Ibn Taimya's al-fyah wa-al-Fuqar Author(s): Th. E. Homerin Source: Arabica, T. 32, Fasc. 2 (Jul., 1985), pp.

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IBN TAIMIYA'S AL-SUFIYAH WA-AL-FUQARA'*

BY

TH. E. HOMERIN

is AL-SUFIYAH WA-L-FUQARA'

a short epistle written by the famous

Hanballjuristand theologianTaqi-l-DinAhmad ibn Taimiya(611-728 A.D.), in whichhe sketchesbrieflyhis view of Siifism's A.H./1262-1328 origin and background.In answeringthe initial question posed, he carefullydelineatesvarious types and grades of behavior among the to the traditional alwayswith reference Muslimmysticsand mendicants, actions, excusableones, and legal categoriesof morally praiseworthy those which are reprehensible. figureduringhis lifetimein Damascus IbnTaimlyawas a controversial and Cairo, and he was outspokenagainst any belief or practicewhich seemedto underminethe basic God-man distinction,for he believed this to be the basic foundationof any significantmoral action in the material world'. Although Ibn Taimiya vigorously attacked certain popularand antinomianpracticesof the Sufi ordersand the doctrineof which he believed,sanctionedand of Being>>) (<<Unity wahdat al-wujfid as such. Recentarticles suchtendencies, he was not anti-Stifi encouraged by George Makdisi2 have severelycriticizedthe traditionalWestern conceptionsof Hanbalismin generaland of Ibn Taimiyain particular, and Makdisiasserts,as HenriLaousthad earlier3,that Ibn Taimlyawas
* I wish to thank Thomas F. Michel, and especially Dr. Faziur Rahman without whose encouragement and guidance this study would not have been possible. The translation won first prize in the non-literary genre of the 1982 American Association of Teachers of Arabic Translation Contest 1 For further information regarding Ibn Taimlya's biography and basic intellectual positions see the excellent work by Henri Laoust, Essai sur les doctrinessociales et politiques de Taqi-l-Din Ahmad b. Taimiya, Cairo: Imprimerie de l'Institut Franqais d'Archeologie Orientale, 1939, and also his, <Quelques opinions sur theodicee d'Ibn Taymiya", Meanges Maspero,Cairo: Imprimerie de l'Institut Franqais d'Archeologie Orientale, 1940. 2 G. Makdisi, <<Hanbalite in Studies on Islam, ed. and tr. by Merlin L. Swartz, Islam>>, New York: Oxford University Press, 1981, pp. 216-264; ?The Hanbali School of Sufism>>, in Actas do IV Congresso de Estudos Arabes e Isldmicos, 1968, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1971, pp. 71-84, and < Ibn Taimiya: A Sifi of the Qadiriya Order>>, in AmericanJournal of Arabic Studies, V. 1 (1973), pp. 118-129. 3 Laoust, Essai, pp. 22-31, 89ff. Arabica, Tome xxxII, 1985

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sympathetic to an experiential, mysticalresponseto the messageof the Qur'an and the practiceof Muhammad. FazlurRahman4,JosephBell5 and ThomasMichel6have examinedthis dimensionof Ibn Taimiyain more specificcontexts,sensitiveto its ramifications for a reconstruction and understanding of Ibn Taimlya'sfundamental world-view. al-.ufiyah wa-l-fuqara' is a key work for such investigations,stating briefly and at times, succinctly,Ibn Taimlya'sposition vis-a-vis the mystical experience and Sifi practice. This epistle has the further advantageof beingless technicalthan otherworks,suchas his commentary on 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jilni's Futuh al-ghayb', and it lacks the

polemicaltone found in a numberof his works which denounceideas and customshe found repugnant8. The translationof this epistlethen, can providethe non-Arabic reader witha valuableprimary sourcefor the study of Ibn Taimiya and fourteenthcentury Islamic mysticismand perhaps,encouragefurtherstudy in these areasby specialists. Ibn Taimlya'sliterarystyle in this work is homiletic,resembling the style of the popular preacher;the author digressesat times from his subjectbut alwaysreturnsto concludehis thoughtswhichhe presentsin a clearand generally logicalfashion.al-Suf-yahwa-l-fuqara' is listedby IbnQayyimal-Jauziya as beingamongthe workswrittenby his teacher9, and the tone, style,and ideasof the epistleareunmistakably those of Ibn Taimlya.This translationhas been based on the text publishedin the ' and the numbers Riyadeditionof IbnTaimlya's completeworks in the margin refer to this edition. I also comparedit to the edition of this
4 Fazlur Rahman, Islam, Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1968, pp. 132, 239-240. 5 Joseph Bell, Love Theory in Later Hanbalite Islam, Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1979. 6 Thomas Michel, <<IbnTaymiyia's Sharh on the Futuh al-Ghavb of'Abd al-Qadir in Hamdard Islamicus, 4:2:3-12, and his Ph.D. dissertation, Ibn Taymiyya's al-J-iani>>, al-Jawdb al-Sahih: A Muslim Theologian'sResponse to Christianity,University of Chicago, 1978, especially 1:122-145. See Michel, <<Ibn Taymiyya's Sharh ...>>,and Ibn Taimiya, <<Sharh Kalimat li-Abd al-Qadir ft kitab Futu7h al-ghayb>>, in Majmi' Fatdwd Shaykh al-Isldm Ibn Taimiya, Riyad: Maktabat al-Hukiimah, 1386, 10:455-548. See for example: Ibn Taimiya, al-Farq bayn awliyd' Alldh wa-awliyi' al-Shaytdn (<<The Difference Between the Friends of God and Those of Satan>>) in Majmu7' Fatdwd .... 11:157:31 1. For other works see: Laoust, Essai, pp. 125-131 and Michel, Ibn Taymiyya's al-Jawdb al-Sah.h, 1:98. 9 Shams al-Din ibn Qayyim al-Jauziya (d. 751/1350) Asmd' mu'allifdt Ibn Taim7ya(La Liste Des (Euvres D'Ibn Taimiya), ed. Salah al-Din al-Munajjid, Damascus: Academie Arabe de Damas, 1953, p. 21, ?36: << Qd'ida fl-l-fuqard wa-l-Sflyah ayyuhumd afdal?>> 10 al-Suifiyah wa-l-fuqara', in Majmi' fatawa Shaykh al-Isiam Ibn Taimiya, Riyad: Maktabat al-Hukuma, 1386, 11:1-24.

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epistle published by Muhammad Rashid Rida in 192811. A short commentary will follow the translation. Ibn Taymiya(661-728/1262-1328)
The Siifis and The Poor (al-SufiJyah wa-l-fuqard')

<In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful>> The Shaikhal-Islam[IbnTaimiyaJ-mayGod sanctifyhis spirit-was asked about the Siufis.They are [in]groupsas are thefuqard'(?poor>>, <(mendicants?), therefore,what is the distinguishing characteristic of each group,and what is incumbent upon each group,beingthat whichit prefersto follow? He answered:'Praisebe to God'. As for the termal-sujfyah (Sufis),it was not well-known in the threecenturies [first-third A.H./seventh-ninth A.D.], and its usage becamewell-knownonly after that. Its usage has been reportedby more than one of the imamsand shaikhs,such as the imam, Ahmad ibn Hanbal 2, Abii Sulaimanal-Ddran7i3and others, and it has been related,concerning Sufyanal-Thawri 14, that he used id. Some have mentionedthat concerningal-Hasanal-Basr1 i. People have disagreedover the meaning ascribedto suf for it is among the relationaladjectiveslike al-qurashF(of the Quraishtribe), al-madanf (from the city of Madina),and similarexamples.Thus, it is
11 al-Sflyah wa-al-fuqara', ed. Muhammad Rashlid Rida, Cairo: Matba'at al-Manar, 2nd ed., 1348/1928. This edition was reissued in the late 1970's by the Saudi Fondation in Egypt, with an introduction by Muhammad Jamil GaZi, Cairo: Matba'at al-Madani. 12 Ahmad ibn Hanbal (164-241 A.H./780-855 A.D.) was the founder of the Hanbali school of law and in the forefront of the fundamentalist reaction against a rationalistic interpretation of the Qur'dnand Islam. See: H. Laoust in Encyclopaediaof Islam, 2nd ed. (El..2), 1:272-277. 13 Abu Sulaiman 'Abd al-Rahman ibn 'Atiya al-Darani (d. 215/830), was a famoes ascetic who lived in Syria. See Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensionsof Islam, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 1975, pp. 31, 117, and also, al-Sulami, Tabaqdt al-.Siifyah Leiden, 1960, pp. 68-73; al-Qushairi, al-Risalah, Cairo, 1972, 1:96-98; al-Hujwfri, The Kashf alMa.hjub,tr. R. A. Nicholson, London, 1967, pp. 112-113; 'Attar, Tadhkirdt al-awliyd', Tehran, 1957, pp. 208-214; and Ibn Khallikan, Wafaydt al-'aydn Beirut, 1968, # 363. 14 Sufyan al-Thawri was born in Kufa in 97/715 and died in Basra in 161/778. He was a traditionalist and legal scholar, founding a law school which lasted for about two centuries. He led an ascetic lifestyle. See: M. Plessner in E.l.', 4:500-02, and also, Abu Nu'aim, Hilyat al-awliyd', Cairo, 1932-38, 6:e56-7:143; al-Khatib al-Baghdadd, Tarikh Baghddd, Cairo, 1931, 9:151-174, and especially, Ibn al-'Imad, Shadhardt al-dhahab, Cairo, 1350-51 A.H., 1:250-51. 15 al-Hasan al-Basri (21-110/642-728) was a preacher, theologian, and certainly the most famous Muslim ascetic. His bibliography is extensive. See: H. Ritter in E.l.2, 3:247248 and also his <<Hasanal-Basri ...>>, Der Islam 21 (1933), 1-83; Abu Nu'aim, 2:131161; 'al-Hujwiri, pp. 86-87, and Ibn al-Jauzi, al-Hasan al-Basra Cairo, 1931.

