Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences

Radiation Safety and Radioactive Waste Management Course

(Lecture 4 , 5)
DISPERSION MODELLING (GAUSSIAN PLUME CONCEPT)
In an effort to predict the concentration of pollutants remote from the source, many better techniques than simplified
fixed-box models have been evolved. These include physical modeling, empirical modeling, statistical modeling,
numerical modeling and Gaussian modeling. Traditionally physical modeling utilizing wind tunnels was used.
However, only a few centers in the world had adequately sized wind tunnels to investigate urban pollutant plumes. To
overcome scaling effects, models of urban areas required to be of adequate size so as to properly represent the variation
in vertical velocity and temperature profile. Statistical or empirical techniques were used if inadequate information
on the physicochemical processes exists to satisfy input requirements of numerical and Gaussian modeling. Such
modeling will tend to produce information to assist with understanding of fundamentals of the air quality problem.
Such a modeling may require the data monitoring. Numerical Modeling requires the solution of the equations for
conservation of mass, energy and momentum in three dimensions. Such modeling capability is most desirable but is as
yet not readily available. This is due to the complexity of fluid and mass transport and particularly the turbulent terms
in these equations which are yet not fully amenable to solution. Gaussian modeling is the more widely used technique
for estimating the impact of non-reactive pollutants and is being recommended by USEPA and USNRC since 1986 for
use in Primary Safety Analysis Reports (PSARs) and Final Safety Analysis Report (FSARs) for Nuclear Power Plant
Sitting.
The Gaussian plume model is not very near from exact, as some of the model assumptions compromise accuracy.
These assumptions include:
1. There is no variation of wind speed and direction between the source and the receptor.
2. All effluent remains in the atmosphere and no provision is made for wet or dry deposition or chemical
conversion.
3. Any plume impacting on the ground is totally reflected.
4. Dispersion does not occur in the downwind direction. It only occurs in the vertical and cross-wind directions.
5. The dispersion is stochastic and is described exactly by the Gaussian distribution.
6. Emission rates are assumed constant and continuous.
7. The velocity of wind is independent of elevation, location and topography
The Gaussian Plume Idea:
Gaussian plume idea is also a material balance model. In it, one considers a point source such as a factory smokestack
(which is not really a point but a small area that can be satisfactorily approximated as a point) and attempts to
compute the downwind concentration resulting from this point source. The schematic representation and
nomenclature are shown in Figure 5.1, where origin of the coordinate system is placed at the initiation point where
plume starts moving in horizontal direction, with x-axis aligned with the downwind direction and spreading occurs in
the y and z direction as it travels.
Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
Figure 5.1 Coordinate system for Gaussian plume idea for plume emitting in an infinite space
It is assumed a point source located at x = y = z = 0 that steadily emits a non-buoyant pollutant at an emission rate of
Q (normally in g/s). It is further assumed that the wind blows in x-direction with velocity v and that this velocity is
independent of time, location, or elevation. The problem is to compute the concentration due to this source at any
point ( x, y, z ) for x > 0.
If molecular diffusion alone were causing the plume to mix with surrounding air, the plume would spread slowly and
appear ( if pollutant is visible) as a thin streak moving straight down the sky. The actual cause of the spread of plumes
in the large-scale turbulent mixing that exists in the atmosphere, which may be visualized by comparing a snapshot of
a plume with a time exposure of the same plume. The snapshot of the plume gives the actual position of various parts
of the plume at any instant and snapshot would appear to have a twisting snake-like shape as it moves down the sky.
The twisting behavior is caused by the turbulent motion of the atmosphere that is superimposed on the plumes large-
scale linear motion caused by horizontal wind. This turbulent motion is random in nature, so that a snapshot taken a
few minutes after the first would show the twists and turns in different places, but the overall form would be similar.
However, time averages out these short term variations of the plume, and thus a time exposure appears quite uniform
and symmetrical. For this reason, if a pollutant-concentration meter is placed at some fixed point in the plume, it can
be seen that the concentration oscillate in an irregular fashion about same average value. The Gaussian approach tries
to calculate only that average value without making any statement about instantaneous values. The results obtained by
Gaussian plume calculations should be considered only as average over periods of at least few minutes.
The Gaussian Plume Derivation:
To drive a plume formula, one may take the viewpoint of a person riding along with the air, the Lagrangian viewpoint.
From this viewpoint, the ground appears to be passing below, much as the ground appears to be passing below a
person in an airplane. The ride begins along upwind of the stack form which the pollutant is emitted, so it appears that
initially the air is clear and has no concentration of pollutant. As the ride pass directly over the stack it is passed into
a region of high concentration. This high concentration is localized in a thin thread of contaminated air that passes
directly over the stack. After the stack is passed it appears as if the thread of contaminated air expand by turbulent
mixing.
To find how the thread of contaminated air expands by turbulent mixing, a material balance around some cube of
space near the center of the plume can be performed. The dimension of the cube are as shown below. It is assumed
that there is no source or sink term in the atmosphere itself, so that the following material balance equation may be
written.
Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
z
y
x x
v horizontal wind velocity
x = y = z = 0
[Accumulation Rate] = [All flow rates into the cube] + [All flow rates going out of cube] ___ Eq: (1)
The accumulation rate is the time derivative of the amount contained, which is the product of the concentration and
the volume. But the volume of the cube is not changing with time therefore:
Accumulation rate = (V) / t = V () / t
Accumulation rate = (x . y . z) () / t ------Eq : (2)
where is the : pollutant concentration
The flux of any material mixed across any surface is given by
Rate of mass flow per unit area = - K () / n ----Eq : (3)
where
K is the turbulent diffusion coefficient and
n is the distance in the direction considered (normally x, y, or z)
The cube has two faces in x-direction, the one facing the reader looks in the minus x-direction, and the other , on the
far side of the cube, looks in the plus x-direction. Each of these faces has area yz. By using the flux equation given
in Eq(3) it can be seen that the net mass flow by turbulent diffusion through these two faces can be described as
Where the first term represents flow in through the face nearest the reader and the second represents flow out through
the face away from the reader. By same procedure terms for the other faces can also be written which involves () /
y and () / z. These six represent the flows in or out through the six faces by turbulent mixing. The Eq (1) says
that the sum of all these terms is equal to accumulation rate. So substituting them on the L.H.S. of Eq (2) in place of
accumulation rate and then taking the xyz term on the denominator of the other side we get:
Applying limit x0 we get the final equation as
Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
y
x
z
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

