American Educational Research Association

On Paulo Freire's Philosophy of Praxis and the Foundations of Liberation Education Author(s): Ronald David Glass Source: Educational Researcher, Vol. 30, No. 2 (Mar., 2001), pp. 15-25 Published by: American Educational Research Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3594336 Accessed: 06/11/2009 10:52
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=aera. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

American Educational Research Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Educational Researcher.

http://www.jstor.org

On

Paulo

Freire's

Philosophy

of

Praxis

and the Foundations of Liberation Education

by RonaldDavidGlass
This essay examinesthe ontologicaland epistemologicalfoundations of PauloFreire'sphilosophyof praxisand critiquesthe structure of his argument.It outlines a more consistent historicistinterpretation of liberation education that retains the liberatory power of modernism and its critiqueof dehumanization, recognizes the malleability and contradictionsof identity,embraces epistemic uncertainties and the varieties of reason in knowledge, and respects the plural conceptions of the good which can shape moral and politicallife. Fiof liberationeducation nally,the essay arguesthat this understanding requiresan ethics grounded in militantnonviolence.

Nearlyfour yearsafterhis death,a world still mournsPaulo Freire.Freire's betweenliberation theoryaboutthe relationship and educationhas inspiredand informedcountlessefforts to make life more humane for those oppressedby economic and thatdeniedthem theirdignity,rights,and structures ideological self-determination. The ideasin Pedagogy (1970) ofthe Oppressed havebeen appliedon everycontinent,in projectsrangingfrom basicliteracyprograms to nationaleducationalpoligrassroots cies. Manypeopleengagedin progressive for justicestruggles teachers,students,communityorganizers, workers,movement activists,and citizensfrom everywalk of life-who readFreire found reflections of theirown thinking;manywho heardFreire speakfound shapefor their own words;manywho studiedhis workdiscovered worth translating into theirown conpractices texts. Freire'slegacy is unprecedented for an educator:None in sucha wide array otherhasinfluenced of contextsand practice cultures,or helpedto enableso manyof the world'sdisempoweredturneducationtowardtheirown dreams.Livesand institutionalspacesarestillbeingtransformed the by his contributions, of the oppressed stilldrawfromhis insights, anddemocstruggles raciesareenrichedby the voices of the poor and workingclass ideashaveentered amplifiedthroughFreirean projects.Freire's educational fromthe mostcosmopolitan discourse centersto the mostremotecorners of the earth,andnot sinceJohnDeweyhave the thoughts of a philosopherof education impacted such a broadsphereof publiclife in the U.S. The 20th anniversary of the publication of Pedagogy ofthe Opa more than half a million copies best-seller with pressed, global in printin Englishalone,prompteda numberof scholars to undertakefreshanalysesof Freire's work and to situateit historically as the progenitorof a new domainof educational inquiry and practice(Giroux& Macedo, 1994; McLaren& Lankshear,
Educational Vol.30. No. 2, pp. 15-25 Researcher,

Freire him& Leonard, 1994;McLaren 1993),justasit prompted on the strengthsand limits of his theory self to reflectcritically deathin May 1997 stilledhis own voice (Freire,1994b). Freire's to criticalpedagogy,leavand haltedhis personalcontributions his legacy, translatehis it the to sustain to survivors, us, ing the to buildjust, democratasks and vision, complete remaining tic societies. A pedagogy of the oppressed is as neededtodayaswhen Freire firstarticulated it. Globaleconomicforcesand domesticpolitics andconsertoward evermorenarrow pressU.S. publiceducation vativeagendas, thusreinscribing andjustifying povertyandpowwith and their erlessness association (il)literacies particular through AmerLow-income failure on standardized tests(Shannon, 1998). icans face an increasing educationgap as the testing stakesget raised aremorebroadly andaspublicschoolresources privatized. Vouchersand school choice plans reinforceand extend educational, economic, and socialinequality(Carnoy,2000). At the the voices of same time, voter initiativecampaignsmarginalize in an schools and speakers reinvigorate exclusionary non-English linguisticcolonialism(Macedo,2000). All theseeffects,coupled with the growingincome gap betweenthe rich and poor (Center on Budgetand PolicyPriorities, 2000), promisepredictable populanegative consequencesfor historicallydisadvantaged tions, and even moreso when thereis a downturnin the overall economy. The dominant (neo)conservative discourseblames the victims of these policies for their own suffering,suggestingthat a moral poverty prefigurestheir social and economic predicaments (Bennett, 1996), and the ideological attack on public schools and teachers threatens deeply grounded democratic possibilitiesin the culture (Berliner& Biddle, 1995). Meanof the (neo)liberals while, the reformism produceslittle change in either urbanschools or their largercontext (Anyon, 1997), and thus little changein the dailylivesof the poorwho areconcentratedthere. Most multiculturaleducationapproaches fail to address injustice and the challenges of transforminginequitablepowerrelations(McCarthy,1990; Nieto, 2000), and even antiracistpedagogiescan succumbto accommodationto the statusquo (Flecha,1999). Without a clearfocuson the politics of schooling and the need for community organizingto build and sustain meaningful reform, little has been accomwherepeopleof coloroccupyedplishedevenin urbandistricts ucationaland civic leadership positions (Henig, Hula, Orr, & Pedescleaux,1999). Freire's critical"pedagogy of possibility" offerstheoretical and alternatives to both the and (neo)lib(neo)conservative practical eraldiscourses and practices (McLaren, 1999). At the classroom

aimedat empowering level,curricula young childrenand develtheir to resist bias and promote oping capacities interpersonal have been wider audiences equality (Derman-Sparks, finding & Davidson, 1998), and moreteachered1989; Schniedewind ucators are encouragingcritical pedagogicalpracticesamong theirstudents,generating evenwidereffects(Wink,2000).' The organic literaciesof the working class are being harnessedto contest the deformingmessages of the dominantschool culture (Cushman,1998; Finn, 1999), and workersarefindingcritical literacyskillsusefulin workplace struggles(Hull, 1997). Social movementsand activists havetranslated Freire's ideasinto orgawith broadapplicability (Arnold,Burke, James, nizingprograms Martin,& Thomas, 1991; Findlay,1994).2Althoughsystemic school reformeffortsbasedon Freire's theoryhavebeen limited to the Brazilian context 1993; O'Cadiz,Wong, (Freire, largely & Torres, 1998), at leastone majorprojectis underway in the U.S.3Beyondall this, Freirecontinuesto be mustered to service in a wide rangeof theoretical battles,fromthe politicsof differto cultural to feminism and racematters(Steiner, ence, studies, & fundaKrank,McLaren, Bahruth,2000). Interestin Freire's mental ideas is strong enough to prompt the HarvardEducationalReviewto reprinthis 1970 seminalessayson culturalaction forfreedom(Freire, 1998b, 1998c),andforacademic presses suchas Berginand Garvey,Routlege,Falmer,and SUNY to devote book seriesto criticalpedagogy.Freire's life and theoryindreams(McLaren, 2000) and a spirecontinuingrevolutionary wide arrayof transformative programs(see the specialissue of guesteditedby Allman,Cavanagh, Convergence Hang, Haddad, & Mayo, 1998, for a sampling). and theoretical formulaDespitethe vastpanoplyof activities tions that claimallegiance to or derivation from Freire's theory, havebeenraised It seems aboutitssoundness. important questions that often a blind eye is turnedtowardthesetheoretical difficulties, and insteadan adoringgaze treatsFreiremore as icon and myththanas a radical philosopher subjectto the limitsof history anda necessarily situated (Weiler,1996). It is truethat perspective Freire took to heartone of Marx's of Feuerbach-"The critiques haveonly interpretedthe world,in various philosophers ways;the it" (Marx& Engels, 1978, p. 145; point, however,is to change this point on a scale emphasisin original)-and accomplished honoring Marx himself. However, while Marx'sand Freire's in the thicknessof life, the durability of their legaciesareassured is far less certain.Freireacknowledged the limits of arguments his theoretical defendedthe core of statements,but steadfastly his theoryandjuxtaposed in his theoryagainst inconsistencies his morecongruent radical his and to evolve numore practice right ancedarticulations of his view (Freire, & Faundez, 1994b;Freire of at the centerof 1992). Given the Marxian philosophy praxis his theory,Freire's claim for his practiceto be the most telling basisforjudgmenthasits merits,but this defensedoes not abroRadicals gateour obligationto examinecloselyFreire's analysis. do not havethe luxuryof cursory or idolatrous of study Freire's since to it offer for more theory any improvements possibilities effectivestruggle,and manytheoretical and practical challenges must be facedin orderto realizeFreire's vision and hope. of this articlesketchesthe philosophical The remainder foundationsof Freire's viewof liberation andeducation,andpresents
I|
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHER