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of the said to be an adjective denoting the ahl al-suffa (?<People this being a mistake,becauseif that wereso, one would say Bench>>)16 to al-saff Also, it is saidto be a relational adjective suffi[asthe adjective].
al-muqaddam(?the front row>>) standing before God ', this too, being a

mistake,becauseif it wereso, one wouldsaysaffi. It is thoughtto referto al-safwa(?the elite>>)8 of God's creation,this beinga mistake,because if it were so, one would say safawi. It is also said to be an adjective denotingdescentfrom Sawfahibn Bashribn'Addibn Tabikhah,a tribe amongthe Arabswho used to live in the immediate vicinityof Meccain ancienttimes,asceticsbeingascribed to them.Althoughthis is consistent with the derivationof the term [sJfi], it is also weak, becausethey were not widely known nor generally recognizedamong the majority of ascetics,and even if asceticscould be tracedto them, this relationship would have been in the time of the companions,the followers,and their firstfollowers.Further,the majorityof those who used the adjective su7ff were not acquaintedwith this tribe, and they do not find it acceptable that he [the Silfi] be ascribedto a tribe existing during the JThillya, withoutit [the tribe]existingin the era of Islam'9. It is said, beingwell-known, that it [thetermsui-f] is relatedto woolen garments.The first place the ?wearersof wool>> (al-sajftyah)appeared
16 The ahl al-suffah (<<People of the Bench>>)is the name given to a group of Muhammad's companions who are said to have lived an ascetical life in his mosque at Madina. For later Muslims, they embodied the ideal of piety and poverty and were the most virtuous of all mankind (see for example, al-Hujwiri, pp. 81-82). As part of the salaf (?forefathers>?), Ibn Taimiya held them in high esteem. See his, An ahl al-suffah: kam kanI wa-hal kdna bi-Makkah aw bi-Madinah2?, (?Concerning the People of the Bench: How many were there, and were they in Mecca or Medina??) in Majmii'fatdwd, 11: 37-71. 17 The <<row>> (al-saff) standing before God is to be formed on the Day of Judgment in which mankind will be lined up and judged (Qur'an 18:48 and 37:1); the angels will also be in ranks on that day (78:38 and 89:22). The Qur'dn,however, does not mention a row of the pious standing before God, and this is a product of popular legend. However, the Qur'dndoes say that the pious will occupy <<exalted ranks>? (al-darajdtal-'uld) in Paradise (20:75). 18 al-Safwa (?the pure part?>, i.e., ?the elite>>) was often used to refer to the Suflis in order to designate their spotless character, purged of all moral taint. See, for example, al-Kaldbadhf, The Doctrine of the Siufis, tr. A. J. Arberry, Cambridge, England, 1975, pp. 5-11, and al-Hujwiri, pp. 30-31. 19 The suggestion that the adjective silfi may be derived from the name of a tribe is rarely found in other sources. It is not mentioned by al-Sarraj, al-Kaldbadhl, al-Qushairi, or al-Hujwi-i. However, an account similar to that of Ibn Taimlya's, though substantially larger, appears in a work by his Hanbali predecessor, Ibn al-Jauzi (510-597/1116-1200). Ibn al-Jauzi relates in his Talbis IblTs(?The Devil's Delusion.) Cairo, 1928, pp. 157-158, that the Sawfah tribe was in charge of leading the people on the pilgrimage from Arafat to Mind to Mecca. This was during pre-Islamic times; later the Quraish tribe obtained this privilege.

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was Basra,and the firstpersonto builda cloisterfor Silifis was one of the companionsof 'Abdal-Wahidibn Zaid,'Abdal-Wahidbeingamongthe In Basra, there was an excessicompanionsof al-Hasan [al-Basri]20. venessin asceticism, worship,fear,andsuchthings,whichdid not existin of the othermajorcities, and so it has been said, (Kiffi the inhabitants and Basriworship?.Abuial-Shaikh jurisprudence al-Isfahani has related 21 who reported ibn S-irin basedon Muhammad it, that a groupof people prefersgarmentsof wool. Thus he [Ibn Sirin]said, ((A group of people prefers wool sayingthattheyareimitating the Messiah,son of Mary,and that 'the fashion of our Prophet is most dear to us'. However, the Prophet-God blesshim and granthim peace-used to wearcotton and other [materials]?, or a statementsimilarto this. Therefore,most of what is recountedon this issue concerning excessiveness,is only about the worshippers amongthe people of Basra,like the story of those who died or swooned when hearingthe Quran,and similarthings,like the story of Zuraraibn 'Aufr, the qadi of Basra22. He recited during the morning prayer, ?And when the trumpet is sounded[on the judgmentday]>> (Q. 74:8-9),then fell down, dead. And like the story of Abii Jahiral-'Ama (the blind)who when Salihal-Murri recited[the Qur'dn] to him, died23 Likewise,there are others who are said to havediedfromlisteningto its recitation, andthereweregroupsof them [the people of Basra]who would lose consciousness upon hearing the Qur'an, but there was no one among the Companions [of the Prophet] who had this condition. Thus, when it [this excessiveness]
20 'Abd al-Wahid ibn Zaid (d. 177/794) was a disciple of al-Hasan al-Basri and founder of a settlement for ascetics at Abadan on the Persian Gulf. See Schimmel, p. 31. and also, Abii Nu'aim, 6:155-165. 21 Muhammad ibn Sirin (34-110/654-728) was renowned for his interpretations of dreams and for the reliability of his information regarding hadhths. He was a contemporary and friend of al-Hasan al-Basri. See: T. Fahd in E.l.2, 3:947-948 and also, Ibn Khallikan, 4:181-183, and Abiu Nu'aim, 2:i63-282, who is probably the Abii Shaikh al-Isfahani referred to, (see n. 15) but I could not find this account in his Hfilyah. 22 Zurarah ibn 'Aufa al-Jurashi (or al-Harasi) was a qadi of Basra and alive when al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf became governor there in 76/694. The date of his death is uncertain; Waki' gives 106/725 or 108/727, and Ibn Hajar gives 93/713. See Waki', Akhbar al-qu.dt, Cairo, 1947-50, 1:292-296; Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani, TahdhTbal-tahdhtb, Beirut, 1968, 3:322-23, and Abui Nu'aim, 2:258-260. Salih Ahmad al-'All in his al-Tanzimat alfi al-Basrahfi-l-qarn al-awwal al-Hijri, Baghdad, 1953, p. 298, ijtimn'iyah wa-al-iqtisddiyah lists Zurarah as holding the judgeship from 62-65 A.H. See the commentary below concerning a possible motive for Ibn Taimiya's use of this particular story. 23 A similar story involving al-Murri is also found in al-Hujwiri, p. 396. Salih ibn Bashir al-Q&ri'al-Murri (d. 176/793) was a famous reader of the Qur'cin;he was from Basra and learned hadTthfrom Muhammad ibn Slkin (see n. 21). See: Abu Nu'aim, 6:167-177 and also, Ibn Khallikan, 2:494-495.