+ + +
z
z
K
z
K
y
y
K
y
K
x
x
K
x
K
t
z at z z at y at y y at x at x x at

) 4 ( : . Eq z y
x
K
x
K
direction x in cube the inside flow Net
x x at x at

1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+

Where Kx, Ky and Kz are the diffusion coefficient in x, y and z direction respectively.
Now if wind is blowing at an average speed of v in x-direction the diffusion equation should be changed to account
for the fact that entire medium in which the diffusion is taking place is in motion. i.e. /t =/x . x/t =
/x .v
Further it has been found experimentally that most movement in the direction of wind is due to wind itself and not due
to diffusion therefore this fact can be accommodated by taking Kx=0. Thus Eq(9) can be written as
The solution of Eq (9) that satisfies the usual boundary conditions is given by
According to this eq:(10), the effluent moving along x-direction spreads out in Gaussian Distribution in y and z
direction. The standard deviations in z and y direction are
Where as y and z are called horizontal and vertical dispersion coefficients respectively.
Now substituting the values of Kz and Ky in terms of dispersion coefficients we can transform the eq(10) in the
following form:
Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
) 12 & 11 ( .........
2
......... .......
2
Eqs
v
K x
and
v
K x
z
z
y
y

) 8 (
2
2
2
2
2
2
Eq
z
K
y
K
x
K
t
z
y
x

1
1
]
1

) 9 (
2
2
2
2
2
2
Eq
z
K
y
K
x
K
x
v
z
y
x

1
1
]
1

) 9 (
2
2
2
2
a Eq
x
v
z
K
y
K
z
y

1
1
]
1

) 10 (
4
exp
4
2 2
Eq
K
z
K
y
x
v
K K x
Q
z y
y x

1
1
]
1

1
1
]
1

If now an elevated emission case is incorporated by introducing the following conditions

