CHAPTER 1

THE WORLD THROUGH OUR SENSES By: Ms Sumathi

OUR SENSES
Help us to be sensitive to the changes around us These changes in the surroundings are known as stimuli LIGHT,SOUND and SMELL are examples of stimuli

SENSORY ORGANS AND THEIR STIMULI

SENSORY ORGANS, SENSES AND STIMULI

PATHWAY FROM STIMULUS TO RESPONSE

A stimulus will stimulate receptors to produce electrical messages known as nerve impulses These impulses are sent along the nerves to the brain. The brain then sends out nerve impulses to the related effectors. Effectors are parts of the body that carry out responses

SENSE OF TOUCH

THE SKIN Sensory organ for touch

Largest organ in the body Can detect changes in temperature(heat/cold), pain, touch and pressure The skin has special receptors to detect each of these stimuli. The skin consists of two main layers, the outer epidermis and the inner dermis The epidermis is waterproof and tough, acting as a protective layer The dermis contains many blood vessels, sweat glands and receptors.

Sensitivity of the skin

Depends a lot on how close together the receptors are and how deep they are. For example, our fingertips are very sensitive to touch. They have many receptors which lie very close to the skin surface. Our tongue,nose and lips are also very sensitive to touch. The legs, elbows, the soles of the feet and the back of our body are the least sensitive to touch.

Touch receptors are very sensitive to slight pressure. For example, they can tell you whether an object is rough or smooth Pain receptors detect pain. They lie very close to the skin surface so as to detect the slightest pain. Heat receptors are sensitive to heat Cold receptors are sensitive to cold Pressure receptors lie deep within the skin and are sensitive only to heavy pressure. For example, you feel the weight when you carry a heavy object.

SENSE OF SMELL

Our nose not only helps us with our breathing but it is also the sensory organ of smell The two holes in our nose, called nostrils, open into a hollow space called the nasal cavity. The mucous lining in the nasal cavity warms and moisten the air before it enters the lung. The roof of the nasal cavity has many sensory cells or receptors to detect smells. Smells are actually chemicals present in the air. When sensory cells is stimulated by chemicals in air(from food, perfume, flowers), sensory cells sends out nerve impulses into the brain which interprets them as smell We can get used to a smell when sensory cells stop sending messages to brain and we no longer smell it The sensitivity of smell varies with individual.

SENSE OF TASTE

Tongue
Sensory organ for taste Can detect four basic tastes: salty, sweet, sour and bitter All other flavours are made up of these basic tastes Different areas of tongue are sensitive to different tastes Our tongue is lined with taste buds which contain many taste receptors

Sense of taste and smell

Our sense of smell improves our sense of taste. As we chew, some chemicals from the food dissolve in our saliva and stimulate the taste buds. There are also some chemicals that move into our nasal passages which stimulates the sensory cells in our nose.

SENSE OF HEARING

The ear is the sensory organ for hearing Has three main parts-the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear

How do we hear?

Below are the path of the sound waves from the air to the brain: The pinna collects sound waves and directs them along the ear canal to the eardrum

When the sound waves hit the eardrum, it vibrates The ossicles amplify the vibrations about 20 times before transferring them to the oval window

Vibrations of the oval window set up waves which travel through the fluid in the cochlea Receptors in the cochlea are stimulated to produce nerve impulses.
1)

The auditory nerve carries the impulses to the brain

The brain interprets the impulses as sounds

SENSE OF SIGHT

STRUCTURE OF EYES

Sense- Sational Facts

Most people blink every 2-10 seconds. Each time you blink, you shut your eyes for 0.3 seconds, which means your eyes are closed at least 30 minutes a day just from blinking. If you only had one eye, everything would appear twodimensional. (This does not work just by closing one eye.) Owls can see a mouse moving over 150 feet away with light no brighter than a candle. The reason cat's and dog's eyes glow at night is because of silver mirrors in the back of their eyes called the tapetum. This makes it easier for them to see at night.

