in porous heating burners

Jia F. Liu 1 , Wen H. Hsieh
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Chung Cheng University, Chia-Yi, Taiwan, Republic of China Received 14 October 2002; received in revised form 4 June 2004; accepted 10 June 2004 Available online 8 July 2004

Abstract The combustion characteristics of liqueed petroleum gas inside porous heating burners have been investigated experimentally under steady-state and transient conditions. Cooling tubes were embedded in the postame region of the packed bed of a porous heating burner. The ame speed, temperature prole, and [NOx ] and [CO] in the product gases were monitored during an experiment. Due to the heat removal by the cooling tubes, a phenomenon termed metastable combustion was observed; this is that only one ame speed exists at a particular equivalence ratio for maintaining stable combustion within the porous bed of the porous heating burner. This behavior is quite different from that of porous burners without cooling tubes, in which an extended range of ame speeds usually is found for maintaining stable combustion. After metastable combustion has been established in a porous heating burner, a change in the equivalence ratio will stop the metastable combustion and drive the ame out of the packed bed. From the steady-state results, the porous heating burner was shown to maintain stable combustion under fuel-lean conditions with an equivalence ratio lower than the ammability limit of a normal free-burning system. The ame speed in a porous heating burner was found to decrease with an increase in the length of the porous bed. Combustion within a porous heating burner has the features of low ame temperature, extended reaction zone, high preheating temperature and low emissions of NOx and CO. The ame temperature ranged from 1050 to 1250 C, which is 200 C lower than the adiabatic ame temperature at the corresponding equivalence ratio. The length of the reaction zone could be more than 70 mm and the preheating temperature ranged from 950 to 1000 C. Both [NOx ] and [CO] were low, typically below 10 ppm. 2004 The Combustion Institute. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Combustion; Porous media; Experimental measurements; Burners; Emissions; Meta-stable

1. Introduction Combustion in inert porous materials has recently attracted attention, due to its clean and highly efcient characteristics [1,2]. In the porous heating burner studied in this work, a working medium ows in the cooling tubes embedded in the postame region of the inert porous bed of the burner. The working medium absorbs heat released from burning the mixture of

* Corresponding author. Fax: 886-5-2720589.

E-mail address: imewhh@ccunix.ccu.edu.tw (W.H. Hsieh). 1 Current address: SIC Electronics Co. Ltd., Hsinchu 303, Taiwan, Republic of China.

0010-2180/$ see front matter 2004 The Combustion Institute. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.combustame.2004.06.003

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fuel and air. The heated working medium could be utilized in various applications, such as water or air heaters, boilers, and uidic chemical heaters. Due to the heat-sink effect caused by the presence of cooling tubes in the porous bed of a porous heating burner, the combustion characteristics of such a burner are unique and different from those in a porous burner without cooling tubes. In such a porous burner, due to the highly conductive nature of the porous bed and strong radiative emission from the solid matrix, signicant amounts of energy are fed back from the ame zone to preheat the unburned mixture of fuel and air. This strong feedback mechanism confers several advantages over a free-burning burner (a burner without porous material), including so-called excess enthalpy burning by Weinberg [3] and others [48], increased ame speed [912], extended limits for a stable ame [7,8,12,13], reduced NOx and CO emissions [10,1420] and applications of the porous burner [21,22]. In a porous heating burner, the strong feedback of heat, as well as most of the above-mentioned advantages of porous burners, is retained. The working medium owing in the cooling tubes, however, absorbs a large portion of the heat of combustion and therefore changes the heat balance in the burner and introduces so-called metastable combustion; i.e., only one stable ame speed can be achieved at a particular equivalence ratio to maintain stable combustion within the porous bed of the burner. This phenomenon is quite different from porous burners without cooling tubes, where usually an extended range of stable ame speeds can be achieved at any equivalence ratio to maintain stable combustion [68,1012, 23,24]. In the past, metastable combustion phenomena have not been observed or reported. Furthermore, detailed temperature proles in porous heating burners have not been measured. Xiong and Viskanta [25] have studied some other combustion processes experimentally in porous heating burners. The effects of excess air, ring rate, the spacing between the cooling tubes, and the material in the porous bed on the heat transfer rate, ue gas temperature, emissions, and thermal efciency were reported. These measurements were later used to verify theoretical models [2629]. In this work, the temperature prole in a packed bed of ceramic beads, the NOx and CO emissions, and the ame speed were measured under steady-state and transient conditions. The reported transient combustion processes help to elucidate metastable combustion in porous heating burners. In addition, the temperature prole provides valuable information for understanding combustion, as well as for validating theoretical models and computer codes.