some of the critiquesthat underminethe argumentative structureof the theory.It outlinesa moreconsistentundergirding for educationasa practice of freedomas "akindofhistorico-cultural and a more defensible"progressive political psychoanalysis"4 the (Freire,1994b, p. 55, p. 10) that preserves postmodernism" ethicaland politicalthrustat the coreof Freire's ideas.The chalpowerof lenge is to constructa view that retainsthe liberatory modernismand its critiqueof dehumanization, but that recognizesthe malleability of identity(at both the and contradictions level of the individualand of classes,races,and genders),embracesthe ineliminableepistemicuncertainties and varietiesof of compelling reasonin our knowing,and respects the plurality of the which can moral and politicallife. conceptions shape good Insofaras this challengecan be met, Freire's philosophiclegacy will endure. Education as a Practice of Freedom: Freire's Argument his conceptionof education Freire of freeas a practice developed dom froma critical reflection on various adulteducation projects he undertookin Brazilin the late 1950s and early 1960s (see of thisemergence). Thatis, the theory Gadotti,1994, fora review was part of a praxis,"reflection and action upon the world in orderto transformit" (Freire,1970, p. 36). At the same time, Freire'stheory was based on an ontological argument that positedpraxisas a centraldefiningfeatureof human life and a condition of freedom.Freirecontendedthat human necessary natureis expressed throughintentional,reflective,meaningful and culturalcontexts activitysituatedwithin dynamichistorical that shapeand set limitson that activity.The praxisthat defines human existenceis markedby this historicity,this dialectical interplaybetweenthe way in which historyand culturemake people even while people aremakingthat veryhistoryand culture.Humanhistoricity enables of freedom, the realization openwaysof beingwithinanygivensiting up choicesamongvarious uation.At the level of our being human,freedomcan neverbe eliminated fromexistence, whileat the levelof ourconcrete pracandmustbe tices,freedomis not a givenbut is always precarious achieved.In the everyday to embodyfreeworld, opportunities dom arerealized throughcommitmentsto strugglefor one way of life or another. Freirearguedthat the struggleto be free, to be human and makehistoryandculturefromthe givensituation,is an inherent in the humancondition.The struggle is necessary bepossibility causethe situationcontainsnot only this possibilityfor humanDehumanizationmakes ization, but also for dehumanization. people objectsof historyand culture,and deniestheir capacity to also be self-definingsubjectscreatinghistory and culture. These dehumanizing forcesresidein both the material and psychic conditionsof personsand situations,so freedomrequires peopleto engagein a kind of historico-cultural politicalpsychoFreire the limitsof situationsis analysis. arguesthat overcoming ultimatelyan educationalenterprisethat he calls a practiceof form of culturalre-creation that enables freedom,a permanent the fullestpossibleexpression of humanexistence. Freire Further, holds that democraticsocialismprovidesthe necessary conditions for each personto achievehis or her freedom,to become fullyhuman.

in moredetail,it is Beforeexamining this summary argument Freire followsa long tradition structure. usefulto note its overall in philosophy when he links a particularunderstandingof with a conceptionof the properformation of both humannature self and society.5 Within this tradition,some type of education and moral life mediatesthe cultivationof human natureinto ideal forms of individualand social existence.In other words, humannaturealone cannotproducethe good life, but must be into specificformsthat enablethe realizashapedand nurtured tion of what is best and most fruitfulfor a community.Education drawsout thesepossibilities fromhumannature,and at the of resisting sametime instillsa moralordercapable impulsesthat is each threaten the attainment of what good for personand the thusis essential because withoutit, human Education community. lifewouldnot riseto thelevelof existence butwouldrather remain at the levelof instinctandbasicsurvival needs.As Freire put it
I cannot understand humanbeingsas simplyliving.I can understandthem only as historically, and sociallyexisting... culturally,

I can understand of their themonlyas beings who aremakers in themaking ofwhich "way," they laythemselves opento orcomremitthemselves to the"way" thattheymake andthattherefore in makes themaswell.(Freire, 97; 1994b, p. emphasis original)

Language,culture,history,and communityare dependenton to createforms("ways") education,on freedomand the capacity of life. Practical reasonand knowledgearecentralin the workof ethicalandpoliticalformation,not so much as deliberative tools but as integralto the actionscreatingcultureand history. Freire's view parallels and a brief John Dewey'spragmatism, Freire's will comparison help clarify argument.Dewey had a of human existenceand he held conception biological-organic that educationwas a lifelong processof growth and development intrinsicto individualand socialself-realization (Dewey, cathathumanbeingsarecreatures 1916/1966). He maintained to the environof social and reflective critically pable adaptation mentto enabletheirsuccessful of basicneeds), coping(satisfaction do in and that this abilitydifferslittle fromwhat othercreatures orderto survive. Humanbeingssimplyhaveparticular capacities for intelligence and socialorganization thatenablethe formation of thosecapacities of culture, insure andthe maximal development a the survival of civilization successful (itselfmerely adaptation). For Dewey, the most successful adaptations requireknowledge in particular formedand warranted ways (Dewey, 1922/1930). in patterns viaimitated act transmitted Mostly,people habitually in use new situations of But little practice, requiring intelligence. or problemsemergemake conwhich habitsproveinadequate duct becomemoredeliberate. Now, knowledgegetsconstructed and by forming testing hypotheses intended to reestablish smooth functioningor enlargeeffectivecoping habits.This inis subjectin turnto furto the environment telligentadaptation thercyclesof modification and development. Dewey arguedthat the same conditions that maximizethis those linkedto the evolutionary adaptive potentialareprecisely formationof the idealsociety:full participation, open communication with minimal barriers,criticalexperimentalpractice aimedat overcomingproblems,and close attentionto the consequencesof actions.These conditionsexplainboth the power of science, which refinesthem to producesoundly warranted

