Table of Contents

1.0 Objectives.......................................................................................................................................... 2 2.0 Problem Statements ......................................................................................................................... 2 3.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 2 3.1 Overview of hydraulic systems ..................................................................................................... 2 3.2 Mechanics of a Hydraulic Cylinder ................................................................................................ 3 3.3 Types of Hydraulic Cylinders ......................................................................................................... 4 3.4 The Parts of a Hydraulic Cylinder .................................................................................................. 5 3.5 Significant Characteristics of Hydraulic Cylinders ......................................................................... 6 4.0 Material and Process ........................................................................................................................ 6 4.1 Material and Design Structure ...................................................................................................... 6 4.1.1 Stainless Steel ........................................................................................................................ 6 4.1.2 Cast Iron ................................................................................................................................. 7 4.2 Materials Process and Limitations .............................................................................................. 11 4.2.1 Primary Shaping ................................................................................................................... 11 4.2.2 Secondary Process ............................................................................................................... 12 4.2.3 Joining and Surface Treatment ............................................................................................ 12 5.0 Recommendation of Materials Selection and Process ................................................................... 13 6.0 Discussion........................................................................................................................................ 14 7.0 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 15

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1.0 Objectives
To expose student to the types of material engineering by analysing the structure, mechanical properties, microscopic characteristics, material processing and design limitations for advanced applications.

2.0 Problem Statements

We need to choose a specific material that fulfils the needs of required applications that is the main components of Heavy duty hydraulic cylinder for earth moving vehicles. The materials must be supported by its structure, mechanical properties, microscopic characteristic, material processing and design limitations.

3.0 Introduction
3.1 Overview of hydraulic systems

A hydraulic drive system is a drive or transmission system that uses pressurized hydraulic fluid to drive hydraulic machinery. The term hydrostatic refers to the transfer of energy from flow and pressure, not from the kinetic energy of the flow. It is also the mechanical device that provides power through linear movement. Hydraulic cylinders are used in a wide variety of applications, including heavy duty vehicles, construction equipment, snow removal equipment and earth movers. The primary purpose of hydraulic cylinders is to control the movements of a machine's linkages and attachments, such as the snow plow or earth scoopers. A typical hydraulic cylinder consists of a barrel, a cylinder cap, a head, a piston and a piston rod. Most cylinders are made from nickel, chromium, stainless steel or another type of strong and durable metal.

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Figure 1 Principle of Hydraulic System

3.2 Mechanics of a Hydraulic Cylinder

Figure 2 Hydraulic Cylinders Hydraulic cylinders operate through pressurized fluid (usually oil), which gives the hydraulic cylinder force. The cylinder's driving force is the piston, which is attached to a piston rod that is enclosed in the cylinder's barrel. The bottom of the barrel is closed off by the cylinder cap, and the top is closed off by the head. The head contains a round hole, which allows the piston rod to come out of the barrel. The inside of the barrel contains the oil, and the hydraulic pressure that the oil creates acts on the piston rod, causing it to move back and forth in a linear fashion. One end of the piston is attached to the object or machine it is responsible for moving; as the hydraulic pressure of the oil moves the piston rod, the piston rod moves the piston, which in turn moves the attached object.

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3.3 Types of Hydraulic Cylinders

There are two main types of hydraulic cylinders: tie rod cylinders and. Tie rod hydraulic cylinders contain threaded steel rods attached to either end of the cylinder barrel. These threaded steel rods are extremely strong and make tie rod cylinders useful in heavyduty industrial applications. Welded body cylinders have no steel rods; instead, the top end of the barrel is welded directly to the object it is designed to move. Because they have no steel rods, welded body cylinders are much smaller than tie rod cylinders and are used in smaller machinery. Welded body cylinders are the main hydraulic cylinders used in construction machinery. There are other types of specialized hydraulic cylinders, including telescoping cylinders that allow the piston rod to retract into the barrel. Specialized hydraulic cylinders are primarily used in custom machinery and specialized industrial equipment.

Figure 3 Tie Rod cylinders

Figure 4 Welded body cylinders

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3.4 The Parts of a Hydraulic Cylinder

Figure 5 Part of Hydraulic Cylinders Hydraulic cylinders generate linear force and motion from hydraulic fluid pressure. Most hydraulic cylinders are double acting in that the hydraulic pressure may be applied to either the piston or rod end of the cylinder to generate either extension or retraction force respectively. Hydraulic cylinders are used in many mechanical applications wherever high linear forces are necessary. With a relatively small hydraulic motor, a large cylinder may generate tens of tons of force, due to almost unlimited mechanical gain capability and inherent stability of hydraulic systems. Hydraulic cylinders consist of a smooth bore round tubular cylinder, a freely moving piston with several polymer seals, a highly polished round piston rod and a rod support bearing along with several tight-fitting seals to seal the sliding rod where it exits the cylinder. The top of the cylinder as well as the end of the piston rod have clevis fittings which allow angular movement of the device the cylinder is attached to. Each end of the cylinder has a threaded or compression fitting opening where the hydraulic pressure tubes are connected from the cylinder control valve.
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3.5 Significant Characteristics of Hydraulic Cylinders

Hydraulic cylinders used for earth moving vehicles must endure the following harsh environmental conditions: Temperature Extremes - winter cold and summer heat. Abrasives - sand, dirt, grit and dust. Corrosive Environments - rain and salt. Work Load - heavy continual use.