2. Experimental approach In this work, an experimental setup was designed and assembled to study steady-state and transient combustion in porous heating burners. The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1 and includes a porous heating burner, a fuel and air supply system, a temperature measurement system, and gas emission analyzers. As shown in Fig. 1, two layers of bricks thermally insulated the main body of the porous heating burner. The inner layer of insulating bricks formed a square combustion chamber (153 153 mm) for the porous heating burner. The height of the combustion chamber was 750 mm. The two layers of bricks and the air gap between them provided thermal insulation. The combustion chamber was separated into two portions by a ceramic honeycomb grate. Upstream of the grate was a ow-straightening section (45 mm long) and a 10-mm-long ignition section. Ceramics beads were packed with cooling water tubes (diam. 6.35 mm) in the ow-straightening section, which enhanced the mixing of fuel and air, straightened the ow, and prevented ash backs. Downstream of the grate was the combustion and heat-exchange section, which was further divided into three layers. The length of the rst layer (L1) was varied systematically in this study (133, 108.3, and 60 mm), while the length of the third layer was kept constant at 102 mm. The second layer (91 mm long), where two rows of cooling water tubes were embedded, was packed with ceramic beads (diam. 7.7 mm). Ceramic beads with smaller diameter used in the second layer improved heat transfer. Water owing in the cooling tubes absorbed the heat of combustion. Three fans were installed at the end of the combustion chamber for venting the off-gases. The honeycomb grate (length 50 mm) was not only used to support ceramic beads in the combustion and heat-exchange section, but also served as a owstraightening device for the mixture of unburned fuel and air. Liqueed petroleum gas (LPG) was used as fuel. It had an enthalpy of 9.74 104 kJ/m3 and contained 41.97 mol% propane, 25.79 mol% butane, 18.23 mol% propylene, 3.92 mol% butane, 3.75 mol% ethane, and other minor species. The owrates of LPG and air were controlled by needle valves and measured with turbine ow meters. The mass owrate was calculated from the simultaneously measured owrate, pressure and temperature. Measurements of temperature prole within the combustion and heat-exchange section were performed with 24, 36, or 40 R-type thermocouples (thickness 0.127 mm) according to the length of the rst layer of the combustion and heat-exchange section. The thermocouples were positioned at 27 mm

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Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of experimental setup.

from the inner surface of the insulating bricks, and on the axis of the combustion chamber. Temperatures were recorded with a Fluke 2635A data acquisition system connected to a personal computer. The temperature of the exhaust gases was measured with K-type thermocouples (diam. 3.2 mm) 350 mm downstream of the grate. The ambient pressure was measured with a pressure gauge (Wallace & Tiernan, accuracy 0.066%). The exhaust gases were sampled with a ceramic probe positioned in the gas region, 10 mm downstream of the third layer of the combustion and heatexchange section. The gas sample was pretreated to remove moisture before it was analyzed. The [NOx ] was measured using a chemiluminescent analyzer (Eco Physics CLD70E), whose error included zero-

point noise (0.1 ppm), zero-point drift (0.2 ppm), and uncertainty of linearity (2%). The CO concentration was measured using a nondispersive IR analyzer (Siemens Utramat 23), whose error included zeropoint error (2 ppm) and uncertainty of linearity (2%).

3. Experimental procedure To establish metastable combustion in a porous heating burner is not an easy task. It requires a special operating procedure to establish a metastable state. Fig. 2 shows the typical time histories of temperature and equivalence ratio from ignition to a steady-state condition during a combustion test. The entire event

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Fig. 2. Typical time histories of temperature and equivalence ratio from ignition to steady-state condition in a porous heating burner (L1 = 108.3 mm).