1. Instead of origin of coordinates taken at emission point, they are shifted to the bottom of the stack [Fig.1]
2. Instead of considering that pollutants are emitted to infinite atmosphere, they are considered to be emitted at some
altitude H into an atmosphere that exists above the ground [Fig.5.2].
The solution to the differential equation in this case can easily be found using method of images, familiar from
electrostatics, with z as vertical coordinate, which can be given as follows.
Fig: 5.2 Reference figure for the dispersion equation
Description of method of images leading to general Gaussian Plume Equation (14)
When a plume is originated from a point source in an infinite sphere with no chance to touch the ground and origin is
taken at the point of emission, equation 13 remains valid.
Dispersion from an elevated source is a different matter. Pollutants have longer time to diffuse laterally before the
high concentration region of the plume touches the ground. Therefore the maximum ambient concentration at ground
Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
) 13 (
2 2
exp
2
2
2
2
2
Eq
z y
v
Q
z y z y

1
1
]
1

,
_

) 14 (
2
) (
2
exp
2
) (
2
exp
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Eq
H z y H z y
v
Q
z y z y z y

1
1
]
1

,
_

+ +
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

X
Y
Z
H
) 13 (
2 2
exp
2
2
2
2
2
Eq
z y
v
Q
z y z y

1
1
]
1

,
_

level is not found at the source but at some distance from the stack. The magnitude of the maximum concentration
and where it is expected to occur are two of the most important questions involved in the effectiveness of the exhaust
stack. The simplest way to adapt equation 13 to describe this case is by substituting (z H ) for z, where H
represents the height of stack. In fact this is equivalent to case when origin is shifted from top of stack to bottom of
the stack of height H.
It is just like the change in the equation of a unit circle x
2
+ y
2
=1 when origin is shifted from the center of the circle to
some distance below say of two units.
The equation of the circle due to shifting of origin below now becomes x
2
+ (y 2)
2
=1. Similarly due to shifting the
origin from the top of the stack to bottom of the stack of height H
Now using equation 13a to simply predict the concentration in plumes for considerable distances above the ground
will lead to valid results. However, modeling is done for a major interest in predicting the ground level
concentrations, because that is where most people and property are exposed. The blind application of Equation 13a at
or near the ground level gives misleading results. It indicates that pollutants continue to disperse at any value of z
even at z less than zero. (Using it alone, one could compute the concentration underground; the result would bear
no relation to what we would observe in nature).
So what happens when pollutants strike the ground? Do the molecules stick, or do they in effect bounce off? The
answer is not simple. The proportion that stick depends upon the type of surface (vegetation, building material etc.).
One thing is certain that the ground damps out the vertical dispersion. The upward and downward random
atmospheric eddies that spread the plume in vertical direction cannot penetrate the ground. Due to lack of our
knowledge about the proportion of the plume that sticks and the part that bounce off, it is simpler from a mathematical
standpoint to avoid this question and to assume that the pollutants are reflected when they hit the ground. Thus it is
assumed that any pollutants that would have carried below z = 0 if the ground were not there are reflected upward as
if the ground were a mirror. Thus, the concentration at any point is due to the plume itself plus what is reflected
upward from the ground. This method is equivalent to assuming that a mirror image plume below the ground
transmits as much up through the ground surface as the above-ground plume would transmit down through the ground
surface if the ground were not there.
Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
( 0 , 0 )
( 0 , 0 )
( 0 , 2 )
) 13 (
2
) (
2
exp
2
2
2
2
2
a Eq
H z y
v
Q
z y
y x

1
1
]
1

,
_

Figure 5.3 Real source (above ground) and image source (below ground). The total ambient concentration for spatial
region Z>0 is the same as it would be if the pollutant molecules were reflected upward as they struck ground.
The concentration due to the mirror image plume are exactly the same as those shown by equation 13a, except ( z
H )
2
replaced by ( z + H )
2
. This substitution shows that at the ground, or z = 0, both the main plume and the mirror-
image plume have identical values. High in the air, for example at z = H, the main plume has a high concentration
( exp 0 = 1), whereas that for the mirror image plume e.g., exp {1/2[2H/z
2
]} is a small number. The combined
contribution of both the plumes is obtained by writing equation 13a and the analogous equation for the mirror image
plume i.e. 13b, adding the values for the two plumes, and factoring out the common terms as done below:
Adding 13a and 13b will lead to the equation 14 .
Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
) 13 (
2
) (
2
exp
2
2
2
2
2
a Eq
H z y
v
Q
z y
y x

1
1
]
1

,
_

) 13 (
2
) (
2
exp
2
2
2
2
2
b Eq
H z y
v
Q
z y
y x

1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

This is shown diagrammatically in the figure 5.4.

Figure 5.4 Source image for ground reflection of pollutant downwind of stack.
(Case I) Concentration at ground level for pollutants emitted at a height H:
For concentration at ground level z = 0 should be substituted, whereas the pollutants are still emitted at a height H
from the ground, the equation 14 will be reduces and get the form as follows:
( Case-II) Maximum ground level concentration for pollutant emitted at a height H:
When pollutants are emitted at a height H from the ground then for concentration at ground level, already substituted
z = 0 has been substituted. Using this equation and considering the fact that the maximum concentration along a line
Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
) 15 (
2 2
exp
2
2
2
2
Eq
H y
v
Q
z y z y

1
1
]
1

,
_

) 14 (
2
) (
2
exp
2
) (
2
exp
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Eq
H z y H z y
v
Q
z y z y z y

1
1
]
1

,
_

+ +
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

parallel to y-direction for a fixed x-coordinate would be at point which comes directly under the center line of the
plume (just like forming the shadow of center line on the ground), for which y = 0 may be substituted:
( Case III) Point of maximum ground level concentrations for plume emitted at height H:
Maximum concentration can be found by differentiating the expression given in Eq. (16) and equating it to zero. In
order to make this process simple, it is assumed that

y
= (a)
z
where a is a constant. Substituting the value of y in Eq.(16) and collecting all constant as a single constant
C= [Q/(.v.a)].
taking the log of both sides:
Differentiating and equating to zero
This condition determines the location of maxima. Substituting the value of H
2
from Eq(18) in the Eq.(16) :
Now substituting the value in the original equation i.e. equation (16)
={Q / [.e.v (
x

y
)
max
] .
( Case III) Point of maximum ground level concentrations for plume emitted at height H:
Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
) 16 (
2
exp
2
2
Eq
H
v
Q
z z y

1
1
]
1

,
_

1
]
1

2
2
2
2
exp .
z
z
H
C

2
2
2
. ln 2 ln ln
z
z
H
C

0
2 1
3
2

,
_

dx
d H
dx
d
z
z z

3
2
2
z z
H

) 18 ( .......... . 2
2 2
Eq H
z

) 16 (
2
exp
2
2
Eq
H
v
Q
z z y

1
1
]
1

,
_

Since v and Q are constants therefore v/Q also represents the concentration of pollutant. Fig. 5.5 shows the v/Q
values as a function of x from a 30m high stack under various atmospheric stability conditions ranging from A
( most unstable conditions) to E ( highly stable condition). It actually shows that if a pollutant is emitted from a stack
of a specific height and the concentration of that pollutant is measured as it settles down on to the ground under
various atmospheric conditions, how the deposition of that pollutant takes place onto the ground. From the Fig.5.5, it
can be seen that the v/Q initially rises and gets its maximum value and then decrease exponentially. It is also
obvious from the figure that for unstable conditions the deposition of pollutant will be more nearer to the source and
vice versa.
Figure 5.5 The quantity [v /Q ] at ground level for effluents emitted at a height of 30m , as a function of distance from the source.
(Case-IV) Ground concentrations for ground level release of pollutant.
For this, H = 0 is substituted in equation (16):
The exponential factor in eq:(16) can never be greater than unity, it follows that the effluent concentration at all points
is always greater along the plume with ground level release as compared to when the effluent are released at some
altitude.
(Case- V) Radioactive Effluent:
The only difference in this sort of plume is that activity in the plume decay as it disperse. This can be taken into
consideration by using
Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
) 17 ( Eq
v
Q
z y

Where Qo is the rate of emission of activity from the source. is decay constant, and t is the time required for the
effluent to reach the point of observation. Assuming that effluent moves only with the wind speed in x-direction and is
not interfered
t= x/v
and the principal equation i.e. eq.(16) becomes
Which slightly overestimates the value of . This is because equation 14, from which finally this equation for radio-
active pollutant concentration is derived, assumes the ground as perfectly reflecting. If a fraction of the pollutant was
actually absorbed on impact, the image source should be weaker. Thus all equation derived from equation 14 can
therefore be regarded as giving the maximum expected ambient concentration at any point, and its use would thus
provide a conservative estimate.
Lecture delivered by Dr. Naseem Irfan
) exp( . t Q Q
o

1
]
1

,
_

+
z z y
o
H
v
x
v
Q

. 2
exp .
. . .
2