With this specification, our material selection must be following these properties to obtain required specifications of our products.

4.0 Material and Process

4.1 Material and Design Structure
A successful product is the one that perform well, and it is good value for money and gives pleasure to the user. The product also uses the best materials for the job and fully exploits their potential and characteristics. Before we go further, the must choose the best materials for the components of the hydraulic cylinders. There are several material that have been used for the parts for example stainless steel, chromium, alloy metal and advanced materials like composite. Now, let we see the behaviour of the materials in terms of structure, mechanical properties, physical and chemical properties.
4.1.1 Stainless Steel

Stainless steel is characterized primarily by their corrosion resistances, high strength and ductility, and high chromium content. There are called stainless because, in the presence of oxygen, they develop a thin, hard, adherent film of chromium oxide that protects the metals from corrosion. This protective film builds up again in the event that the surface is scratches. For passivation to occur, the minimum chromium content should be 10 to 12 % by weight. In addition to chromium, other alloying elements in stainless steels typically are nickel, molybdenum, copper, titanium, silicon, manganese and others metal. There are different grades and surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment the alloy must endure. Stainless steel is used where both the properties of steel and resistance

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to corrosion are required. Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of chromium present.
4.1.2 Cast Iron

Cast iron is iron or a ferrous alloy which has been heated until it liquefies, and is then poured into a mould to solidify. The term cast iron refers to family of ferrous alloys composed of iron, carbon (range about 2.11 % to 4.5%), and silicon (up to 3.5%). Cast irons are usually classified according to their solidifications morphology from the eutectic temperature. Gray cast iron, or gray iron Ductile cast iron, nodular cast iron, or spheroidal graphite cast iron White cast iron Malleable iron Compacted graphite iron

Figure 6 Microstructure of Cast iron

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Figure 7 Summary of Cast Iron

Figure 8 Phase Diagram for Iron-Carbon system

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For both materials, there are suitable for the purpose of the products. As we need the material to be toughness, have a good strength and durability toward condition of works and also can with stand with continuous work load applied to the products.

Figure 9 Graph of Strength vs Toughness

From this graph, we can see that the material possess good strength and toughness. The metals acquired more strength and toughness compared to cast iron. This means it can withstand with the bigger force of workload for extended period. Higher strength gives the material bigger resistance against failure and toughness give the material ability to suffer more impact due to high value of those properties.

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Figure 10 Graph of Young Modulus vs Density

From the graph, we can see that both materials have higher density compared to other materials. The higher value of young modulus indicates the stiffness of the materials. Higher stiffness means that how much material stretches when load is applied. By that, we can say that we need higher load to make the material stretches where the value required is very high. We also can say that the weight of the material will be higher from its values of density.

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4.2 Materials Process and Limitations

Process

Shape

Functionality

Materials

These are the interactions between the process, shape, function and material. In material selection methodology, we need to translate the design requirements into design specifications. From that, we can determine the design objectives and limitations. There are many processes available in manufacturing process. We can group it into the primary shaping, secondary process, joining, and surface treatment before the product is completed.
4.2.1 Primary Shaping

Casting process

Forming and Shaping Process

Powder Metallurgy Process

Composite Forming Process

Advanced Process

These are available primary processes that we can use the shape the material into the design specifications. In casting processes, it can be divided into two main group that is expendable-mold, permanent-pattern casting process and expendable-mold, expendablepattern casting process and also the permanent-mold casting process. In forming and shaping, it can divided into several group phase. Among it is metal-rolling process, metalforging process, metal extrusion and drawing process, sheet-metal forming process and special technique for glasses and ceramics.
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In powder-metal process, usually the metals need to be in powder form by using several methods. Powder metallurgy process usually is used for small parts of metals. In composite forming process, there are extrusion, injection molding, blow molding, and several other methods to form the materials. This process also been used to form plastic materials. In advanced manufacturing process, the material used usually for advanced products specifications includes space shuttle projects and nano-material developments.
4.2.2 Secondary Process

Machining Process

Heat treatment Process

After the primary shaping process, the materials will undergo secondary process; either by machining process or heat treatment process or both process. In machining, it can be divided into several other processes; turning process, milling, drilling, broaching, boring and several other important processes. In heat treatment process, the metals will be heated into certain temperatures to increase its mechanical and physical properties. Among the process are normalizing, quenching, carburizing, nitriding and several other processes.
4.2.3 Joining and Surface Treatment