shown in Fig. 2 can be divided into the following four processes: (1) Ignition (time = 180 s) of the fuel-rich mixture of LPG and air was achieved with a pilot ame. (2) Burner heating-up period (time = 1801800 s). During this period, the ame remained in the ignition section and the temperature in the porous heating burner increased continuously. To avoid a ashback caused by a temperature rise in the burner, the equivalence ratio was continuously reduced by increasing the owrate of air. (3) Adjustment of ame location (time = 1800 s). When the temperature 7 mm away from the grate in the combustion and the heat-exchange sections reached 900950 C, a further increase in the owrate of air forced the ame to move downstream to the rst layer of the combustion and heat-exchange section. After the ame had moved, the temperature in the ignition section gradually decreased from 1400 to 200 C. (4) Adjustment of equivalence ratio and steady-state combustion (time = 18006000 s). After the ame had moved to the rst layer, the equivalence ratio was adjusted to a desired value. In the meantime, the temperature in the combustion and heat-exchange section increased continuously, and then reached a steady-state value. It was observed that the ame front at the rst layer of the combustion and heat-exchange section remained

stably at a location of 3545 mm away from the grate. In this work, the porous heating burner was considered to be in a steady state when the uctuation of each measured temperature, including every location inside the burner and exhaust gases, was less than 1 C/min. The process of reaching a steady state usually took about 3 h as discussed above. Once the porous heating burner had reached the steady-state condition, the temperature proles in the burner were very stable. For instance, in an experiment where the length of the rst layer of the combustion and heatexchange section was 60 mm (ring rate = 7.63 kW, = 0.461), the temperature uctuations were between 1.1 and 4.1 C at various measurement locations in the combustion and heat-exchange section during a 2000-s time period of a steady-state condition. The temperature uctuation was 6.1 C for the exhaust gas. To ensure the repeatability of combustion in a porous heating burner, the temperature proles within the porous burner were measured and examined in four repeated experiments under identical operating conditions, in which the ring rate was 7.53 0.04 kW, = 0.440 0.003, and the length of the rst layer was 108.3 mm. The repeatability was very good. Among the four repeated experiments, the maximum temperature differences in the combustion and heat-exchange section varied between 2.8 to 10.5 C.

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The maximum temperature differences for the ame region and exhaust gases were 5.8 and 6.8 C, respectively. In order to study transient processes related to metastable combustion in porous heating burners, a set of transient combustion tests were also conducted. Thus, the porous heating burner was rst operated in a steady-state condition following the above procedure, and then the air owrate was suddenly changed and maintained at the changed value afterwards. The ring rate was held constant when the air owrate was changed. The transient traces of temperature versus time and [NOx ] and [CO] were recorded as in the steady-state tests.

4. Results and discussion 4.1. Effect of ring rate on temperature prole The effect of ring rate on the temperature prole inside the porous heating burner is shown in Fig. 3. The origin on the abscissa represents the position of the grate. Each curve corresponds to a temperature prole at a specied ring rate. As shown in Fig. 3, the ame front indicated by the maximum temperature on each curve was located 35 mm away from the grate independent of ring rate. The temperature within the region between 35 and 108 mm decreased slowly in the ow direction. The temperature prole

was observed to change gradient at 108 mm and then decrease signicantly near the rst row of cooling tubes. This change in gradient is believed to be caused by the combined effect of the end of combustion at 108 mm and the cooling effect of the cooling tubes. The region between 35 and 108 mm, where combustion occurred, is considered to be the ame zone. Beyond the second row of cooling tubes, the temperature decreases became smaller. The overall shape of temperature prole did not signicantly change when the ring rate was decreased. Instead, the whole prole moved downwards as the ring rate was decreased. Due to the rapid heat-transfer in porous materials, a porous heating burner features a low ame temperature, a long ame zone, and a high preheating temperature. The maximum ame temperature observed in Fig. 3 ranged from 1040 to 1220 C. This low ame temperature resulted in a very low emission of NOx . On the other hand, the porous burners featured an extended ame zone longer than 70 mm, as shown in Fig. 3. This long ame zone helped to decrease the generation of CO. The temperature of the mixture of fuel and air at the very beginning of the preheating zone reached 950 C or even 1000 C at a higher ring power. At these temperatures the premixed fuel and air will autoignite, so that the preheat section becomes the only stage of the ame. Such a high preheat temperature also indicated that a significant fraction of the heat of combustion generated in the ame zone was transferred upstream to preheat

Fig. 3. Effect of ring rate on the temperature prole inside the porous heating burner (L1 = 133 mm).