knowledge,and the strengthof democracy,which emphasizes their implementationin politics. That is, Dewey's naturalized to explainthe prephilosophypostulateda biologicalsubstrate eminent value of scientificand democraticpractices(Dewey, 1920/1957). Freirewould agree with most points in this summaryof Dewey's conception of human existence.But, in contrast,he betweenhuman builthis theorynot so muchon the continuities on the discontinuanimal but and the rest of the world, beings ities. Dewey'snaturalistic focuson continuitiesperhaps explains his relativeemphasison deliberativeprocessesand behaviors with otheranimals andthusmorecloselytied to biology) (shared less attentionhe devotesto communicaand the comparatively andatthe emphasis humanistic view reverses tiveaction.Freire's actions in to and communicative deliberative tempts integrate cultureandhisrolein producing anddistinctive theirparticular tory. For Freire,what is crucially importantis that humansare animalsthat operatenot only from reflex,habit,or even intellithey areanimalsthat exist meaningfully gent creativeresponse; in and with the worldof historyand culturethathumansthemselveshaveproduced.Freirethinks that if we fail to grasphow the capacityfor historical,cultural,linguistic praxismakesus differentfrom the restof the organicand inorganicworld,6we will fail to be able to transformsociety towarda vision of justice and democracy,the goal he and Dewey shared.Freireand in ontologicalinterpretations Dewey groundedtheirarguments to orientany of humanexistenceand assumedthis as necessary to flourenable human educational intended successful practice different had somewhat interpretations ishing, though they throughwhich to frametheirtheories.Dewey opted for a naturalismthat relied on a scientific, evolutionary,developmental while Freireelecteda humanistview that reliedon a approach, culturaland historicistconceptionof freedomthat insiststhat and ophumansshouldnot be the mereanimalsthatoppressors turn to them into. pressivesystemstry of being feature ForFreire, the essentially definingontological humanis thatpeopleproducehistoryandculture,evenashistory andcultureproducethem,andthusboth the theoryandapplication of educationas a practice of freedom"takethe people'shistoricityas theirstarting point"(Freire,1994a,p. 65). The dialectical interplaybetween existenceand context revealsthat any givensituation,includingone's identityand self-understanding, is not a necessity.Situations and identitiescongealin the course of time underthe pressof historyand culture,but most imporof humanaction,andtheyarethus tantlyalsounderthe influence to The to the powerof freedom. susceptible humanintervention, of thus not defines human naonly ontologicaltruth historicity turefor Freire, but groundshis theoryof liberation and provides the openingfor concreteeffortsto transform realities. oppressive A practical graspof historicityby the oppressedmeansthey understand theirsituationand themselves not fatalistically as an stateof affairs wasjustifiedby (asif theirsuffering unchangeable divinewill or naturallaw, or was the just dessertsof individual but rather theirdailylives as presentfailures), they understand for transformaing concreteproblemsalongwith opportunities tion. Theysee thatlife (includingthemselves) couldbe different, andthe moreclearly are theydiscernwhythings(andthemselves) as they areand howthey could be otherwise,the more effective
MARCH 2001 |117

self-andcommunitytheirinterventions canbe to enablegreater to see beyondindividrealization. The oppressed arechallenged ualisticexperiences and particular situationsto discernthe force of systemsand ideologiesthat permeatetheir daily lives, structure oppression(dehumanization), and bind peopletogetherin and The connections contexts. between sometimes global, larger, forces and these the everyday experience larger highlight features of problematic that must be changedby col"limit-situations" lective "limit-acts" that both contest those systemsand ideoloor possiblefutureswith gies and aim at "untestedfeasibilities" morespacefor self-determination (seeFreire,1994a, 1994b). The historical,cultural,and social backgroundshapes the presentcontext, from the privacyof family life to the public the fieldwithin of the stateandmassmedia.It establishes spheres which freeactioncan move, and even outlinespossiblepsychologicalstatesand the most intimateaspectsof a self, from idenconstraints that pretity to feelingsand desires.The situational vent freedomarethus alsoalwaysinternaland not only external to individuals. Humanbeingsinhabit,and areinhabitedby, the and self-understandings structures, institutions,socialrelations, that comprisea people'sculture.The practiceof freedom,as a criticalreflexive praxis,must graspthe outwarddirection,meanof action,and alsoits inwardmeaningas ing, and consequences the realization and articulation of a self.Therefore, educationas a practiceof freedommust includea kind of historico-cultural, that reveals of the selfand politicalpsychoanalysis theformation in all theirdynamicand dialectical its situation relations. People then becomecritically as the verysorts consciousof themselves of creatures thatproduce(andareproduced by) theircultureand and to their realize freedomtheybecomeengagedin libhistory, acts that thelimits(internal of parandexternal) eratory challenge ticularsituationsthat maintainoppression or injustice.Human to them. freedomis not outsideparticular but is geared situations While the context"programs" their peopleto see and experience situationin a particular how people way,it does not "determine" areor canbe (Freire, 1994b,p. 98). Peoplearenot freeto choose the time, place,meanings, and so on, into which they standards, havebeenthrownby theirbirth,yet theyareableto takeup specific stanceswithin that contextand makeof it what they may. Freeactionstrives to positandcreto go beyondthe givenreality ate a new futurethrougheffortandstruggle, a futurethatcannot be simplydeclared into existence but mustbe achieved. Freirearguedthat liberation,oppression,and their interrelation are contingent facts, while from an ontological point of the possibility marks to choose view,humanhistoricity precisely one wayof life or another."Just as it generates so, humannature, itself in history,does not contain, as part and parcelof itself, exceptas the vocabeingmore,does not containhumanization, in tionwhosecontrary distortion is (Freire,1994b,p. 99; history" in original). Freire notionof voemphasis deploysthe theological cationto build a link betweenparticular contingentchoices,for human ontologicalcapacities.He and universal humanization, a wayof wantsto invokea typeof authenticity thatdistinguishes living that expressesthe deepest, most primordialaspects of This vocationembodiesfreedom,andthrough humanexistence. inand becomecritically humanizingactionpeopleunderstand tentionalabout theircreationof cultureand history.Inauthentic waysof beingdistortthisontologicalessenceof beinghuman,
RESEARCHER 1811EDUCATIONAL

and deny some people the possibilityand right of being selfThis denialdefines andself-determining. defining,self-realizing, or oppression. dehumanization which [W]earethisbeing-a beingof ongoing, curious, search,
"stepsback"from itselfandfiom thelife it leads..... [W]e live the and ... in dehumanlife of a vocation,a calling,to humanization, the ization... we live the life of a distortion of call-never another

in original) 1994b, (Freire, p. 98;emphasis calling. Here Freireis extendinghis argumentabout liberation,for by conjoiningthe theologicalnotions of calling and vocation, he of each individualresponseto the the particularity emphasizes that demandsof the humancondition.He maintained universal humanizationis about concrete choices in history, and only nature: those certainchoicesaretrue to our most fundamental "Humanization [is the] ontologicalvocation of human being" (Freire,1994b, p. 98). Freireusedthis ontologicalanchorto orienthis furtherargumentsto establish ethicalandpoliticalclaimsfora privileged position for the oppressedin the strugglefor liberation.Personal choices represents freedomas expressedin particular only one all in social of elements dialectic that embraces the a aspect pole to deof the situation,includingthe self."Itwouldbe impossible humanizewithout being dehumanized-so deep are the social in original). rootsof the calling" (Freire,1994b, p. 99; emphasis Both liberationand oppressionarehistorical,collectiveactions of classes.Freire's theologicalontology shadesinto the Marxist rethat of the Master-Slave reinterpreted Hegel'sanalysis politics The essence of the (Torres, 1994). inescapable oppreslationship whatis most sorclassis thatit embodiesa wayof life thatdistorts human.7 fundamentally Caughtin an illusionof its own indepenthe oppressor classcannotmakethe required denceandfreedom, and breach with the of concrete economic,political,socritique cial, and ideologicalorders.These ordersactuallypreventboth the oppressor and oppressed classesfrom achievingthe deepest of humanization and freedom.On the otherhand, possibilities the oppressed classfacesdailythe impositions of the dehumanizto of an ing systems unjustsociety.By refusing accedeto its subthe raison detreof ordinated positionandworkingto understand in its structural classhas an advantage formation,the oppressed to overcome limits in the the context. interveningstrategically Given the ontologicalcapacityfor intentionallydirectingculturalre-formation towardhumanizingends, liberationstruggle is alwaysa possibleprerogative of the oppressed. Forthe oppressed, as individuals and as a class,to discernthe truth of their nature, identities, and situation requires the of a kind of knowledgethatreaches achievement behindthe way are to the to be. Here we see the came things grasp way things connection between Freire'sontological and epistemological the oppressed arefacedwith the chalarguments. Epistemically, of and what is allenge knowing systematically determinately known and that the ready experientially uncritically; is, oppressed
must make good senseout of commonsense.8The knowledge that