Joining Process Surface Treatment

Fastening Welding Adhesives Brazing & Soldering

Painting Polishing Plating Coating

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5.0 Recommendation of Materials Selection and Process

For the intended design purpose, we must see the material selection that been done before choosing the suitable materials process. There are limitation in every process indicates before and the process must deliver the design specifications. For the design requirements, both materials have the ability to work in heavy continual use, as the higher values of strength and young modulus of the materials. Higher toughness of the material means the ability of the product to suffer impact of extended period of time. In materials process, the suitable method to shape the cast iron and stainless steel is by using casting method. Among advantages of casting process is it can produce complex shapes and can incorporate internal cavities or hollow sections. Other than that, very large parts can be produced in one piece and this process is economically competitive with other manufacturing process. Almost all metals can be cast in or nearly final shape desired, often requiring only minor finishing operations. For secondary process, the material will need some machining process to be form into desired shape. The heat treatment process must be done because it can influence important properties such as strength, ductility, hardness, toughness and resistance to wear. Improvement of properties can be attained by using heat treatment process which it will modify microstructures and thereby produce variety of mechanical properties that are important in manufacturing, such as improved formability and machinability. Parts manufactured by primary process like casting, forming and shaping process often require further operations before the products is ready for use. The primary process is incapable of producing parts with such specific characteristics. As the machining describing the group of processes that consists of the removal of material and modifications if the surfaces of a work piece after it has been produced by various methods. We need this machining process to produce the parts into final shape. If the primary shaping were done by casting, we may need cutting process, abrasive process like grinding and advanced machining process to produced final specification of the products. After the part is manufactured, some of its surfaced may have to be processed further in order to ensure that they receive certain properties and characteristics. It may be necessary

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to perform surface treatment in order to improve resistance to wear, erosion and indentation, friction on sliding surfaces, reduces adhesion, improve lubrication and improve resistance to corrosion and oxidation, improve fatigue resistance, rebuild the surface of the components, modify the surface texture and appearance, and impart the decorative features. The process used includes mechanical working and surface treatments, such as deposition, plating and surface coating like paints. Painting is widely used on the finishing products because of its decorative and functional properties including the range of available colours. It is low cost alternative and has good resistance to abrasion, temperature extremes and fading. Furthermore, it is also easy to apply and dry quickly. Other surface treatment that can be used is plating. It can be divided into electroplating, electroless plating and electroforming. Like other coating processes, it increases the resistance to wear, corrosion, reduce friction and increase lubrication ability and give better appearances.

6.0 Discussion
As new development continue the selection of an appropriate material for a particular application become even more challenging. Also, there are continuously shifting trends in the substations of materials, driven not only by technological considerations, but also economics. For the intended application, selection of material must be made based on several requirements and specifications. Mechanical and physical properties require optimum design considerations. Typical example is the strength to weight ratio and stiffness to weight ratios of materials for minimizing the weight of structural members. The design specifications is vitally important in any material selection, so we can choose the material that will fit to our purpose Other than that, the availability of this material is a major concern in the selection. We need to guarantee that the material is available in desired quantities, shapes, dimension and surface texture. The selection of material process, or sequence of process depend on the geometric features of the parts to be produced, including dimension tolerances and surface texture required, and numerous factors pertaining to the particular work piece material and its manufacturing properties. For example, brittle and hard material cannot be
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shaped of formed without the risk of fracture, unless they are performed at elevated temperature, whereas these materials can easily be cast, machined, or ground. The main goal of material selection is to minimize cost while meeting product performance goals. Systematic selection of the best material for a given application begins with properties and costs of selection of the materials. Other than that, in material selection and process, we must ensure that we can minimize the waste of materials, by refining product design, reducing the amount of materials used in products and selecting manufacturing processes that reduce the scrap produce. Besides that, we must seek improvement in methods of recycling, waste treatment and reuse of the materials. Minimize the energy use when possible and reduce the usage of hazardous materials in products and process. Lastly, in material selection, always seek improvement in methods process and material consumption.

7.0 Conclusion
As the objectives is to expose student to the types of material engineering by analysing the structure, mechanical properties, microscopic characteristics, material processing and design limitations for advanced applications, we find that we have go through all the this in this assignment. With the availability of resource, the processes of material selection have gone specifically according the hydraulic cylinder specifications. The sequence of process that been chosen is accordingly follow the specification and suitability of the process itself. Other than that, I find that the material selection process nowadays will be more challenging with numerous advanced materials that have been developed and process to achieve it. As future engineer, we must be ready to seek and digest knowledge regarding the material and its process as well we must find way to innovate existing processes.

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