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Table 1 Comparison of measured ame temperature and adiabatic ame temperature Equivalence ratio, Measured maximum Adiabatic ame ame temperature, C temperature, C 0.598 0.575 0.535 0.509 0.472 1216 1120 1163 1124 1046 1437 1393 1320 1263 1188

the mixture of fuel and air in the preheating zone. This high regenerative heat feedback provided enough preheating energy for maintaining stable combustion of a fuel of low enthalpy. In a porous burner without cooling tubes, an excess enthalpy of burning has been reported [1,48], i.e., the ame temperature is higher than the adiabatic ame temperature, caused by the high regenerative heat feedback with porous materials. In the porous heating burner studied in this work, the water in the cooling tubes, however, absorbs a large amount of heat and reduces the ame temperature signicantly. Table 1 compares the measured ame temperatures given in Fig. 3 with the calculated adiabatic ame temperatures using CEC 86/76 [30]. It will be noted from Table 1 that the measured ame temperatures are 200 C lower than the adiabatic ame temperatures for various equivalence ratios. This indicates that some type of low-temperature combustion occurred in the porous heating burner. The detailed mechanism of low-temperature combustion needs further investigation. 4.2. Effect of ame speed on NOx and CO emissions In this work, the ame speed is dened as the average velocity in the ow direction of the mixture of fuel and air entering the ame zone. It was calculated as the ratio of the total volumetric owrate of fuel and air to the product of the cross sectional area of the chamber and the porosity of porous material. The effects of ame speed on the [NOx ] and [CO] in the exhaust were shown in Fig. 4. The accuracy of the measured [CO] was 3 ppm (not shown in Fig. 4), which is primarily attributed to the accuracy of the analyzer. The [CO] was observed to uctuate during the period of stable combustion. Thus, the measured average value of [CO] over a period of 1000 s stable combustion was reported in Fig. 4. Fig. 4 shows that [CO] decreased as the ame speed increased. This is due to the fact that more complete combustion was achieved in a hotter reaction zone with a higher ame speed. A thicker rst layer gave a longer residence time for fuel to burn in the high temperature area, consequently resulting in reduced [CO].

Fig. 4. Correlation between ame speed and NOx , CO emissions. (All data are corrected to 3% O2 .)

Fig. 5. Correlation between ame speed and equivalence ratio.

On the other hand, the NOx emission was observed to increase with ame speed. The hotter ame zone at a higher ame speed caused the higher [NOx ]. Since the NOx emission curves for two different lengths of rst layer in Fig. 5 were within the experimental error, it was difcult to draw any conclusion about the effect of the length of packed bed on the generation of NOx . 4.3. Metastable combustion and effect of equivalence ratio on ame speed The correlation between equivalence ratio ( ) and ame speed for maintaining stable combustion within the packed bed of the burner is shown in Fig. 5. It was observed that the ame speed increased with for all three burners, i.e., with the rst layer of the

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Fig. 6. Measured transient temperature proles after the equivalence ratio was changed from 0.394 to 0.286. (L1 = 108.3 mm, ring rate = 7.62 kW.)

combustion and heat-exchange section having different lengths. The length of the rst layer was seen to affect the correlation between the equivalence ratio and the ame speed. For longer rst layers, the ame speed is lower at the same equivalence ratio. Fig. 5 also shows a unique feature of porous heating burners. At a particular equivalence ratio, there is only one ame speed for maintaining stable combustion within the packed bed of the porous heating burner adopted in this work. As mentioned in the introduction, this unique phenomenon is termed metastable combustion. During a test, if the owrate of fuel and air is either higher or lower than the stable ame speed, no stable combustion can be maintained in the porous bed of a porous heating burner. In order to elucidate metastable combustion, a series of transient combustion tests was conducted. The transient temperature proles and [NOx ] and [CO] were recorded during a transient combustion test, conducted by either increasing the airs owrate (toward the fuel-lean condition) or decreasing the owrate of air (towards the fuel-rich condition). The measured transient temperature proles and [NOx ] and [CO] are given in Figs. 6 and 7, respectively. Fig. 6 shows the measured transient temperature proles when was rapidly decreased from 0.394 to 0.286 at time 0 by suddenly increasing the owrate of air. The ame zone (high-temperature region) started to move downstream and became narrower. For example, at time 800 s, the high-temperature region was