enablessuch a critiqueof the situation,ideology, and the self, mustincludean understanding of the dialectical, tenpermanent sion betweenconsciousness and the world,betweensubjectivity and objectivity.For Freire,this interplaydoes not undermine or certainty, but only makesthe demandformethods knowledge

tests moreemphaticand makesthe pragmatic of criticalanalysis of knowing more telling. Through focused questioning and (Freire& analysis,the "rigorous, logical, coherent structure" the to guide to warrant needed Faundez,1992, p. 39) knowledge in to can be turn further action achieved,subject questioning. is mindfulof the relationships Critical consciousness amongconsciousness, action,and world,and graspsthe whyof the world in thatknowledge of knowing.Freire theconstructive nature argued that was not a stateof mind nor a type of warranted proposition could be settledin the mannerof a mathematical equation,but the deepesthumancaratherit was a wayofbeingthat reflected enfor culture and history.Critical pacities producing knowledge embodied folds the knowerand the knownin a dialectical unity It is not somethingthat throughthe creative powersof existence. the possession or achievement of an individual, nor can is strictly it be testedoutsidethe contextof actionsituatedwithin specific cultural andhistorical horizons(seeFreire,1994b,pp. 100-105). Freire's did not denythe scientificformof truth epistemology or the strengthof its logic for understanding and changingrealat the time it science the lastword.He but same did not ity, give that of neitherthe everyday knowledge experience(the argued of scicommonsenseof the masses) northe systematic knowledge ence (the trainedsense of intellectuals) of providesa guarantee eitherformof knowledge, truth.Freire warned against privileging or "elitism" andwouldobwhichwouldleadto a kindof"basism" structtheirunity as required in liberatory action (Freire,1994b, & Faundez,1992, pp. 47-48). pp. 84-85; Freire Further andepistemological positions, couplinghis ontological Freire that the conditions that argued promotefreedomalsoproduce the human capacityfor criticalknowledge.He translated these conditionsinto communicative and linguisticmetaphors that prescribed certainmethodsfor the educational dimensions is his noCentralto thesemetaphors of his theoryof liberation. becomes founded on tion of dialogue. Knowledge dialoguecharcommunication focused acterized around by participatory, open linkedto intentionalactionseeking criticalinquiryand analysis, to reconstruct the situation(includingthe self)and to evaluated The dialoguethatdistinguishes critical consequences. knowledge andcultural actionforfreedomis not somekindof conversation, it is a socialpraxis. To be liberatory, it must respectthe everyday and way of life of the knowers,and it language,understanding, must seek to createsituationsin which they can more deeply expresstheir own hopes and intentions. Dialogue enablesthe to "speak a trueword"and overcometheir"silencing" oppressed or lin(Freire,1970, 1994a) not simply at the communicative in to their but also culture, levels, history, guistic regard forming This cultural actionforliberation reveals andtheirown identities. of language fora people'sbeing,knowthe profoundimportance and commuing, and capacityto producereality.Deliberative to achievethe authentic,uniquely nicativeactionareintegrated mustread entails.The oppressed humanexistence thatliberation in a critical that reveals and knowthe worldand themselves way in orderto writetheirfuture, the processes of historical formation theirprimordial the presentlimits and expressing transcending to transform realWithout the struggle powerof humanization. ity, therecan be neithergenuinecriticalknowledgenor authentic modesof being.

the complex usedto capture is the termFreire Conscientization features of edand ontological,epistemological, ethical-political forcultural of freedom.His analysis ucationas a practice placed as central to and mation,knowledge creation, linguisticpractices centralto revsituationsand identityand thusalsoas necessarily olutionary(or any other)socialchange.Sincesituationsarepermeatedwith definingaxesof powerand authoritythat establish than others,liberaand normsin favorof some rather standards tion entails a people'sstruggleto be, to feel, to know, and to "Themorethe peoplebecomethemselves, speakfor themselves. the betterthe democracy" (Horton & Freire,1990, p. 145). of historyand As people take hold of the indeterminateness of a morejust the opennessof the future,theirhopesanddreams need" life become realizedas the fulfillmentof an "ontological human to meet these (Freire,1994b, p. 8). Striving primordial needs,and wielding"truthas an ethicalqualityof the struggle" the on(Freire,1994b, p.8), the politicsof liberationharnesses to overof existence foundations tologicaland epistemological socialism and build a democratic come the limits of oppression outfit ourthat sustainsdiversecommunities."[W]e,as existent, selves to engage in the strugglein quest of and in defense of by the veryfactthat,aslivingbeings,we equalityof opportunity, differentfromone another" areradically (Freire,1994b, p. 97). Freireunderstoodhow fragileand contingentthis strugglehad the humanthatno guarantees couldwarrant to be, andaccepted is thusa modeof of citizenship. Conscientization isticreinvention in theprocess of becoming, one thatenacts lifealways ongoingculof thatacceptsan ethicof the "fineness turalactionfor liberation the striving" as"ajob to do in history" 1994b,p. 50). This (Freire, of education as a practice ethicindicates the importance precisely of freedomfor a successful revolutionbecauseit enablesthe onand recreation of democratic culture. goingreinvention forhis theory This overview structure of Freire's argumentative of liberationand educationidentified the foundationalinterrelationshipsamong his ontological, epistemological,ethical, Freirearguedthat educationas a practice and politicalanalyses. of freedomis actuallya necessary aspectof being fully human. Without this kind of praxis, humanbeingsceaseto be the "makersof theirway"and they becomesimplywhathistorymakesof them. ForFreire, to be humanmeansto makeand remake one's self throughmakinghistoryand culture,to struggleagainstthe limiting conditions that prevent such creativeaction, and to dreaminto existencea worldwhereeverypersonhas this opportunityand responsibility. Critical Problems in Freire's Theory of Liberation Education Fromthe outsetand continuingtoday,a wide rangeof criticism echoesthe broadchorusof praisefor Freire's theoryof liberation and education.These contrasting commentaries camefrom the as as Left well from both the and political revolutionary Right, In and activists academics. this section of this reactionary essayI will outline some of the criticalproblemsin the foundationsof Freire's view,and suggestwaysin which some of his conclusions can be preserved or bettersupportedeven if the specificsof his fail. arguments On the publicationof Pedagogy one libertarof the Oppressed, ian reviewer dismissedit as a "truly bad book"and claimedthat
MARCH 2001|11