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a groupof the Companions appeared, and followers,suchas Asma'bint Abui Bakr24,'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubair25,Muhammadibn Sirin and otherslike them, disapproved. Those who disapprovehave two approaches.There are those who suppose that [excessivestate] to be an affection and a feigning. It is mentionedabout Muhammadibn Sirin that he said, <?The difference betweenus and those who lose consciousness is upon hearingthe Qur'dn 8 only that,if it is recitedto one of themwhilehe is sittingon a wall and he falls off, then he is [considered] >>26 As it has been relatedabout sincere Asma' and her son'AbdAllah, thereare those who denounceit because they see it as an innovationcontraryto what is knownof the way of the Companions. The majorityof the 'ulama'are of the opinionthat the ecstatic27one among them, if he is overcome,is not reproved,althoughthe state of stability(hal thabit)is more perfect.For this reason, when the imam Ahmad [ibn Hanbal]was asked about this he said, ?The Qur'dnwas recitedto Yahya ibn Sa'ld al-Qattan28, and so he swooned, and yet if anyone would have been able to defendhimselffrom this, then Yahya ibn Sa'idwouldhavedone so, for I havenot seenanyonemoreintelligent than him>>, and so forth. It has been relatedabout al-Shdfi'i29 that this [state]befellhim, and the case ofAli ibn al-Fudailibn 'Iyadis famoes30.
24 Asma' bint Aba Bakr (d. 73/693) was the daughter of the first caliph and a half-sister of'A'isha. She was one of the early converts to Islam and noted for her piety. She was the mother of'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubair (see n. 25). See, H. A. R. Gibb in El..2, 1:173-174 who gives her bibliography. 25 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubair (2-73/624-629) according to tradition, was the first child born in the Muslim community of Madina. He participated in numerous battles and was among those commissioned by 'Uthman to compile an official recension of the Qur'an. Following 'Uthman's death (35/654),'Abd Allah opposed'Arl, and in 683 he was generally recognized as caliph. Later, however, he was defeated a and killed at Mecca by a force under the command of al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf. See, H. A. R. Gibb in El..2, 1:54-55, and M. G. S. Hogdson, The Ventureof Islam, 1:219-223. 26 This story is also found in Abu Nu'aim, 2:265 with slight differences. 27 I am following the Rida edition's al-walhid,p. 5, in place of the Riyad's. 28 Yahya ibn Sa-ld ibn Furilkh al-Qattan (120-198/737-813) was a hadfth scholar from Basra who gave legal opinions following the pronouncements of Abii Hanifa. He was considered to be very reliable. See al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, i 14:135-144 and Ibn Hajar, 11:217-220. 29 Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi'-i (150-204/767-820) was the founder of the Shafi-l law school and is sometimes referred to as the father of Islamic jurisprudence. See, W. Heffening in E.', 4:252-254 who includes an extensive bibliography. Concerning his swooning see, al-Ghazzrll, Ihya 'uluim al-dTn,Cairo, 1356-57/1937-38, V. 1:43. All ibn Fudail ibn 'Iyad (d. before 187/803) was the son of the famous ascetic and 30 mystic Fudail ibn 'Iyad (d. 187/803). 'All was renowned primarily for his fear of the

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is On the whole, then, this is frequentamong those whose truthfulness not doubted. whichthe Companions But the states(ahwdl) possessedare mentioned in the Qur'dn, and they are: the dreadof hearts,the tearsof the eye, and of the skins, as He-He is most high-has said, the trembling
The believers are only those who, when God is mentioned, their hearts dread, and when His signs (d7pdt) are recited to them, they increase in faith, and those who trust in their Lord. (Q. 8:2)

And He-He is most high-has said,

God has sent down the best statement, a uniform book, paired; the skins of those who fear their Lord tremble, then their skins and hearts yield to the remembrance of God (Q. 39:23)

God-He is most High-has said,

And when the signs of the Merciful are recited to them, they fall down prostrating,

crying.

(Q. 19:58)

And He has said,

9 And, when they hear what has been sent down to the messenger, you will see their eyes overflow with tears due to what they recognize of the truth. (Q. 5:83)

12nHehas said,
And they fall down on their faces, crying, increasing in humility (Q. 17:109)

At times, their state is censured by those people who have in themselves thatwhichis blameworthy itselfdue to hardness of heartsand the rust upon them and crudenessin religion,and yet they too do it [blameothers].And among them [who have the states]are those who supposethat this state of theirsis the most perfectstate,the culmination and most exalted of them, but both extremes in this matter are reprehensible. Instead, there are three ranks [to those hearing the Qur'an].One of them is the state of those unjust to themselves,those who are hard-hearted,not yielding to the audition [of the Qur'ain] nor to remembrance [of God], and they are comparable to the Jews. God-He is most High has said,

Judgement Day and hell-fire. Ibn Khallikan, 4:40, counts him among those killed by God's love. Also see, Abiu Nu'aim, 8:297-300, and'Attar, pp. 91-93.

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Then your hearts were hardened after that, and they are like rocks or harder, for indeed among stones there are [those] from which streams gush forth and there are [rocks] which are split, and water then comes from them, and indeed there are [rocks] which fall down from fear of God, and God is not unaware of what you do.

(Q. 2:76)

And He-He is most high-has said,

Is it not time for those who believe to humble their hearts to the remembrance of God and to what was sent down from the Truth, and they are not like those who were granted the book previously, then the period was lengthened, but their hearts became hardened, and many of them were licentious ones? (Q. 57:16)

The [secondrank]is the state of the pious believerwho is too weak to bearwhatsuddenly afflictshis heart.So he is the one who is struckdown, 1o death-struck or swooning, and that is due only to the power of the suddenseizure(al-wdrid)3"and the weaknessof the heartto bearit. At times,somethinglike this [state]is foundin one who is happyor fearful, grief strickenor in love with earthlyaffairs,that makinghim physically
ill, insane, or killing him. Among the worshipper of forms (suwar*32 is

one whomexcessivelove ('ishq)makesphysically ill, drivesmad, or kills, and so likewisewith others-and this does not happenexcept to one seizedby an affliction(amr)whichhis carnalsoul (nafs)is too weak to repel,or to one who was overwhelmed by it-just like the causeswhich afflict the body makingit sick or killingit. However,if a remissness does not issue from him [the pious believer] nor a transgression, then thereis no faultin whatbefallshim nor reason for suspicion. He is just like one who heard the Qur'anin the legal mannerand had not beenremissby omittingwhat that required of him. Likewiseis what afflictsthe heartsfrom what is called intoxication(alsukr), annihilation(al-fand'),and similarthings among the afflictions which cause the intellectto vanish without the choice of the afflicted. That is, if the causeis not [legally] forbidden,then the intoxicatedone is not censured, ratherhe is excusedbecausethe intoxicated is without[the power of] discrimination. Similarly,that [state]may arise by seeking intoxicationfrom wine or hashish, and that is undeniablyforbidden among Muslims.He who regardsintoxicationderivedfromthese things as permissible, is an unbeliever.It [the state of intoxication]may also
31 al-Hujwiri, p. 385, defines wdridas ?the descent of spiritual meanings upon the heart. They frequently occur during audition and some novices may be overpowered by it, lose consciousness and at times die>> (p. 407). 32 Ibn Taimiya is probably referring here to those people afflicted from gazing on beautiful faces. See, Joseph Bell, Love Theoryin Later Hanbalite Islam, Albany, New York, 1979, pp. 125-144.

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arise from the love of forms or an excessive passion ('ishq) for them, as it has been said, sukran-i sukru hawa wa-sukrumudamah wa-matd ifdqatu man bi-hi sukrdn There are two intoxications: the drunkeness of passion and that of wine. When is there recovery for one who has both?33 This is blameworthy because its cause is forbidden. At other times it arises due to the audition34 of enrapturing voices which cause something like this intoxication, and this is also blameworthy; for man has no right to listen to that voice among the voices whose audition is not incumbent upon him, and which removes his reason, since the removal of reason is forbidden. So, when an unlawful cause leads to it, it is forbidden. The emotional or spiritual pleasure produced in that [state]-even though it be dhrough things connected to the faith-is submerged by the cessation of the intellect occurring along with it. God has not permitted us to allow our hearts and spirits to enjoy those pleasures of faith nor other pleasures which necessitate the cessation of our intellects, except for the one whose intellect has vanished due to a lawful cause or due to an affliction which unexpectedly befalls him, he having no means to repel it. At times, intoxication arises due to the cause in which the servant had no doing, like an unintended audition which stirs him up and drives him into a state of agitation, and such things, and so, he is not to blame in this. He is excused for what issued from him in the state of the cessation of his intellect, because the Pen [of judgement] is lifted from everyone whose intellect has vanished for a legitimate reason, as is the case with the unconscious person, the possessed, and others similar to those two. As for him whose intellect has vanished due to wine, is he legally responsible while in the state of the cessation of his intellect? There are two well-known opinions about it, and there is a famous controversy concerning the divorce of one who has this state. This also applies to one whose intellect has vanished due to marijuana (banj), as is held by the
3 Rashid al-Din Vatvat (d. c. 573/1177) also cites this line without giving its author, in his al-Haqd'iq al-sihrfidaqa'iq al-shi'r, Tehran, 1308/1930, p. 18. He gives it as an example of a line beginning and ending with the same word bearing the same meaning. 3 Concerning Ibn Taimiya's views on samd'(<<audition>>) see: his, Su'dl 'an sama' al-sdlihfn, in Majmii' fatawa, 10:587-603, and other recorded opinions in this volume 10:603-606.