located between 36 and 108 mm; at time 1000 s, between 45 and 108 mm, and at time 1200 s, between 56 and 108 mm. The movement downstream was caused by the sudden increase in the owrate. The reduced length was caused by the combined effect of the ame moving downstream and the blockage of the ame by the cooling tubes at 108.3 mm away from the grate. Due to the fact that the length of the ame zone region was reduced as time increased, the heat of combustion was released in a more concentrated region, which resulted in a higher maximum temperature, as shown in Fig. 6. The temperatures in the second layer, the third layer and exhaust gas were also observed to increase as time passed. On the other hand, the temperature at a location upstream of the ame zone was observed to decrease with time. This indicated that the amount of heat fed back from the ame zone to preheat the mixture of fuel and air was reduced as the ame zone moved downstream. The ame zone was observed to move eventually out of the packed bed of porous heating burner and stayed at the gas-phase region immediately downstream of the packed bed. When was made more fuel-rich, the transient combustion changes should be opposite to those in Fig. 6. The ame temperature did drop, the ame zone broadened and moved upstream, and the heat fed back from the ame zone did increase. The ame also moved out of the packed bed of the porous heating burner, but stayed in the ignition section (upstream of the packed bed).

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Fig. 7. Measured temperature and NOx and CO emissions as functions of time after equivalence ratio was changed from 0.394 to 0.286. (Distance between thermocouple and grate, 1 : 7 mm, 2 : 18 mm, 3 : 35 mm, 4 : 45 mm.)

In addition to the transient temperature proles, the transient behavior of [NOx ] and [CO] was also measured. Their proles are shown in Fig. 7, along with the four temperature proles at 7, 18, 35 and 45 mm downstream of the grate. These temperature proles are those shown in Fig. 6. In this work, the maximum temperature in the burner was 1180 C, as shown in both Figs. 6 and 7, i.e., much lower than in a LPG/air free-burning system. The primary source of NOx was likely to be prompt NOx , instead of thermal NOx for a porous heating burner with such a low maximum ame temperature [18,31,32]. When the owrate of air was increased to reduce from a steady-state combustion condition, two mechanisms might reduce the NOx emission, as shown in Fig. 7. One was the reduced residence time for the combustion products due to the increased air owrate; the other was the dilution effect caused by the increased air owrate. On the other hand, [CO] was observed to vary in a more complex manner than [NOx ]. High temperature combustion, long residence time, and a stable combustion process are usually factors attributing to low emissions of CO. As shown in Fig. 7, [CO] rst increased rapidly right after the airs owrate was increased, i.e., was decreased (0400 s). This rapid increase was a consequence of stable combustion being disturbed by the sudden increase in the owrate of air. The increase in [CO] then leveled off and was maintained at a relatively constant level of 25 ppm. About a time of 900 s, the CO emission showed a second rapid increase, which was caused by the short-

ening of the high-temperature region, as indicated by the rapid temperature drops at 7 and 18 mm.

5. Summary and conclusions (1) The combustion characteristics of a porous heating burner were investigated experimentally. The ame speed and temperature prole, as well as emissions of NOx and CO, were monitored under steady-state and transient conditions. (2) A unique combustion phenomenon termed metastable combustion was observed, whereby only one ame speed exists at an equivalence ratio for maintaining stable combustion within the porous bed of the burners. This phenomenon is quite different from porous burners without cooling tubes, in which an extended range of ame speed usually was found for maintaining stable combustion. (3) During transient tests, it was noted that change in equivalence ratio would stop metastable combustion and drive the ame out of the packed bed of the burner. (4) From the measured temperature proles, it was found that a porous heating burner featured a low ame temperature, an extended ame zone and a high preheat temperature for the mixture of fuel and air. The ame temperature ranged from 1000 to 1200 C, i.e., was 200 C lower than the adiabatic ame temperature. The ame zone could

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be as long as 70 mm and the preheated gases could be at 950 to 1000 C. (5) The length of the packed bed was found to affect the ame speed, which decreased when the length of the packed bed was increased. (6) The emissions of CO and NOx were found to be very low. The extended ame zone caused the low [CO] with values ranging from 4.2 to 10 ppm. The [NOx ] was below 4.0 ppm.

Acknowledgment The work was supported by the National Science Council, Taiwan, under Contract NSC89-2212E-194-023.

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