in recognizing it wasseriously deficient the strengths of traditional as a revolutionary education, profoundly inadequate theory,and not as good as many other sourcesfor educationalchange in North America(Friedenberg, 1971). Howeverthis sortof shrill and pedanticcriticismwas neitherthe norm nor accurateand fair.Otherearlyreviewers, thoseworkingin the field particularly of adulteducation,foundmoremeritin buildingon the insights that Freireoffered (see Grabowski,1973). Educatorsat every levelmoldedFreire's theoryto theirown needs,and theirdesire to maketheirpractice moreconsistentwith theirmoraland politicalidealsled them to try to applythe theoryevenwithin institutionsstructurally to a liberatory resistant (see,forexpractice ample,Livingston,1986; Shor, 1980, 1987). Freire'sanalyticframeworkthat createdan opposition betweenbanking anddialogical formsof education got widelyinterthat could transform classroom pretedas a "method" practices. However,this amountsto a kind of domesticationof Freire's overalltheoryand intent.As Aronowitz(1993) correctly argued in his analysis of this depoliticization of Freire, thetask of thisrevolutionary isnotto foster critical conpedagogy in order sciousness to improve the student's cognitive learning, orevento assist in hisaspiration to fulfill hishuman self-esteem, It is to theliberation of theoppressed ashistorical "potential".... withinthe framework of revolutionary that subjects objectives Freire's is directed. pedagogy (pp.11-12) While the liberal methodologicalappropriation of Freire's radicalpedagogypredominated in the U.S., at the sametime a newdomainof educational research andtheoryemerged thatwas articulated to various elements of Freire's view. This explicitly tradition of critical the emerging pedagogyinvestigated practices and curricula of schoolsfor theirrelationship to dominant and for their for op1979, 1982) ideologies(Apple, possibilities and the assertion of democratic values (Giroux, 1983, position 1988; Giroux& McLaren,1989). In addition,the criticalpedagogytraditionbecameentwinedwith some strandsof feminist theory (hooks, 1994; Luke & Gore, 1992), though feminists raisedseriousquestionsabout the compatibilityof this linkage 1989; Weiler, 1991). (Ellsworth, circles,Freire's Ironically, despiteits embracein educational theoryappeared just at the moment when a profoundrupture with its underlyinghumanistand Marxistassumptions moved fromthe periphery to the coreof intellectual debatesin the academy and within oppositionalpolitical formations.Questions werebeingdirectedat the foundationsof philosophyand of the humansciences(see,forexample,Foucault,1972, 1973;Geertz, the argu1973; Habermas, 1971;Taylor,1971) thatundermine mentativestructure of Freire's philosophyof praxis.In light of these problematics, Freire'stheory appearsto be insufficiently eventhoughhe placesa historical andcultural historicized, praxis at its core.As we will see, this leadsto a connectedgroupof onthat requiresubstantologicaland epistemological quandaries tially differentresponsesthan Freireprovides.In addition,becauseof the structure of his arguments, these problemsimpact Freire's ethicaland politicalpositionssincehe supports them by ontologicalappealsto human natureand by epistemicclaims In the remainaboutsituations(includingself-understandings). der of this sectionof this essay,these problemswill be outlined
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHER 2011

from a philosophicpoint of view, and preliminary arguments will be suggestedto preserve some measureof Freire's theoreticalapparatus andaimsevenif someof his specificarguments fail. historicism cannotreach First,the logic of Freire's ontological his humanist conclusions. Whilea soundargument can conclude that historicity to producecultureand his(the humancapacity tory even as cultureand historyproducehuman existence)is a of humanlife, Freire's further claimthathumandefiningfeature izationis an ontological vocationandcalling hasto be questioned. to supposethatonly Thoughit maybe metaphysically comforting humanization is trueto ourprimordial nature andthatdehumanizationis only a historical accident,this accountfounders. Logic entailsthatall humanactionmust be consistent with ontological features of existence. thusconcerns humanac(De)humanization tions thatcan only be consistent with or in contradiction to particular of how oneshouldbe but not how humansare. conceptions Freire of domination thushasto acceptthathis critique emanates froma specifichistorical andcultural locationand mustbe made on the basisof contingentethicaland politicalargumentrather than universal & Leonard,1994; ontologicalappeals(McLaren Weiler, 1991). Fromthe point of view of the logic of ontologyand historicstill ity, personswho dominateor oppressothersarenonetheless human and expressingsome primordialaspects of existence. This possibilitywas at the core of Nietzsche'sarguments about the Super Man as unsurpassed creatorof history and culture (Nietzsche,1990). In that view, moralitywas for the weak,and appealsto a vision of humanizationor to equal opportunity would merelybe for those who lackedthe will and the capacity for exertingtheirpower.While this nihilisticpill is a bitterone, the arguments againsthavingto swallowit areethicaland political.Ontologically, humanbeingsarepurelypossibility, circumscribedby their embodiment in specific situationsand backgroundsof culture,history, and meaning. In some moments, Freireequivocatedas the force of this logic pushed againsthis in the previoussection of this generalargumentas summarized is "something essay.For example,he noted that humanization in history" constituted in history" andnot "apriori 1994b, (Freire, assertion of an ontologicalprivilegefor hup. 99). But Freire's manizationas the only possibilityfor an authenticexistencereducesto just the sort of apriorihistorical claimhe recognizes as and contradictory to the position conservative, fundamentalist, he seeks. In the samevein, the logic of the thoroughlyhistoricized existencethat is most consistentwith the coreof Freire's theoryis with the notion of authenticity incompatible impliedwith such conceptsas ontologicalvocationand calling.If humanexistence cannotcompletelyescapefromparticular historical and cultural horizons then any claims of authenticitycannot be universal (Adorno,1973). Idealsof personhoodwill shift with time and placeand therecan be no ultimate"truecore"of what a person is thatis the end productof consciousness-raising. the Moreover, betweenpersonhoodand citizenshipis not neatly relationship solvable but insteadendures asan existential dilemmato be lived If humanexistence 1993). throughwith uncertainty (Margonis, cannot transcendits rootednessin particular situationsto be a universal extendsto puresubjectof history,the loss of certainty the emancipatoryguaranteesFreire hoped for from actions

aimed at overcomingsituationallimits. Freire'sargumentthat humannatureachievesits only authenticcompletionin an onrestson a Hegelianditologicaltelos that ends in humanization alecticthat synthesizesuniversaland particular aspectsof exishis morefundamental tence (Torres,1994), but this contradicts In dialoguewith his critics(McLaren & claimsabouthistoricity. in his univerthe dangers Leonard,1994), Freireacknowledged But the predicament of a salisticnarrative abouthumanization. and actually addsemmorefullyhistoricized ontologypreserves for liberationeducationto phasisto the need Freirerecognized thatdemonstrates critical enablea relentlessly analysis concretely limit the freehow specificsituations(and self-understandings) and determining. dom of some to be self-defining This demandfor continuouscritiqueextendsto the identity of the oppressed, which is distortedby Freire's universalistic bithattoo often assumea unityof experience of naryformulations oppressiondespite differences(Ellsworth,1989; McLaren& Leonard,1994; Weiler, 1991). The theorydoes not adequately aregearedto recognizethat race,cass, and genderoppressions such that specificconcreteconditionsthat can be contradictory, simultaneous and dominancecan be ocpositionsof oppression individuals(for example,someone privicupied by particular leged by racialand classlocation but oppressedby the gender order,as with a White middle-class woman).These broadcatecontested constantly undergoing goriesof identityarethemselves historical revision.In addition,Freire's theory,despiteimputing a certain psychoanalyticintent for conscientization(Freire, 1970, 1994b; Freire& Faundez,1992), failsto accountfor the ways in which identity has no direct or necessaryrelationship eitherto external contexts or to inward andknowlrepresentations Since these are about 1989). (Taylor, identity complexities edge claims an to liberation for authentic ubiquitous struggle, subject are position fromwhich to challengedominationor oppression Liberation becomes a far intricate intimate more and suspect. theoretical eithermissingfrom matter,and requires approaches Freire's or substantive perspective needing development. The problems with the philosophic logicin Freire's ontological in hisepistemological arereflected view,whichdoes interpretation not resolve the difficulties of historicized When arguknowledge. for and ing "methodological rigor" "rightthinking"that yields in a than "common sense,"Freiredid knowledge "higher stage" the depth of the problemsthus posed for the not acknowledge to knowledgeformationthat constructivist, approach pragmatic he insisted upon (Freire,1998a). Without differentiating the psychologyof knowing,the sociologyof knowledge,and philofor knowledgeclaims (see sophic questionsabout the warrants Freire's 1992), Phillips, position lackedclarity. epistemological He equivocated betweenaccepting the radical indeterminateness of knowledge sciencekind of certainty and arguingfor a natural in parsing of the situationof the oppressed. He at the raison d'etre a correspondence timesuncritically assumed theoryof truth,and of gettingit rightjustashe positedthe pospositedthe possibility 2000). He seemedto sibilityof beingan authenticself (Roberts, think that a unitaryform of reasoncould adjudicate amongthe varietyof waysof knowing,and this fallsfarshortof integrating other modes of graspingreality(Harding& Hintikka, 1983). Moreover,if knowledgeis tied to human interests(Habermas, of power(Foucault,1972, 1973) thatembed 1971) andrelations