An ostrich has eyes that are two inches across. Each eye weighs more than the brain. A chameleon's eyes can look in opposite directions at the same time. A new born baby sees the world upside down because it takes some time for the baby's brain to learn to turn the picture right-side up. One in every twelve males is colour blind

THE EYES
Our eyes are sensory organs of sight. The shape of each eye is a slightly flattened ball. The eyelid protects the front of the eye. The eyeball is held by muscles in the eye sockets . Three layers make up the wall of the eyeball : the sclera , the choroid and the retina .

Functions of the Parts of the Eyes

How do we see?

Let us see how our eyes work to give us the sense of sight: Light rays travel from the object to the eye

As the light rays pass through the eye, they are refracted (bent) by the cornea, aqueous humour, lens and the vitreous humour An upside down image(picture) is formed on the retina

The photoreceptors on the retina send nerve impulses along the optic nerve to the brain

The brain interprets the impulses and allows us to see the object the right way up
1)

LIGHT AND SIGHT

REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Takes place when light rays fall on the surface of an opaque object and bounce off it Example of reflection of light: a) A student looking at his image on the surface of a lake b) The formation of an image in a mirror The amount and direction of the reflected light depend on the type of the surface the light falls on Plane mirrors and shiny metals are good light reflectors because they have smooth and flat surfaces OPAQUE-not able to be seen through/not transparent

 A flat and smooth surface like a mirror reflects light in a regular pattern. This is referred to as regular reflection(Figure 1)

Figure 1 When light falls on irregular surfaces like paper and cloth, the reflected light rays are scattered in different directions and is referred to as a diffused reflection (Figure 2)

 When light strikes a smooth reflecting surface ( for example, a mirror) at an angle to the normal, it is reflected at the same angle on the opposite side of the normal

Periscope Used in submarines to observe objects outside the submarine Kaleidoscope Forms beautiful images when pieces of paper of various colours are put inside it Mirror Dentist uses a mirror when examining a patients teeth A convex mirror is placed at a bend on the road so that drivers can see around the bend

Applications of the reflection of light

Refraction of light
The refraction of light is the bending of light as it passes from one transparent medium to another. This happens when light travels through different media such as air, water and glass Occurs when speed of light changes. Happens when light travels 2 types of media that have different densities a) The speed of light decreases when light enters a denser medium. Eg: from air to glass b) It increases when light enters a less dense medium. Eg: from glass to air

When light travels at an angle from a less dense medium to a denser medium, it is refracted towards the normal (Figure 3-air to glass block) When light travels from a dense medium to a less dense medium, it is refracted away from the normal. (Figure 3-glass block to air)

Phenomena of refraction of light

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

The pond appears shallower than it really is

The drinking straw in the glass of water appears to be bent

The dispersion of white light into its seven component colours of the rainbow is a phenomenon of light refraction Light refraction allows images to be formed on the retina of the eye Lenses that refract light are used as magnifying glasses in telescopes, microscopes and spectacles

Vision defects and ways to correct them

A person with normal vision sees distant and close objects clearly The thickness of eye lens changes when near or distant objects are focused This process is known as accommodation The common defects of vision are:

Short-sightedness Long-sightedness Astigmatism Colour blindness Presbyopia

Accommodation
DISTANT OBJECT

CILIARY BODY SUSPENSOR Y LIGAMENTS EYE LENS

RELAXES

CONTRACT

BECOMES THINNER

COMPARISON BETWEEN LONGSIGHTEDNESS AND SHORT SIGHTNESS

Conditio n

Caus es

FOCU S

CORRECTION

ASTIGMATISM

Caused by an irregular surface of the cornea, or a lens that is not evenly curved As a result, the vertical and horizontal rays from the image cannot be focused at the same time Thus, the image formed on the retina is distorted and not very clear. A person suffering from astigmatism sees some parts of an object more clearly than others Can be corrected by either wearing glasses with cylindrical lenses, wearing special contact lenses or surgery