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andAhmad[ibnHanbal]. followersof al-Shafi'i Again,thereis saidto be a differencebetween it [marijuana] and wine, because this [wine] is is not. Therefore, the fixedpenalty(hadd) addictingand this [marijuana] is incumbentin this [wine]but not in this [marijuana]. This is textually relatedfrom Ahmad [ibn Hanbal]and the school of AbuiHanifa. Amongthem[theintoxicated or annihilated], is he whoma suddenand strong seizure (wdrid) overpowers-whether due to a humor which prevailsin him, or something else-such that he becomespossessed. And amongthem are the intelligentones of the possessedwho are numbered among the ascetics and are, at times, called ?the despondentones?) One of the 'ulama'said about them,?They are a groupto (muwalahdin). whom God gave their intellectsand states. Then He plunderedtheir intellectsand removed[their]religiousobligationsbecauseof what He 5? plundered3 >. So these are the states to which are linked unconsciousness, death, possession,intoxication,and annihilation-such that one has no feeling of oneself-and so forth. If their causesare lawful and their possessor truthful,unableto repelthem,thenhe is praisedfor whatgood thingshe does and the faith he achieves,beingexcusedfor what he is too weakto do andfor whathas befallenhimwithouthis choice.Theyarebetterthan those who did not arriveat theirstationdue to deficiencyin theirfaith, or the hardness of the heartsor similarcauseswhichincludethe omission of what God loves or the doing of what God loathes. But those who retaintheirreason,in spiteof the fact that they acquired from faith that whichothersacquired,or similarto it or moreperfect,they [the former] are more excellent than they [the latter] are. This is the state of the Companions-may God be satisfiedwith them-and the state of our Prophet- God bless him and give him peace.For he was madeto travel by night into the heaven, and God revealedto him what He revealed. Yet, he awokeas he had spentthe night; his state did not change.Thus, 13 his state is more excellentthan that of Moses God bless him and give him peace-who fell swooning (Q. 7:143) when his Lord manifested Himself to the mountain. Moses' state is a splendid, exalted, and excellentstate, but the state of Muhammad-God bless him and give him peace is more splendid,exalted,and excellent36.
I The Rida ed. (p. 11) reads: wa-'asqat 'abwdlahumwa-'abqdma farada lamma salaba, i.e. ?and He toppled their states and made permanent what He decreed when He plundered >>. 36 The state of the Companions is Ibn Taimiya's third rank. Concerning the importance of Muhammad's state vis-a-vis that of Moses see the commentary below.

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The point is that these matters,which contain an excess in worship and states,issuedfrom Basradue to an intensefear [of God]. Certainly, with respectto the fear [of God] possessedby 'Utaba whatis mentioned al-Ghulam and 'Ata al-SulaimP7 and the like, is something extraordinary,and there is no doubt that their state is more perfect and excellentthan one who does not have what was grantedand bestowed upon themwith respectto the fearof God. But he who fearsGod with a moderate(muqtasid) fear, being called by it to do what God loves and his state is more avoid what God loathes, withoet this excessiveness, perfectand excellentthan theirs, being the state of the Companionsmay God be satisfiedwith them. It is relatedthat'Ataal-Sulaimi-may God be satisfiedwith him-was seen[ina dream] afterhis death,and he was asked,?Whathas God done withyou??) He said, ?lHesaidto me, 'O'Ata!Aren'tyou ashamedbefore Me that you wereafraidof Me to this extent?Didn't it reachyou that I am ready to pardon, merciful?'?In like fashion is what is told about those like them [the Basrans]concerningthe states of asceticism,piety, worship,and similarthings,transmitting, at times,matterswhichdue to excessbeyondthe stateof the Companions may God be satisfied [their] with them-and beyond what the Messengerestablishedas custom, necessitatethat people take sides: one partycensuresand refutesthem 14 [the excessiveones], and at times they have overdoneit, and one party goes to extremesabout them and deemsthis path to be amongthe most perfectand exaltedof paths. The truth is that they [Basrans]formulated their own opinions on these acts of worship,just as their neighborsamong (mujtahidz7n) the Kufans formulated their own opinions on matters of judicial decision,politicalauthority(imara)and similarthings. Ra'y (personal judgement),which containswhat is reprehensible to the generalpublic due to deviationfrom the Sunna, emergedamong them [Kiifans].The elite amongthe legistsand those with ra'y are dividedconcerning those Kiifans [as well]: one party censuresthem, and the are excessive in theircensure,and one partyexaggerates theirmagnificance, and deems
3 'Utabah al-Ghulam (d. 2nd/8th century) a student of al-Hasan al-Basri and one of the early ascetics, is said to have performed miracles; he was also known for his fear of God and patience. See, al-Sarraj, Lumd', Nicholson's ed., p. 322; Abul NuWaim, 6:226-238; al-Hujwlri, p. 180, and'Attar, pp. 62-63. 'Atd al-Sulaimi was a contemporary of the famous Sifi Ibrahim ibn Adhom (d. 165/782). Statements attributed to him point to a preoccupation and obsession with the fear of God and hell-fire. See: al-Sarraj, p. 322; Abu Nu'aim, 6:215-226, and'Attar, pp. 96-97.

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them to be more learnedin jurisprudence than any others.Sometimes, they prefer them over the Companions, just as the ?extremists?) (al-ghulat)concerningthose worshippers,at times prefer them over the Companions.This is a domainin whichthe people are divided. That whichis properfor a Muslimto know is that the best speechis the speechof God, the best guidanceis the geidanceof Muhammadwas the may God blesshim andgranthimpeace-the best of generations generationin which he gas raised,and that the most excellentof paths and roadsto God is the one whichhe and his companions followed.One that they fear God upon believers knows,therefore,that it is incumbent with their individualdiligent effort (ijtihMd) (yattaqu) commensurate and ability (wus'), as God He is most high-has said, ?Fear God as much as you can?)(Q. 69:16). He [Muhammad]-mayGod bless him 15 and give him peace-has said, ?WhenI give you an orderaccomplish as much of it as you can38.? He has said, <<God does not commissiona personexcept[within]its capacity?) (Q. 2:286). Although the majorityof believers-the pious, the friends(awliyd') of God-may not have receivedwhat the Companionsreceivedwith regards to the perfection of religiousknowledge ('i/m)andfaith,theyfear God as best they can and obeyHim according to theirindividual diligent effort. Thus, it is inevitablethat they will err, whetherin their sciences and doctrines (aqwal), or in their actions and states, but they are rewarded for theirobedience,and He pardonsthemfor theirerrors.For indeedGod-He is most high-has said,
The messenger believed in what came down to him from His Lord and (so did) the believers. Each one believes in God, His angels, books, and messengers We make no distinction between any of His messengers-and they said, 'We hear and obey. [Grant us] Your pardon our Lord, to You is destiny ... 'Our Lord, do nod punish us if we forget or err'. (Q. 2:285-286)

God-He is most high-has said, <I have done it?). So, anyonewho deemsthe path of one of the 'ulama'or legists,or the or asceticsto be moreexcellentthan the path of one of the worshippers path of the Companions,is mistaken,astray,and innovating.He who considersany personwho does his best in forminghis own opinionon a pious deed-while beingmistakenin some matters to be blameworthy, and disgusting,he is mistaken,astray,and innovating. disgraceful, Furthermore, people in love, hate, friendship, and enmityalso apply individual judgement, hittingthe marksometimesand sometimes erring.
38

al-Bukhari, SahTh,o<Bdb al-itisdm,: #i6; Muslim, SahTh,<<Bab al-halj>>,#416.

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17

Many people, if they discern in a man what they love, they love him absolutely and ignore his faults. But if they discern in him what they hate, they hate him absolutely and ignore his merits, [abandoning]39 the protection and state of one who speaks with circumspection. This is among the doctrines of the innovators, the Kharajites, the Mu'tazilah, and the Murji'ah. The people of the Sunna and community assert what the Book, Sunna, and consensus point to, namely that the believer deserves-thanks to God's promise and His grace-reward for his good deals and punishment for his misdeeds. Although there is only the single individual, there is gathered in him what is rewarded and what is punished, what is praiseworthy and what is worthy of blame, what is loved and what is hated. And so that's that. One knows then, that Stufism'splace of origin was Basra, and that there were there those who trod the path of worship and asceticism that they used independent reasoning (ijtihad) in it, just as there were in Kuifa those who trod the path of jurisprudence and religious knowledge, using independent judgement in it. Yhey [the Basrans] were linked to the outward manner of dress, it being a wool garment, so that it was said of one of them, <<He is a Sfif>>.But their path is not restricted to the wool garment; they did not require it nor did they make the whole affair dependent on it. Rather, they were [only] referred to by it because it was [their] outward state. Moreover, in their opinion, Stufismhas truths (haqa'iq) and recognized states; they have spoken of its ordinances (hudu7d), its ways of life and morals. Like the saying of one of them, <<The Sfiff is he who has become clear of turbidity, full of contemplation (al-fikr); gold and stone are equal in his sight>>.<?Sifism is the concealment of [spiritual] meanings and the abandonment of pretensions (al-da'dwa)>>, and similar things. They allude with st7Jitothe meaning siddTq (the <<righteous>>). The best of mankind after the prophets are the righteous, as God-He is most high-has said,
And they are those to whom God has shown favor, among the prophets,the righteous, the martyrs, and the honestones, and they are the best as a companion. (Q. 4:69)

Therefore, after the prophets there is no one more virtuous in their opinion than the Stiff, but he is in fact a type of righteous one. Thus, he is the righteous one distinguished by the asceticism and worship in which
3

Rida (p. 16) notes that this clause is corrupt and lacking something.