with and if cultureitselfis permeated ideologicalcommitments, and and structured patby unanalyzable prereflective ideology of oppression ternsof action (Geertz,1973), then explanations the episcontinually beg the questionof theirvalidity.Similarly, and of knowledgeof the self temic statusboth of self-knowledge evenfor psychoanalytic by otherspresents profounddifficulties, and theory practice(Griinbaum,1984), but theseremainunacIn otherwords,knowledge of the selfand by Freire. knowledged lessceris significantly the socialworldand theircausalrelations for testingthanknowltain and hasfarless reliable mechanisms notoworld,whicharethemselves edgeclaimsaboutthe natural of and the (Taylor,1971), consequences riouslyunderwarranted Freire's for related are severe the theory. epistemicproblems

Militant nonviolence preserves Freire's aim to achieve human freedom in a just, democratic society without abandoning the conditional, historicist foundations that his theory requires.
Since oppressionand freedomarefeaturesof self-knowledge andthe humanworldof meanings, history,andculture,then the knowledgewe can have of them is much more contingentand for actions.Since for Freire providesmuch weakerjustification the criticalknowledgeof oppressionwas linked to liberation strugglethat might include violent means and the taking of human life (Freire,1970, 1994b; see also McLaren,2000), the concernfor its warrant is not merelya matterof abstract philoacsophic interest.Just what sorts of constraintson liberatory of identityand tions areimposedby the ontologicalopaqueness This queryis left begging by epistemiclimits and uncertainties? he recognized for the importance by Freire,thoughit reinforces an ongoing criticalquestioningthat refusesto be seducedinto certainties thateliminatealltraces of doubt.But the questiondemandssome resolutionbecauseFreire's theorysuffersinsofaras it providesno guidancefor evaluating knowledgeclaimsabout selfandtheworld.A thoroughly historicized of praxis philosophy must be committedto an understanding of sciencethat recognizes the historicalnatureof method, the contingencyof facts and arguments, the evolutionary natureof criteria and modesof and the function of criticaldialogueand vigorous justification, testing of claims and evidence. Such a nonfoundationalview avoidsahistoricuniversalistic that claims,and insteadmaintains

analysisof reality,self, or identitycannotescape any particular horizons.This is not quite blind spotsandhistorical perspectival the "unitaryunderstanding of the world"(Friere& Faundez, 1992, p. 47) allegedby Freire,althoughthe test of truth is not The test or the warrant for ontologicalor farfromhis proposals. a matter of claims becomes not solely logic, theory,or epistemic but alsobemethod(although thesedo not becomemeaningless) This conclusion elevatesthe demandfor an comes pragmatic. with a fullyhistoricized ethicsandpoliticsconsistent philosophy of praxisin orderto providegroundsfor adequate justification for liberatory action. his politicsfromanother As summarized Freire derived earlier, claimedontologicaltelos for human nature,in this casea comof opportunity basedon humandifferences, mitmentto equality socialism. to a preference fordemocratic thathe thenextrapolated Hobbes But this claim must face otherpossibleinterpretations. (1968), for example,arguedthat humansin a stateof nature,in the full gloryof theirdifferences, werepromptedto a war of all of a domiwhich was resolved all, only by the emergence against a commitment nantforceableto subduecompetitors andextract for his polto fealty.Freire makesanotherontologicalargument a set of questions thatpropelthe formation iticswhenhe suggests of society (Freire,1994b, p. 98). He may be rightthat humans of existence, and the "whither" sinceall seekto know the "why" human societiesseem to offer explanations for such questions. But no suchanthropological evidence(let aloneapriori ontological reasoning) extendsto his furtherclaimthat they seekto anwhom"the swer"infavor ofwhat,against what,forwhom,against culture and society are organized.Although human nature aloneprovidesonly verythin supportfor particular ethicaland who for liberation andjustice those positions, political struggle need not settle for might makingright, nor succumbto either a Machiavellian amoralism or a paralyzing relativism postmodern (on this latter point, see McLaren& Farahmandpur, 2000). Freire's different positionsimplyrequires argumentation. Therearepossibledirections such an argument could go that would be consistent with a historicist, nonfoundational perspecthatpossiblemoral tive. Forexample,Hampshire (1983) argued of natural which waysof life areakinto the diversity languages, meansthat competingsound and validconceptionsof the good evenin an idealworld.Yet wouldbe endemicto humanexistence as fundamental to humannature,and a evenacceptingdiversity contextof competingvalidconceptionsof the good, Hampshire maintainedthat sufficientminimalconditionsexist for general justice. The atagreementto a thin conception of procedural of this conceptionareakinto Freire's notion of dialogue tributes (e.g., everyvoice must be included)and bringmoraland political judgmentsthemselvesonto the terrainof historicallyconof the self and the testedactionrightalongwith understandings world. Through an argumentof this type, the conditions that and Freireadducedthat favorthe possibilityof self-realization of can the creation culture and self-determination history through be looselylinkedto an ontologicalorigin,thoughmuch moreis needed to warrantspecificethical or politicalpositions.Freire opmay be well justifiedin his politicaland ethicalpreferential can be tion for the poor (McLaren, 1999), but therenonetheless socialism. for this or for democratic no ontological priority
RESEARCHER 21| EDUCATIONAL

Reconstructing Freire's Theory: Concluding Reflections The foregoingcritiqueof Freire's theoryfocusedon the philoits sophic arguments comprising ontologicaland epistemologiProblems wereidentifiedin the logic of Freire's cal foundations. he did not go farenoughin reframbecause historicist approach elementsthatremained and ahistoric some of the universalist ing from those in his position, and he thus expectedjustifications thattheycouldnot provide.In addition,theseprobfoundations lems undercuthis ethicaland politicalconceptions.However, worthwhiledirections the line of Freire's reasoningestablished conclusions education andset up certain fora theoryof liberation capableof being supportedand developedby otherarguments. This concludingsection of the essayfollowssome of those lines and suggests an ethical and political position, militant nonto a moreadequate violence,thatwouldneedto be central theory of educationas a practiceof freedom.As noted in the introduction, the aim is to retainthe liberatory powerof the critiqueof and contrawhile recognizing the malleability dehumanization of and varieties the uncertainties dictionsof identity,embracing conin the and reason knowledge, respecting pluralcompelling society. ceptionsof the good that can shapea just, democratic the cultural andhistorical As Freire maintained, praxis always thatis at the heartof beinghumanis unending.We cannottranscendour existenceas "unconcluded, limited,conditioned,historicalbeings"and this limit actuallyprovidesthe "opportunity of setting ourselvesfree"insofaras we join the "politicalstrugof the world" (Freire,1994b, p. 100). gle for transformation this Historicity bequeaths struggle,and it is the core of freedom. Culture is a contested domain that providesno escape and "positivities" to identifyits "negativities" fromthe challenge of resisin bulwarks order to construct (Freire,1994b, p. 107) as well as construct the tance to dehumanization groundsfor of trueinsight While thereareno guarantees self-determination. into self or the worldto guideliberatory action,and no guarancan be achieved,what is tees that the desiredtransformations certainis that the odds areagainstthosewithout the traditional meansof power.Thus, as one of the tasks of a progressive education, yesterday popular is of a of mechto means critical the seek, by today, understanding in which anisms of social to further theprocess theweakconflict, of converting nessof theoppressed intoa strength turns capable theoppressor's intoweakness. 1994b, (Freire, strength p. 125) this, these objectivesare Although Freiredid not acknowledge the of militant nonviolence (Gandhi,1961;King, exactly strategy abhorred violence(see 1963;Sharp,1973).Thoughhe personally Freire seemed to nonviolence McLaren, 2000), onlyin tacregard ticaland not strategic terms.He readilyasserted that revolution aboutviolence mightentailviolentmeans,anddeferred questions the to the of the violence by oppressed priorquestion unrelenting of the oppressor (Elias,1994;Freire,1970;McLaren, 2000). Yet, notedthatthe "ethical Freire andpoliticalawareness of the fighters is of paramountimportance" for the successof liberation even when are ones (Freire, 1994b,p. 172). they military struggles Freire to failed see thepossibility thatthe theNonetheless, clearly ory and strategyof militantnonviolenceoffereda way to con-