COLOUR BLINDNESS
Due to a shortage of cone cells(colour receptor cells) on the retina Colour-blind people cannot see some or all colours. Most of them cannot differentiate between red and green This defect cannot be corrected because it is hereditary

PRESBYOPIA
Common in old people. As a person gets older, the eye lens becomes harder and less elastic. The muscles in the ciliary body also lose their ability to contract and relax As a result, both near and far objects cannot be focused on retina Corrected by wearing glasses with bifocal lenses to see near and far objects clearly

LIMITATION OF SIGHT

Very tiny objects(bacteria, viruses, and atoms) cannot be seen by the naked eye We also cannot see stars and planets that are very far from Earth THE BLIND SPOT When images fall on the blind spot, they cannot be seen. This is because there are no photoreceptors on it OPTICAL ILLUSIONS What we see depends not only on our eyes, but also on our brain. Sometimes the brain distorts the images. This give rise to optical illusions. The image formed on the eye is accurate but the brain plays a trick on us and makes the image misleading

TEREOSCOPIC VISION

Animal with stereoscopic vision have both eyes at the front of the head Animals with stereoscopic vision have visual fields that overlap. Each eye sees a slightly different image where the brain combines it so that the object can be seen three dimensionally This helps the animal to judge distances accurately Predators such as tigers, owls and wolves have well-developed stereoscopic vision

MONOCULAR VISION
Animals with monocular vision have eyes at the side of the head The visual fields for animals with monocular vision have little or no overlapping However, they have a wide field of vision This helps them to detect their enemies from a wide range of directions. Prey such as rabbits, chickens and deer have this type of vision

DEVICES USED TO OVERCOME THE LIMITATIONS OF SIGHT

An astronomer uses a telescope to study stars in the sky The captain of a ship uses binoculars to observe distant objects A microscope is used to study small objects and specimens mounted on slides

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

An ultrasound scanning device is used to scan and see the fetus of a pregnant mother

The crew of a submarine uses a periscope to look out for dangers above the

Sound is a form of energy Sounds are produced by vibrations When an object vibrates, kinetic energy is changed to sound energy

SOUND AND HEARING

The need for a medium for sound to travel Sound requires a medium to travel Most of the sounds that reach our ears are transferred from a source either through air, liquids or solids. Sound travels faster through solids than liquids. This is because particles are arranged closely in solids. They can pass on vibrations quickly Sound travels the slowest through gases because the particles are arranged loosely Sound cannot travel through a vacuum

When sound hits an obstacle, the sound wave will either be absorbed or reflected by the obstacle depending on the type of the surface of the obstacle Surfaces that are hard and smooth reflect sound. Walls of buildings, tunnels, mountain slopes, glass and metal are good sound reflectors but poor sound absorbers. Surfaces that are soft and rough absorb sound. Carpets, curtains, cotton, sponge, rubber and soft boards are good sound absorbers but poor sound reflectors

Reflection and absorption of sounds

HEARING DEFECTS

May occur in one or all three parts of the ear The main hearing defect is deafness. This refers to partial or total hearing loss. Deafness can be caused by blockages of the auditory canal, infections, accidents, the aging process or continuous exposure to loud noises The build-up of earwax in the auditory canal can block sound waves and cause temporary hearing loss Deafness can also result from a punctured eardrum The ossicles in the middle ear may be fused together as a result of an infection. This prevents the ossicles from moving freely. If this condition is not treated immediately, it will result in total hearing loss The inner ear may be damaged by local infections. Toxins are produced as a result of diphtheria or scarlet fever. These toxins damage the cochlea and cause hearing loss The sensory cells in the cochlea may be damaged by the exposure to loud sounds. This can eventually lead to hearing loss.