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they [the ascetics]strive diligently(ijtahadii). He is the righteousman of the path, just as it is said, ?the righteousones of the 'ulam?'>> and ?the righteousones of the amirs>>. Hence, he is more specificthan the absolutely righteous and one below the perfectlyrighteous one [i.e.] the righteousones among the Companions,the Successorsand their Successors.So, when it is said about those ascetics and worshippers amongthe Basransthat they are righteous,it is as whenit is said about the imamsof jurisprudence of Kiifa,that they are amongthe inhabitants each according also righteous, to the path upon whichhe travels,due to the obedienceto God and his apostle,commensurate with his individual diligenteffort.Theycan be amongthe most outstanding of the righteous with respectto theirtime, and so amongthe most perfectlyrighteousof their time. However,the righteousone in the first generationis more perfectthan they are. The rigteousare in ranksand types.Thus,thereexistsfor each one of thema type of stateand devotionalact appropriate for himandwhichhe mastersand is supremein, althoughthere are otherswith other types, who are betterand more excellentthan he is. Becauseof the independent reasoningand its controversy, whichhave takenplaceamongmost of them[theSifis], peoplehavebeenat variance their[the Sufis']path. Thus, one side censured concerning the Sifis and and said that they were innovatorsand outside of the Sunna. Siufism, Well-known statements on this [issue]havebeen relatedfroma groupof the imams,and groupsof legistsand theologianshave followedthem in that. Another group went to extremesconcerningthem[theSiffis]and claimedthat theywerethe best of mankind andthe mostperfectafterthe prophets.Both sides in this matterare blameworthy. What is correct is that they [the Siifis] exercise their independent judgmentin obedienceto God just as otherswho are obedientto God have also done. Among them is the foremost(al-sabiq) who drawsnear [to God] on the basis of this diligent effort, and among them is the moderatewho belongsto the ?Peopleof the RightHand>>. Amongboth classesis one who may strivediligently but err,and somewho sin, repent and othersdo not. And amongthose claimingaffiliationwith them, are those who are unjustto themselves, rebellingagainsttheir Lord. Sects of innovatorsand zindiqs40 have claimedaffiliationwith them,
40 Ibn Taimiya uses the term zindTq to brand a person whose profession of Islam seems to lack sufficient sincerity and whose <intellectual rebellion>> insults the custom of the prophet Muhammad. See, Louis Massignon in El1.1, 4:1228-1229, and G. Vajda, ?Les Zindiq en pays d'Islam au debut de la periode abbaside?>,Revista degli Studi Orientali, 1937.

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but in the opinion of the genuine Sutfis, they do not belong. [Take] al-Hallaj4> for example. Most of the shaikhs of the path refused to have anything to do with him and expelled him from the path, as did al-Junaid ibn Muhammad, the master of the sect, and others as shaykh AbuiAbd al-Rahman al-Sulami mentions in the Tabaqatal-S iflyah42, and al-Hafiz Abui Bakr al-Khatib in the Tarikh Baghdad43. This, then, is the origin of Sifism. Then it branched out after that and diversified; the Suifis came to be of three types: oSiufis of the True Realities>> (al-haqd'iq), ?Funded Sifis>> (al-arzdq)44 and ?Stifis of Convention>> (al-rasm). As for the <S<ifisof the True Realities>>, they are those who we have described. As for the ?Funded Sutfis>>, they are those to whom religious endowments, like khanqahs,were bequeathed. But it is not necessary for them to be among the people of true realities, for this is a rare thing, most of the people of true realities not being characterized by the need for khanqahs45. Rather, three things are incumbent upon them [this second class]. One of them is lawful, proper conduct so as to carry out the religious requirements (al-fard'id) and abstain from the forbidden. The second is civility (al-ta'dib) by means of the Sifi rules of conduct (al-addb) which are generally lawful rules. As for the innovated, conventional rules, one should not pay attention to them. The third [requisite]is that none of them be attached to the dross of this world. So, as for him who hordes wealth or is not endowed with praiseworthy virtues, and who is unrefined in the legal rules of conduct, or a sinner, he is not entitled to that [privilege of being among these Sufis]. As for the <<Sifis of Convention>>they are restricted to the name 20 (al-nisbah), and so their concern is with the dress, the conventional rules of conduct, and such like. Hence, among the Siufis,they have the status of one restricted to the attire of the people of learning and those of jihad, and to a certain portion of their sayings and acts, in such a way that the ignorant supposes that the truth of the matter is that he belongs to them [the learned], though he does not.

41 al-Husain ibn MansOr al-Hallaj was executed in 309/922 for heresy. For an exhaustive bibliography see Ch. 15 of Louis Massignon, La Passion de Husayn Ibn Mansuir Hallaj, (Paris, 1975). 42 al-Sulami, p. 308. 43 al-Khatib al-Baghdid1, 8:112-113ff. 44 i.e. those Sufis supported by endowments. 4 The Rida edition (p. 24) gives an alternate reading: wa-akbar- ahl- al-haqd'iq la yatasadduna bi-lawdzim- al-khawaniq, i.e. <(Thegreatest of the people of true realities do not concern themselves with the requirements of khdnqdhs>>.

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As for the name faqir (?poor man?), ?mendicant?>),it is found in the Book of God and the Sunna of God's messenger-may God bless him and give him peace but what is designated by it in the Book and the Sunna is the poor as opposed to the wealthy man. As the Prophet-may God bless him and give him peace-has said46, ?The Poor and poverty are of [different] types; because of it [poverty] taking alms (zakat) is justified. Its opposite is wealth which prohibits and forbids the taking of alms>>. Just as the Prophet-may God bless him.and give him peace- has said, ?Alms are not lawful to a wealthy man nor to him capable of
>>47 earning.

The wealth which necessitates the giving of alms is different from this [the property which allows taking alms] in the opinion of the great majority of 'ulama'-as with Malik48, al-Shafi'l, and Ahmad [ibn Hanbal]-it being the possession of the minimum amount of property liable to alms. It is their opinion, contrary to that of AbtuHanifa49, that giving alms is sometimes incumbent upon a man, but [under certain conditions] taking alms is also permitted him. God-may He be praised-has mentioned the poor in [a number ofl passages, but God has mentioned the poor deserving alms in one verse and those deserving booty in [another] verse. Concerning the first He has said,
If you make public your alms, then it is a benefit; but if you conceal them and give them to the poor (fuqard') then that is better for you ... [to His saying] ... to the poor emigres (muhajiriin)who are beleaguered for the sake of God, unable to travel on the Earth, the ignorant consider them prosperous because of [their] abstinence. You will recognize them by their expression; they do not ask people [for alms] with importunity. (Q. 2:271-273)

21

And He said concerning the second,

That which God gives as booty to His Prophet, from the inhabitants of the towns, ... [to His saying] ... [and] to the poor (fuqara'), the emigres who were deprived of their homes and property, who seek God's bounty and favor from God, while they give assistance to God and His messenger; these are the righteous ones. (Q. 59:7-8)

At times, there is among the poor one who is more virtuous than the best of a great many rich people, and at times, there is among the rich
This statement is not found in the major hadith collections. This hadfth is found in the Musnad of Abiu Daud, <Bab al-zakdt>>,# 25. 48 Malik ibn Anas (179/795) was the founder of the Maliki school of jurisprudence and author of the earliest surviving Muslim law book. See, J. Schacht, in E.', 3:205-209. 49 Abui Hanifa (d. 150/767) was a theologian and legal expert, providing the foundations for the later Hanifi school of jurisprudence. See, J. Schacht in E.1.2, 1:123-214.
46 4