struct an integrated historicist theory of liberation education that combined consistent ontological, epistemological, ethical, and political positions. Ontological groundlessness and epistemic uncertainty reside within cultural horizons embracing a diversityof moral and political goods, and together generate constraints that substantially weaken the justifications for violence, even for seemingly just causes. Ethical theory and the tradition of common law alike recognize that very stringent tests must be met to warrantkilling, even in self-defense. Similarly, the current outcry about the prevalence of errorsin death penalty cases reflectsthe moral revulsion experienced by people acrossthe political spectrum when those tests are not satisfied.Advocates of just wars (the sort we can assume liberation strugglesto be) face moral hurdles that are exceptionally difficult to surmount in both the decision to wage war and in its conduct (Teichman, 1986; Walzer, 1977). The certitude of death demands that those who take life possess a level of certitude about the situation and the self that is perhaps beyond reach, especially in the case of death on the scale of war. Yet, if Freireis right that the struggle for freedom is the fate of human existence, then ways to fight for one way of life ratherthan another must be found that honor epistemic, moral, and ontological uncertainty of a radical sort. Militant nonviolence preservesFreire'saim to achieve human freedom in a just, democratic society without abandoning the conditional, historicist foundations that his theory requires. Cultural action for liberation wedded to militant nonviolence furnishes an ethical and political framework consistent with a historicized and always partially opaque ontology and a historicized, perspectival epistemology (Glass, 1996). This is a method of radical action unconstrained by meanings and knowledge claims that are historically situated and culturally constructed, and that is suited to a polyvocal discourse giving expression to identities marked by contradictory, multiple, and shifting boundaries. It gives shape and transformative force to struggles within intensively contested contexts without reinscribing violence or reinstantiating discourses and relations of domination. Such an interpretation of cultural action for liberation fortifies the basic principles of a pluralistic democracy, and is also capable of combating armed force, defending territory, and facing up to the real politics of an armed and aggressive world (Boserup & Mack, 1975; Sharp, 1985). The reconstruction of Freire's theory suggested here is consistent with the dialogical practices that he argued were central to education as a practice of freedom, and with the importance he placed on ideological struggle as a leading element in overcoming oppression (Coben, 1998; Mayo, 1999). It provides a political strategy that makes more credible the demand for a permanent struggle for liberation since it preserves to all equally the power to seek self-determined hopes and dreams. The critiques and questions that challenge Freire'sarticulation of a philosophy of praxis cannot diminish the impact Freire's work will continue to have. As science has long demonstrated, imperfect theories do not render action impossible. Freire's insights will endure, and both orient critical pedagogical theory and liberatory educational practice. Freire indeed captured some of the most telling qualities of what it is to be human, and so education as a practice of freedom will remain pivotal for the real-

ization of whatever ideal of the person or of society one imagines. The legacy of Freire's theory, just as its origins, is first and foremost to be found as a lived praxis of liberation in the global, variegated efforts to translate it into every conceivable context. For the contributions of his theory and his life toward the creation of more justice and democracy, a world will continue to mourn the death of Paulo Freire. NOTES deathfor a This paperwasinitiallydraftedimmediately afterFreire's collection that never to fruition. drafts benecame Subsequent special fromthe commentsandcriticisms of PiaWong, Frank fitedenormously Researcher Eduardo Duarte,andthe Educational anonymous Margonis, andeditors.Responsibility forallremaining reviewers obscurities, probrestssolelywith me. lems, and errors 1 Wink (2000), and Schneidewind and Davidson(1998), arein second editions,and Derman-Sparks's (1989) is in its 11th printing. 2 Educatingfor by Arnoldet al. (1991) had its fifth printing Change in 1996. 3 The author andPhoenix(AZ)Union High SchoolDistrict,with 12 schoolsand more than 22,000 students,half of whom qualifyfor freeor reduced-price lunchesandan equalnumberof whom havehomelanother than English,arecurrently developingsuch a project. guages 4 Freire thatErichFrommwas"deadright"to (1994b, p. 55) reports use this phraseto describe Freire's educational practice. 5 FromPlatoandAristotle in the Westernphilosophic tradiforward in the Chinesetration, and fromMeng Tzu and ChuangTzu forward to manyethical andpolitical theories, dition,theselinkshavebeencentral in as are a wide of doctrines. variety religious just they 6 Freire's has beenchaleffortto distance humansfromotheranimals andreflective of the European modesof thoughtthat lengedasspecies-ist his view.Bowers(1983) raised in a trenchant theseconcerns cripervade that theymaskthe cultural invatiqueof Freire's assumptions, charging whenit supports in non-Western sionof histheory interventions contexts. 7 Freirenonetheless the that individuals from oppressor recognized classcould commita kind of classsuicideto be rebornand in solidarity with the oppressed (see, for example,Freire,1973, p. 18). Elias(1994) discussedthe religiouslanguageand symbolismthat Freirefrequently to this processas an Easter. employedin referring 8 Freire followsGramsci(1971) in this analysis(see especially Freire & Faundez,1992, and Friere,1998a). For extendeddiscussions of the theoretical connectionsbetweenFreireand Gramsci, see Coben (1998) and Mayo (1999). REFERENCES Evanston: Northwestern Adorno,T. (1973). Thejargon ofauthenticity. Press. University Allman,P., Cavanagh, C., Hang,C. L., Haddad,S., & Mayo,P. (Eds.). issuedevotedto PauloFreire].Convergence, (1998). [Special 31(1/2). A politicaleconomy Anyon,J. (1997). Ghetto schooling: of urbaneducationalreform. New York:Teachers CollegePress. M. W. curriculum. and Boston:Routledgeand (1979). Apple, Ideology Paul. Kegan Apple, M. W. (1982). Education andpower. Boston: Routledgeand KeganPaul. Arnold,R, Burke, B.,James, D., & Thomas,B. (1991).EduC., Martin, Toronto:Betweenthe Linesand the DorisMarshall catingfor change. Institutefor EducationandAction. radicaldemocratic humanism.In Aronowitz,S. (1993). PauloFreire's P. McLaren& P. Leonard(Eds.), PauloFreire: A criticalencounter (pp. 8-24). London:Routledge.
MARCH 20011123