STEREOPHONIC HEARING
Stereophonic hearing is the ability to hear using both ears a) It enables us to determine the direction of the sound accurately b) The ear nearer to the source of the sound receives a stronger stimulus. It also receives the sound earlier than the other ear c) Therefore, the impulse from this ear reaches the brain earlier than the impulses from the other ear d) The brain interprets these two different impulses. It also determine the direction of the sound This hearing helps us determine accurately the location of the source of a sound that warns of danger such as landslides. This helps us avoid danger Prey that can accurately detect the direction of the sounds made by their predators are able to make a quick escape. As such, stereophonic hearing is important for the survival of animals

Correcting hearing defects

Ear, nose and throat specialists use syringes and warm water to remove the wax blocking the auditory canal Fused or damaged ossicles can be replaced in a surgery Punctured eardrums can also be repaired by surgery. Damaged eardrums can be repaired or replaced by using membranes from other parts of the body Electronic gadgets can be implanted into the ears to help some deaf people hear better

Limitations of hearing
The human ear has the ability to detect sounds in the frequency range of 20 Hz(hertz) to 20 000 Hz. Humans cannot hear very low frequency or very high frequency sounds The range of hearing varies from one individual to another a) Children have eardrums that are more elastic. As a result, they can hear better b) As people age, their hearing deteriorates. Their eardrums become less elastic . The range of sound frequencies that they can detect decreases. Their ability to hear high pitched sounds decreases. c) A person exposed to constant loud noises experiences a loss of hearing. His range of hearing is smaller than that of a normal person Frequencies exceeding 20 000Hz are called ultrasonic frequencies. Humans cannot hear sound at these frequencies but some animals can.

Ways to overcome our hearing limitations A doctor uses a stethoscope to

listen to the heartbeats of his patients. The stethoscope makes the soft heartbeats louder so that they can be heard A teacher uses a loudspeaker to make announcements during school assemblies in the school field or the school hall Earphones are used to connect sound gadgets such as the MP3 player to our ears so that we can listen to the music

Stimuli and Responses in Plants Plant respond to light, gravity and water. Some plants also

show responses to chemical substances and changes in temperature The response of plants to a stimulus is called tropism Tropism is a growth response in a particular direction. It occurs slowly. It is not noticeable. a) When a part of the plant grows towards the stimulus, the response is known as positive tropism b) When a part of the plant grows away from the stimulus, the response is known as negative tropism Tropic responses in plants include phototropism, geotropism and hydrotropism Nastic movement and thigmotropism are responses of plants to touch

1. Phototropism(plant response to light)

Movement/growth of plants in response to light a) Shoots grow towards light. (positively phototropic) b) Roots grow away from light. (negatively phototropic)

Growth/movement of the tips of the shoots and roots of plants in response to gravity a) Roots always grow downwards in the direction of gravity(positively geotropism) b) Shoots grow in the opposite direction to gravity(negatively geotropism)

2. Geotropism(plant response to gravity)

Plants growth/response to water is known as hydrotropism Roots tend to grow towards water. (positively hydrotropism) The response of roots to water is stronger than their response to gravity. They can grow upwards or sideways, ignoring the pull of gravity

3. Hydrotropism(plant response to water)

heat The opening and closing movement of Mimosa pudica leaflets are examples of nastic movements The direction of the response of the plant does not depend on the direction of the stimulus. The movement is reversible Plants that trap insects have leaves which are sensitive to touch. The leaves of the Venus flytrap and the pitcher plant will close when touched especially by insects.

Nastic movement Responses of a plant towards touch, light and

Venus flytap

Pitcher plant

Thigmotropism
Tropic response in which the stimulus is touch or contact Roots grow away from solid objects such as stones but stems tend to grow towards the objects that they come into contact with a) The passion flower, cucumber, long bean and bitter gourd are plants with soft stems b) These plants have tendrils which respond to the touch stimulus c) The tendrils curl around an object that touches them

Passion flower Long beans

Cucumber

Bitter gourd

Ensure that plants always obtain their basic needs. Plants need sufficient water and light for their survival Forest plants depend on phototropism for photosynthesis Plants roots grow downwards towards gravity and into the soil which enables them to absorb water and mineral salts .Positive geotropism also help support the plants firmly in the soil Positive hydrotropism enables plants to absorb water and mineral salts

The importance of plant responses