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one who is more virtuousthan the best of a great many of them [the poor]. People have differedconcerningwho is better, the patientpoor manor the thankful,richone. Thetruthis thatthe betterof the two is the more God-fearing one, and if they are equalin theirpiety (taqwd),then they are equal in rank,as we have clearlyexplainedin anotherplace50. Certainly,the poor will precedethe rich into paradisewithout being judged,then the richwill be calledto account.But, he whose meritsare weightierthan those of a.poor man, his rankin paradisewill be higher, althoughhe followedhim when entering;he whose meritsare less than his [the poor man's]his rankwill be lower. However,since the genre <(asceticism>> was predominant among the came in of to the poor, faqr (?poverty>>) be, usage many people, an expression for the path of asceticism, whichis of the genresuifism. Thus, if it is said, ?Thereis povertyin this one>>, or ?Thereis no povertyin this it does not meanlack of wealth.Rather,it meanswhatis meantby one>>, 22 the term sz7fi,namely types of gnosis, states, moral qualities,rules of conduct,and similarthings. People have disputed this usage; which is better, the faqTror the of the Sufif, as did Abti Hafs Sufif?One side held to the preferability andthoselike him,and one sideheldto the preferability al-Suhraward7i5I of the faqTr,as did numerous groups. Sometimes these [faqTrs] are attachedto retreats (zawTyds) and these[$Sffs] to monasteries (khMnqdhs) and similarthings52. The majorityof peoplegive preference to thefaqar. The truth is that the more preferableof the two is the most Godfearingone and so, if the Stuff is more God-fearing he is the betterone, being more active in doing what God loves and more abstentiousfrom whatHe does not love. Thus,he is betterthanthefaqYr.But,if thefaqTr is more active in doing what God loves and more abstentiousfrom what He does not love, thenhe is better.However,if the two areequalin doing
50 See Ibn Taimiya's, Fasl kathr tandzu' al-nds, ayyumd afdal: al-faqfr al-sabir aw-alghanTal-shdkir? (?People have varied a great deal concerning which is better: a patient poor man or a thankful rich one??), in Majmua fatdwa, 11:122-133. 51 The Majmirfatdwd edition (p. 22) reads Aba JaTfar al-Suhrawardi, while the Rida version (p. 25) gives the more desirable reading of Abi Hafs al-Suhrawardi, referringto the famous Sifi who died in 632/1234 and author of the very popular Awdrif al-ma'arif. See, Schimmel, pp. 244-245. 52 This seems to be the meaning of this sentence. Ibn Taimiya has already referred to Siifi khdnqdhs; see above: Laoust and others have pointed out that khdnqdhs usually housed Sufis while zdwiyas generally were the residences of ascetics (fuqard'). However, Laoust cites this statement in al-Sufiyah wa-l-fuqard' as evidence of Ibn Taimiya's ambiguity regarding these terms. See: Laoust, Essai, p. 22 and n. 2, p. 22.

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the desirable, and abstaining from the undesirable, then they are equal in rank. The ?friends?)(awliyd') of God are the pious believers, whether called faqTr,$Sifi, legist, scholar, merchant, soldier, artisan, amir, governor, or something else. God-He is most high-has said,
The friends (awlih'd') of God! There is no fear over them, and they do not grieve. They are those who believe and are God-fearing. (Q. 10:62-63)

In the Sahih of al-Bukhari [it is related] by Abfi Hurairah that the Prophet-may God bless him and give him peace-said,
God-He is most high has said, <Whoever treats a friend (wail) of mine as an enemy, takes the field against Me in battle. Nothing draws My servant near to Me like the performance of what I prescribe for him as religious duty. Then My servant continues to draw nearer to Me by supererogatory acts until I love him. So that, when I love him, I become his ear by which he hears, his eye by which he sees, his hand by which he grasps, and his foot by which he walks. Thus, by Me he hears; by Me he sees; by Me he grasps, and by Me he walks. If he asks Me [for something], I certainly give it, and if he seeks refuge with Me, indeed I protect him. I never hesitated from doing anything like My hesitating to seize the soul of My believing servant who hates death, and I hate to hurt him, but he can not escape it53.

This hadhthhas clearly set forth the moderate friends of God-?the and those brought near-? the foremost>>. The people of the right hand?>, first category is those who have drawn near to God by means of the required religious duties, while the second category is those who have drawn near to Him by supererogatory acts after the required ones, being those ?who continue to drag near to Him by supererogatory acts entil He loves them>>, as God He is most High-has said. God has mentioned these two categories in more than one passage of His Book, as He has said,
Then We gave the Book as an inheritance to those ghom We chose from among Our servants. And among them is he who wrongs himself, the moderate one, and the foremost one in good deeds ... (Q. 35:32)

And as God-He

is most high-has said,

Certainly the righteous are in felicity, on couches, gazing. You will recognize the splendor of felicity in their faces. They are given pure gine, sealed, to drink; its seal is musk-and in that let the contenders contend-its blend is from Tasnim, a springfrom which the near ones drink. (Q. 83:22-28)

81:38:2. For an analysis of this well-known hadith see, William A. 53al-Bukhari, Graham, Divine Word and Prophetic Word in Early Islam, Paris, 1977, pp. 173-174.

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Ibn'Abbass4has said,
24 The near ones drink from it [the wine], it being pure, while it is mixed, a blend, for the Companions of the Right Hand.

He He is most high-has said,

There [in Paradise] they are given a cup to drink; its blend is from Zanjabfl. There (Q. 76:17-18) is a spring there called SalsabTI.

And He-He is most high has said,

And the Companions of the Right Hand; what are the Companions of the Right Hand? And the Companions of the Left Hand; what are the Companions of dhe Left Hand: And the Foremost; the Foremost are those brought near. (Q. 56:8-11)

And He-He is most high has said,

09n But if he is among those brought near, then [he receives at judgment] a breath of life, sweet basil and a garden of felicity. But if he is among the Companions of the Right Hand, then [he receives] 'Peace be upon you', from the Companions of the Right (Q. 56:88-91) Hand.

This is the reply,containingsentencesin need of an extensivedetailed expositionwhich this occasionwas not sufficientfor. God knows best.
Ibn Taimiya's Silfism and al-.Sufyah wa-l-fuqara'

and other works, that Ibn It is clear from al-Sufiyahwa-l-fuqara' Taimlya appreciatedcertain spiritual dimensionsof Islam and their mystiimportanceto Muslimsociety. He believedthat a moral-ethical cism could provide a strongly disciplinedinteriorlife by condemning andpatience5 5. andby promoting sincerity egoism,pride,andhypocrisy, and intuition?) informed' <<Faith ?religious al-imami) (al-dhawq Siufism's ecstacy?> (al-wajdal-dTni56were invaluableto Ibn Taimiya for conan experiential the internalbasis for the law whichnecessitated structing and emotional,as well as a rational,component.
As for the Sufis, they affirm the love (of God)-this is more evident among them than all other issues. The basis of their Way (tarTqa)is simply will and love. The
5 'Abd Allah ibn al-'Abbas (d-68/686) is considered the father of Qur'anic exegesis and one of the first Muslims to gather information about the Prophet by questioning the Companions. See, L. Veccia Veglieri, E.l.2, 1:40-41. 5 H. Laoust, Essai sur les doctrines sociales et politiques de TakT-d-DTn Ahmad b. Taim7va,Cairo, 1939, p. 85. 5 T. Michel, <<Ibn Taymiyya's Sharh on the Futu-h al-Ghayb ofAbd al-Qadir al-Jilani>>, in Hamdard Islamicus, 4:2:11, n. 23.

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affirmation of the love of God is well-known in the speech of their early and their recent masters, just as it is affirmed in the Book and the sunna and in agreement of the
salaf57 .

Ibn Taimiya is not concerned However,in al-Suifyahwa-l-fuqard', with these psychological elements; instead, he attempts to outline withinthe S-ufism's originsand discussthe behaviorof its practitioners framework of his own ideas and beliefswhichhe presentsin this epistle. He impliesthat the termst7fiwas used beginningin the secondor third century A.H., and following an inquiry into the derivation of the adjective,he states that the first to wear the wool garmentdistinctive to the Stfifs,were the Basrans.These Muslimswere excessivein their worshipof God, but althoughthey exceededthe boundsof moderation
set by the Qur'dn and the Sunna of Muhammad, they were more

commendablethan those who lacked their apprehensionof God's living presence.Such excessiveness, however,did not occur among the Prophet's companions, some of whom criticizedit as affectation or innovation.Throughout this work,Ibn Taimiyaappliesthe conductand customof Muhammad and his companions, the salaf (<<ancestors>>), as a criterionto judgelaterpractice,whichhe believedhad declinedin moral puritywith each passinggeneration. He considered Muhammad and his companionsto be the best of mankind,holdingthe highestrankin piety and morality; the righteous people of their generation were more righteous than any others. However, Ibn Taimiya did not view the inevitabledeclineas primarily an opportunityfor Satan to successfully deludeMuslims,as his Hanbalipredecessor Ibn al-Jauzihad asserted58 Rather, the decline was a cause for the interior weakening of the individual and so, mightlead to swooningand otherexcessivebehavior. Yet, this did not diminishIbn Taimlya'srespectfor the pious of later generationsor of his contemporaries, and he often expresseda real admiration for a numberof Sfifi shaikhs,such as Ma'riuf al-Karkhi,alJunaid, and Abui Hafs al-Suhrawardi,whose opinions he quoted. Nevertheless,due to their distance in time from the Prophet and his companions,they were more liable to excess and errorand so may not serveas a sure standardfor properconduct59.
5 Ibn Taimiya, al-Ihtijaf bi-l-qadar, Cairo: al-Matba'at al-Salaflya, 1974, p. 38. Translation by Michel, ibid., pp. 11-12, n. 24. 58 Ibn al-Jawzi, TalbFs IblTs, Cairo, 1928, p. 158. Also see Joseph N. Bell, Love Theoryin Later Hanbalite Islam, Albany, New York, 1979, pp. 42-46. 59 See: Michel, <<IbnTaymiyya's Sharh>>, p. 5 and p. 10, n. 10, and also his , Ibn Taymiyya's al-Jawab al-Sahih, Chicago, 1978, 1:126-128.

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Ibn Taimlya's insistence on the pristine state of the salaf was predicated upon this use of theirexample,as well as that of Muhammad, together with the teaching of the Qur'an, as the infallibleauthorities for true belief and right action. Therefore,when giving examples of swooningduringauditionof the Qur>an,Ibn Taimlyarefersto Zurara ibn Awfa as qddi of Baghdd6d, a third or fourth generationMuslim, and not to Zurarahibn Awfa6l, a companion of Muhammadabout cites this story, along whom the same story is told62. In fact, al-Sarraj in clear with others, his Luma', as a proof that ecstaticstates, resulting even in death, occurred among the Companions63,something Ibn Taimlyaexplicitlydenies.The point of contentionlies in theirperception of religiousexperience. Ibn TainYiya quotesthe Qur'an to give accounts of the states said to belong to the salaf, thus assertingtheirvalidityand excellence. But otherpsychological and mysticalstatesnot mentionedin the Qur'an he finds ambiguous, liableto an interpretation againstIslam, and due to the loss of consciousnessin them, renderingan individual to demonicpossessionor psychological susceptible delusions64. Legally forbidden causes such as the intentional audition of voices and melodies65,and the imbibingof wine or hashish66,could also induce similarstates of unconsciousness, whethercalled intoxication,passing away (fana') or somethingelse, leadingto offensivedetestable behavior, andthis addedto Ibn Taimiya's uneasiness withthesestates.Contrary to al-Sarraj and al-Hujwiri who acceptedmomentsof unconsciousness or ecstasyas occurringto the pious of everyage and as manifestations of God's grace,Ibn Taimiya judgedthemto be afflictionswhichfrequently befalla persontoo weak to bearthemand an obstacleto a correctfaith which demandsconsciousnessand reason67.The only acceptable fand'
See n. 10 to the epistle. Ibn 'Abd al-Barr in his Isti'abfi ma'arifat al-ashdb, Cairo, 196-, p. 517 lists Zurara ibn Awfa (in the margin Zurara ibn Abi Awfr) as a companion who died during the caliphate of 'Uthman (25-35/644-654). 62 al-Sarraj, Luma', ed. Nicholson, London, 1963, p. 139, and al-Hujwiri The Kashf al-Ma.hjub,tr. Nicholson, p. 396, who gives the name as Zurara ibn Abi Awfra.
60 61 63 64

Ibid.

Michel, Ibn Taymiyya's al-Jawdb al-Sah.h, 1:125-126; 130-133. 65 Concerning Ibn Taimiya's attitude toward ?audition>> (sama') see his works referred to in n. 72 of the text, and also, Laoust, Essai, p. 248. 66 Ibn Taimlya seems to gave held hashish to be more pernicious than wine and its use, therefore, deserving a more severe punishment. However, as this epistle shows, there were different opinions on this matter. See Laoust, Essai, p. 376. 67 Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziya elaborates Ibn Taimiya's views of fand', in his Taraq al-hijratain wa-bdbal-sa'ddatain, Cairo, 1358/1939, pp. 334-335 and his Maddrijal-sdlikmn, Rida ed., Cairo, 1131-33/1912-15, 1:84. See Bell, pp. 171-181 and especially 173-174.

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to the ?stations>> for Ibn Taimlyathen, was one which corresponded

68, al(maqdmat), not states, of fand' and baqd discussed by al-Sarraj

and otherswho spoke of the passingaway Kaldbddhi69, al-Qushiyri70, of man'swill and love for all otherthan God, and his abidingin the love of God and His will. This was not a loss of consciousnessor a passive of whatever acceptance happensin the world,but an activeobedienceto and the Sunnaof Muhammad God's will as manifestin the Qur'dn and
the salaf.

The Qur'an and the Sunnabecamethe touchstonefor testingthe moral qualitiesof any state, and Ibn Taimlyafrequentlyreferredto them in to supporthis arguments,as in his defenseof al-Sfiyah wa-al-fuqara' the superiorityof the conscious, obedient servant over a person who had swooned.On this issue, he contrastsMuhammad's encounterwith relevationto that of Moses; when God appearedto the mountain, Moses swooned (Q. 7:143), while Muhammadremained conscious duringhis nightjourney,his normalstate unchanged (Q. 53:5-18).Since Muhammadwas the best of all prophets, his state must have been superior to Mosesswooning,thoughIbnTaimiyaaddsthat this,too, was a noble state71. al-Junaid (d. 298/911) had earlier juxtaposedthe state of Moses with that of Muhammadbut without comparisonor appraisal; both states represented the station in which gnosis-too vast for any for any words-was revealed space,inappropriate to the elect mysticsof God72. This and other survivingwritingsof al-Junaidclearlyshow his concernwith the mysticalexperience and its nature,and his attemptsto expressand communicateit to others, to refinethe Stfifs'lexicon and
68 al-Sarraj, Luma', pp. 213-214; 225; 341; 347; 388; 427; 433, and R. A. Nicholson, <The Goal Muhammedan Mysticism>>, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1913, pp. 5568. 69 al-Kaldbddhi, Doctrine of The Suifts, Tr. A. J. Arberry, Cambridge, England, 1975, pp. 120-132. 70 al-Qushairi, Risdla, ed. 'Abd al-Halim Mahmiud and Muhammad ibn al-Sharif, Cairo, no date, 1:228-231. 71 Bell, pp. 175-176, discusses Ibn Qayyim's usage of the same proof in his TarTq (pp. 418-19), showing that Ibn Qayyim would not accept the state of unconsciousness or bewilderment as a justifiable mystical state. Further, Bell shows that Ibn Qayyim in his Maddrij(3:50) attempts to avoid the use of Moses' state as an example, claiming that it was not the revelation but the disintegrating mountain which caused Moses to swoon. Ibn Taimlya seems to have been more open minded on this point. 72 al-Junaid, Kitdb dawd' al-arwdh (?<The Book of the Cure of Souls?)), ed. and tr. by A. J. Arberry, in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1937, pp. 119-131. See especially pp. 221-222 of the Arabic text and 226-228 of the translation. al-Kalabidhi, p. 123 also refers to Moses' swooning as an example of bewilderment but without reference to Muhammad and his night journey. See also: A. E. Affifi, ?The Story of The Prophet's Ascent (Mi'raj) in Sufi Thought and Literature?>, in Islamic Quarterly2 (1955), pp. 23-27.

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of the experience andits progression. therebydeepentheirunderstanding Rather than polemical or defensive in tone, al-Junaid'sletters and and suggestive. epistlesare experimental However, Ibn Taimlya'scomparisonof Muhammad'sand Moses' states and, in fact, the entire al-ufiyah wa-l-fuqara', is characterized by the need to demarcatethe limits of bonafide mysticalexperiences, to codify those states which could be useful for an active religiouslife in society, avoiding, indeed opposing, the fatalistic and antinomian proclivities acceptedor fosteredby the monistdoctrinesof Ibn al-Arabli (d. 638/1240) and others. This shift in emphasiswas derivedin part from the changingsocio-historical conditionswhich had resultedin a prevailinginterestin the reformof the Muslimcommunityand of the Islamic social order, and Ibn Taimlya and other reformers,like Ibn Qayyimal-Jawziya(691-751/1292-1350) and Shah Wall Allah of Delhi (1113-1176/1702-62), clungto this as theiressentialgoal andmosturgent need73 This conscious desire to return to the pristine Islam of the of Sifism withinthis reformist ancestors,and the interpretation context, separateIbn Taimiyaand later mysticallyinclinedreformers from the early Sufis whose main task was the articulation of the mystical and the individual's experience moral and physiological well-being.Ibn Taimlyais a partof the Siifi tradition in the sensethat he believedSifism to be the followingof the way of the salaf and early$Sfis 4. But if Ibn Taimlyaand the Hanbalischoolpreserved the moral-ethical spiritof the theirpoint of view and emphasiswas quitedifferent, earlySuifis, and the term <<neo-SUbfb> may help to distinguishthese importantvariations7 5. Givenhis socialand reformist concernsand the enigmatic character of the mysticalstates and experiences, Ibn Taimiyacould not accepttheir infallibility, and their religious integrity and worth could only be
determined by reference to the Qur'dn and
Sunna76.

Yet, individual

and effort,thoughliableto error,could be usefulin choosing experience the more probablycorrectcourse of action in an ambiguoussituation.
73Concerning the reformist spirit and movements of this time, see F. Rahman, Islam, Garden City, New York, 1968, pp. 237-260. 74 G. Makdisi, <<The Hanbali School and Sufism >>, in Actas do IV Congresso de Estudios Arabes a IslCimicos,1968, Leiden, 1971, pp. 83-84. 7S For other discussions of the term <<neo-Sffi>>, see Rahman, Islam, pp. 239-240; Michel, Ibn Taymiyya's al-Jawdb al-SahT'h, 1:136, and Makdisi, <<Ibn Taimilya: A Sufi of in American Journal of Arabic Studies, V. 1 (1973), p. 122. In using The Qadiliya Order?>, the term (<neo-Sufi?> I wish only to point out Ibn Taimiya's shift in emphasis and not to disassociate him from the mainstream Suifitradition. Neo-Sufi does not mean pseudo-Sifi. 7 Rahman, Islam, pp. 177-179; 238-240.

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Ibn Taimiyadid not believethat everyparticular of an individual's life was coveredby the Qur'dn and Sunna,and so therewas a need at times to discover the Divine command. In such situations, Ibn Taimlya recommendedthe use of ijtihdd (?individual reasoning>>, ?diligent effort>>) to determinethe action conformingmost to God's will. One's decisioncould be based on ilham(?inspiration>?) or dhawq(?spiritual which may be strongerthan other availablemeans such as intuition>>)
weak analogies or weak hadiths 7.
If the sdlik has creatively employed his efforts to the external shar'T indications and sees no clear probability concerning the preferable action, he may feel inspiredalong with his goodness of intention and reverent fear of God-to choose one of two actions as superior (to the other). This kind of inspiration is an indication concerning the truth. It may be even a stronger indication than weak analogies, weak hadiths, weak literal arguments (zawdhir), and weak istishabs which are employed by many of those who delve into the principles, differences, and systematizing of fiqh.

The person who strivesdiligentlyto discoverand implementGod's will, doing supererogatory acts and succeeding,he iv among the Foreof God's creation,while the ?Companionsof the Right most (al-sdbiq) Hand? (ashabal-yamTn) are those who, with moderation, are contentto activelyfulfillthe established 78. Someerrorwas inevitable, requirements and this has led to divergence and disputeconcerning$fifsm's essence andpractice.Ibn Taimlyadeclared thatif the Sifi's errorresulted froma sincereeffort to ascertaincorrectbehavior,he would be pardoned,and he shouldrectifyit by recourse to the Qur'an and Sunna.If, however,the error derived from an individual'sbelief that he had been granted a revelation whichannulledthe old or allowedfor its suspension, thenthat personand his transgression wereclearlycondemned.al-HallaJ and the zindiqrepresented for Ibn Taimiya,examplesof such self-delusion and possession,unitingthe most heinous aspectsof unregulated individual experienceand judgment,with the rejectionof both the doctrinesand legal commandsof the prophets79. Ibn Taimiyawas quickto point out thatthereputablesiifishaikhshadalwayscondemned suchbehavior,and he elaboratedon this in anotherwork80:
Michel, <dIbn Taymiyya's Sharh>>, pp. 8-9. Michel's translation from Ibn Taimiya's, Sharh kalimdt li-Abd al-Qddir, in Majmzu'fatdwa, 10:473. Also see: Makdisi, o<Ibn Taimiya>>,p. 128. For a discussion of Ibn Taimiya's conception and use of ijtihad see: Laoust, Essai, pp. 226-230. 78 Also see: Ibn Taimiya, Sharh kalimat li->Abd al-Qddir, in Majmi' fatdwd, 10:470. ' Michel, Ibn Taymiyya's al-Jawab al-Sahih, 1:95-96; 141-145. Also see: Rahman, Islam, pp. 132-133. 80 Ibn Taimlya, Sharh kalimdt li-4Abd al-Qddir, in Majmii'fataw&, 10:516-517. Michel's translation in o<Ibn Taymiyya's Sharhlz, p. 10, n. 10.

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The upright among the followers of the Path like the majority of the early al-salaf), such as Fudayl ibn 'Iyacd,Ibrdhim ibn Adham, Ma'ariif shay'khs(shuyuikh al-Karkh1, al-Sari al-Saqati, al-Junayd ibn Muhammad and others of the early teachers, as well as Shaykh'Abd al-Qadir, Shaykh Hammad, Shaykh Abii'l-Bayan and others of the later masters do not permit the followers of the Path to depart from the divinely legislated command and prohibition, even were that person to have flown in the air or walked on water. He must do what is commanded and avoid what is forbidden until he die. This is the Truth which the Book and sunna have indicated.

Clearly, then, Ibn Taimiya did not consider mystical experience to be an end in itself; it was redeemable only insofar as it deepened the individual's knowledge of God's will and its realization in the social order8". Against this standard, Ibn Taimiya ranks the Stifis in three groups; those who have utilized their mystical experiences and individual reasoning to the greatest extent in obedience to God are the <<Sfifsof True Realities>>(suifiyat al-haqa'iq). Lesser Stfifs concern themselves primarily with proper conduct and the fulfillment of the religious requirements, the cultivation of civility, and detachment from the world's refinements. These Stifis of lower status were by far the majority, and they frequently resided in khdnqdhs, hence the name <<$Sfisof Allowance>>(su7fiyat al-arzaq). The third category are the imitators and charlatans who were Stufisin name and dress only, and he called them <<Sifisof Ceremony>> (suftyat al-rasm). In the last portion of al-.Sifiyah wa-l-fuqard' Ibn Taimiya turns briefly to a discussion of poverty and the poor. He states that the term faqr (?poverty>>)no longer meant a lack of wealth, but had become a synonym for Stufismdue to the asceticism which had long been a part of Sufifsmand a major root of its origin. Previously, however, the term had referred to material need as the Qur'an clearly shows. Ibn Taimiya then concludes this epistle and summarizes these thoughts by addressing the question: Who is more virtuous, the mendicant (faqhr)or the Sufif?His answer is the same as that given to the earlier question of preference between a patient poor man or a thankful rich one; the most excellent is the one with the most taqwa and so, more active in carrying out God's commands and obeying His prohibitions. The word taqwd often translated by the term ?piety>> or ?fear of God>>,means to be conscious of the fact that whereas man acts, the limits not to be transgressed by his actions and the standard of their judgement, belong to God82. These
81 Fazlur Rahman, Prophecy in Islam, p. 101. Also see: Bell, pp. 86-87, 178; and Michel, Ibn Tavmiyya's al-Jawab al-Sah7h, 1:136-141. 82 Fazlur Rahman, Major Themes of the Qur'dn,Chicago: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1980, p. 29.

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guidelines,Ibn Taimiyabelieved,were set down in the Qur'anand the

Sunna.

Wealth or lack of it83, mystical states or their absence, become of secondary importancein determininga truly religious man; the bestowedon Siffis <<are ((friends?) (awliyd')of God-a title frequently
the pious believers (al-mu'minuin al-muttaqun)whether calledfaqTr, Siifi,

legist, scholar,merchant,soldier,artisan,amir,governor,or something else?). Ibn Taimlya's criterion is dominated by the primacy of the sharT'ah, the law, and while it was the beginningof the mysticpath for many $ufis, it was the ultimategoal for Ibn Taimiya,but one accomhad been paniedby a sense of moralpeacewhen the legal prescriptions
fulfilled84. The friends of God, the Companions of the Right Hand, and

the Foremost,are the beloved of God, and with their concernfor the orthodoxdogma and the Islamicsocial order,they striveto fulfill His commandswithinthe community,assuredof a greatreward.Although may have had God's chosen ones portrayedin al-.Suflyah wa-l-fuqard' was not a the truesign if theirexcellence religiousstatesand experiences, mysticalone but, deducedfromthe beliefsof the neo-SiifiIbn Taimiya,it by the Qur'dn andthe was the qualityof theirmoralpurityas established
Sunna.
83 That Ibn Taimiya did not view poverty as better in itself than wealth, Laoust believes, shows the <mercantile temper>> of Ibn Taimiya's doctrine. See: Laoust, Essai, p. 40. 84 Laoust, Essai, p. 471. See also: Michel, <IbnTaymiyya's Sharh>>, p. 5.

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