and how to win AmerBennett,W. (1996). Bodycount: Moralpoverty New York:Simon & Schuster. ica'swaragainst crime and drugs. crisis: Berliner, D., & Biddle,B. (1995). Themanufactured faud Myths, schools. and the attackon America's Reading,MA: Addison public Wesley. in Nonviolence A., & Mack,A. (1975). Warwithoutweapons: Boserup, New York:Schocken. nationaldefense. Bowers,C. A. (1983). Linguisticroots of culturalinvasionin Paulo Freire's Record, 84(4), 935-953. College pedagogy.Teachers Educational Carnoy,M. (2000). School choice?Or is it privatization? Researcher, 29(7), 15-20. Centeron Budgetand PolicyPriorities. (2000, September 4). New IRS at the datashowdramatic incomegains incomegains topthatfaroutstrip online:www.cbpp.org]. [Available for therestof thepopulation. Freire,and thepoliticsof Gramsci, Coben, D. (1998). Radicalheroes: New York:GarlandPublishing,Inc. adulteducation. strateand thetools:Oraland literate Cushman,E. (1998). Thestruggle an NY: SUNY Press. in inner Albany, city community. gies curriculum: L., & A.B.C.TaskForce.(1989).Anti-bias Derman-Sparks, DC: NationalAssochildren. Washington, Toolsfor empoweringyoung ciationfor the Educationof YoungChildren. New York:ModernLiand conduct. Dewey, J. (1930). Humannature brary.(Originalworkpublished1922) Boston:Beacon.(Origin philosophy. Dewey,J. (1957). Reconstruction inalworkpublished1920) New York:Macmillan. and education. Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy workpublished1916) (Original Malabar,FL: Elias,J. L. (1994). PauloFreire: Pedagogue of liberation. Krieger PublishingCo. Ellsworth,E. (1989). Why doesn't this feel empowering? Working Educamyths of criticalpedagogy.Harvard throughthe repressive tionalReview, 59(3), 297-324. and socialmovementsin Canada. Findlay,P. (1994). Conscientization Paths In P. McLaren& C. Lankshear (Eds.), Politicsof liberation: Freire London: 108-122). (pp. Routedge. from chilwithan attitude: Finn, P. (1999). Literacy Educating working-class drenin theirownself-interest. Albany,NY: SUNY Press. Flecha, R. (1999). Modern and postmodernracismin Europe:DiaHarvardEducational Review, 69(2), logic andanti-racist pedagogies. 150-171. on and, Thediscourse Foucault,M. (1972). Thearcheology ofknowledge, New York:Pantheon. language. An archeology Foucault,M. (1973). Theorder ofthehumansciofthings: ences. New York:Vintage. New York:Seabury. Freire,P. (1970). Pedagogy of theoppressed. P. (1973). Educationfor consciousness. New York: critical Freire, Seabury. York: the New Continuum. Freire,P. (1993). Pedagogy of city. Freire,P. (1994a). Pedagogy (20th anniversary edition). of theoppressed New York:Continuum. of the Oppressed. P. (1994b).Pedagogy Freire, Pedagogy ofhope: Reliving New York:Continuum. P. (1998a).Pedagogy andciviccourage. Ethics, Freire, democracy, offieedom: Publishers. New York:Rowman& Littlefield actionfor freeFreire,P. (1998b). The adultliteracy processas cultural Educational dom. Harvard Review,68(4), 480-498. HarvardEduactionand conscientization. Freire,P. (1998c). Cultural cationalReview, 68(4), 499-521. Freire, P., & Faundez,A. (1992). Learningto question.New York: Continuum. ComE. Z. (1971). Reviewof Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Friedenberg, Education Review,15(3), 378-380. parative His life and work.Albany, PauloFreire: Gadotti, M. (1994). Reading NY: SUNY Press.

Books. Schocken New York: resistance. Gandhi,M. K. (1961).Nonviolent New York: BasicBooks. Geertz,C. (1973). Theinterpretation ofcultures. A pedagogyfor in education: and resistance Giroux,H. A. (1983). Theory South Hadley,MA: Berginand Garvey. theopposition. andthestruggleforpublic Giroux,H. A. (1988). Schooling life:CriticalpedPress. of Minnesota in themodern University age.Minneapolis: agogy Paulo Freire: D. H. & Giroux, A., Macedo, (Eds.).(1994). History, pedandstruggle. Universityof MinnesotaPress. Minneapolis: agogy the Giroux, H. A., & McLaren,P. (Eds.). (1989). Criticalpedagogy, state,and cultural Albany:SUNY Press. struggle. and education, Glass,R. D. (1996). On PauloFreire's of liberation theory dissertation. Ph.D. CA:Stanford andnonviolence. Stanford, University dilemma A revolutionary S. (Ed.). (1973). PauloFreire: Grabowski, for in Publications NY: Syracuse theadulteducator. University Syracuse, ContinuingEducation. New York: Gramsci,A. (1971). Selections from the PrisonNotebooks. Publishers. International A philosophic A. (1984). The Griinbaum, ofpsychoanalysis: foundations Press. Berkeley: Universityof California critique. Boston:Beacon and humaninterests. Habermas, J. (1971). Knowledge Press. UniHarvard andconflict. S. (1983). Morality Cambridge: Hampshire, versityPress. Femireality: Harding,S., & Hintikka,M. (Eds.).(1983). Discovering and on methodology, thephimetaphysics, nistperspectives epistemology, Reidel. Dordrecht: losophy ofscience. D. (1999). Thecolorof Henig, J., Hula, R., Orr, M., & Pedescleaux, schoolreform: Race,politics, and the challenge of urban education. Princeton,NJ: PrincetonUniversityPress. C.B. Macpherson Hobbes,T. (1968).Leviathan. (Ed.).Harmondsworth: Penguin. to transgress: Education as thepractice hooks,b. (1994). Teaching offreedom.New York:Routledge. Horton, M., & Freire,P. (1990). Wemakethe roadby walking:Conon education and socialchange. versations Temple UniPhiladelphia: versityPress. workers: work,changing Hull, G. (Ed.). (1997). Changing Criticalperand on skills. Albany,NY: SUNY Press. spectives language, literacy, CityJail. In Whywe King,Jr., M. L. (1963). Letterfrom Birmingham can'twait (pp. 77-100). New York:Harper& Row.. andculturalpower. South D. (Ed.).(1986). Criticalpedagogy Livingston, Hadley,MA: Berginand Garvey. and criticalpedagogy. Luke, C., & Gore, J. (Eds.). (1992). Feminisms New York:Routledge. Macedo,D. (2000). The colonialismof the EnglishOnly movement. Educational Researcher, 29(3), 15-24. F. and enlightenment faith.PhilosLeftist (1993). Margonis, pedagogy of 1993 (pp. 250-262). Urbana,IL: Proceedings ophyof Education the Philosophyof EducationSociety. reader(2nd ed.; R. Marx,K., & Engels, F. (1978). TheMarx-Engels Tucker,Ed.). New York:W. W. Norton. Freireand adult education: Possibilities Mayo, P. (1999). Gramsci, for action.London:Zed Books. transformative London:FalmerPress. McCarthy,C. (1990). Raceand curriculum. P. (1999). A pedagogyof possibility: McLaren, Reflectingupon Paulo Freire's Politicsof Education. Educational Researcher, 28(2), 49-56. P. (2000). CheGuevara, PauloFreire, andthepedagogy McLaren, ofrevolution.Lanham,MD: Rowman& Littlefield Inc. Publishers, R. (2000). ReconsideringMarx in McLaren,P., & Farahmandpur, A times: Educational post-Marxist requiem for postmodernism? Researcher, 29(3), 25-33. C. (Eds.).(1994). Politics Paths P., & Lankshear, McLaren, ofliberation: London:Routledge. fromFreire.

EI

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHER