CHAPTER 1 T10B

PETROL ENGINES
1.1 Introduction Internal combustion engines are those from which mechanical energy is obtained from the thermal energy of fuel through combustion which take place within the engine itself. Internal combustion engines can be divided into gas engines, and oil engines according to the type of the full used. In gas engines natural gas or the vapour of gasoline is used for fuel. An example is the petrol engine. Oil engines are those using kerosene or heavy low grade pills an example of which is the Diesel Engine. It is proposed to consider in this lesson only gas engines. In gas engines, the fuel should in vapour stage mixed with oxygen and for this reason high grade hydrocarbons and alcohols are popular sources of energy. Petrol or petrol with blend of Benzil, Ethyl alcohol or both the most widely used fuel. 1.2 Means of converting heat energy into work.

Any one of a number of heat engine cycles is utilised for converting heat energy into mechanical work. The otto cycle is the most favoured for gas engines. The term Cycle as applied to an engine, is defined as a series of events which are repeated in regular order, constituting the principle of operation. These several events comprise the transformations which take place in the working medium, or, with reference to the gas engine, the distribution and behaviour of the fuel mixture in passing through the engine. The gas engine derives its energy from the heat, generated by the combustion with in the cylinder of a mixture of fuel in the form of a gas of spray mingled with air in proper proportion to form an explosive mixture. The mixture is admitted to the engine intermittently and the amount supplied at each admission is known as the charge. The combustion of each charge takes place under pressure attained by compression a result of the inward movement or the piston after the charge is admitted and all the valves closed. Explosion is the effect produced by igniting the mixture after compression. Explosion is simply a quick burning or rapid combustion of the mixture. The sudden explosion causes a high degree of heat within the combustion chamber, resulting in considerable initial pressure and gives to the piston and impulse which decreases in intensity while the piston advances to make the power stroke by reason of expansion of the gases. The products of combustion are finally exhausted from the cylinder. The period of exhaust occurs partly before the piston completes the power stroke, known as pre-release and partly on the return stroke, known as release. To summaries, the process of a cycle of a gas engine is comprised of:a) b) c) d) e) 1.3 Admission Compression Ignition Pre-release and Release ESSENTIALS OF A GAS ENGINE:

The important parts are:

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

Cylinder Valves Valve operating mechanism Camshaft Crankshaft Connecting Rod Piston Flywheel

Items 2,4, 5, 6, 7 and are shown in figure 1.3(a)

Fig 1.3 (a) Engine are rated in cylinders. Each cylinder is in fact a separate engine. The cylinder is hallow and the curved sides are thick and made of strong metal as iron. The cylinder is open at its lower and except for certain small openings closed at the other or top end. In the cylinder is the piston which while fitting very closely, is still also to slide up and down inside. During its upward motion the mixture is compressed. The explosion those back the piston. It is important that none of the expanding gasses can pass between the piston and the cylinder walls, and the piston in order to be able to slide up and down is not really a tight enough fit in the cylinder to prevent this completely. To overcome this difficulty, metal rings (usually two or three) are fitted in groves round the piston. Each one has a cut in it and their diameter is slightly larger than that of the cylinder. They are cast iron as a general rule, which has a certain amount of spring in it., so that when they are in place in their groves they tend to push out against the cylinder walls, and so make an effective seal to keep the gases from passing. As they are only pushed out by the comparatively light spring of the metal they do not restrict except in the very sligntent degree, the sliding of the piston in the cylinder. These rings are called piston rings. The piston is flat on top and hollowed out underneath for lightness, and across this hollowed out underside is fitted a short steel shaft, or bar, called the gudgeon pin. It is used to attach the piston to the connecting rod. The connecting rod is not round as the work suggests, but is of complex shape with a small bearing at top and large bearing at the bottom. The bearing surrounds of bears round the gudgeon pin, while it is snug fit, there is sufficient freedom to allow the connecting rod to tilt back and forth on the green pin. As the rod moves up and down, the entire movement is similar to that of fore arm with wrist bending back and Hence, gudgeon pin is often called a wrist pin. The lower and of the connecting rod is connected to the crank shaft. The lower end of the connecting rod is split so that it can be assembled round the crank pin. The crank pin on the

crank shaft is really an offset section of the shaft that moves in a circle round the shaft. The rod also move in a circle. This arrangement of the crank shaft and connecting rod thus converts the reciprocating motion of the piston in to a rotary motion of the crankshaft. There are two actions inside the cylinder. One is the clearing of burnt gases out of cylinder after power stroke and introduction of a fresh charge of gasoline vapour and air. For these two openings known as ports are provided. The door to open and close the opening is known as the valve. These are round metal plugs with long stems. They seal off the ports by moving down against valve scats.

Fig 1.3 (b) Figure (b) shows the sectional view of a four cycle gas engine with one cylinder with all the parts shown. 1.4 TWO STROKE AND FOUR STROKE ENGINES:

In the operation of a gas engine, the number of strokes required to complete the cycle varies with the type of engine. According to the number of strokes required to complete the cycle, gas engines are divided into two general classes two stroke cycle and four stoke cycle. In referring to these two classes, the word strike is usually omitted (being under stood) and the classes designated as, briefly two cycle and four cycle. 1.5. OPERATION OF A FOUR CYCLE OR FOUR STROKE ENGINE

In this the Four strokes required to perform the cycle are known as: 1. 2. 3. First stroke (0utward) Admission stroke Second stroke (in ward) Compression (or section) Stroke Third stroke (outward) Expansion (or power) stroke

4.

Fourth stroke (inward )-Exhaust Stroke

Fig 1.5 Figure (b) and (a) shows the cylinder detail and indicator diagram, figure (a) is a n indicator diagram of a four stroke, engine the assumed values for temperature, volume, and pressure, however, do not correspond to the maximum and minimum of such as may be derived from theoretical computations, but represent values which are a fair average of those occurring in the cylinder of a gas engine, operating under actual conditions. The indicator diagram is explained in detail below:1.6 Admission stroke: Referring to the figures (a) and (a) admission, the piston moves to B, the conditions within the cylinder during the movement being a-b. this line is drawn below the line of atmospheric pressure, because, due to suction the pressure in the cylinder is less than that of the atmosphere. At B, the inlet valve closes, thus completing admission.

Fig 1.6 The admission line-a-b, sags below the theoretical on account of directional resistance encountered by the incoming charge. The uniform rotary motion of the crank causes grate variations in the speed of the piston at different points of its stroke, the speed of the piston being more rapid while the crank passes from 5 to 7 and from 9 to 10. Then while the charge as it flows from the carburetor through the manifold and valve opening. (Those will be described later) is opposed by frictional resistance which in creases with its speed. Hence, the increasing speed of the piston during the first part of the stroke causes an increase of speed of the charge, this in turn involves a drop of pressure within the cylinder corresponding to the greater section required to over-come the excess frictional resistance . Thus, it is seen that the admission line gradually approaches the dotted line.

1.7

COMPRESSION STROKE:

Referring to Figs(a) and (b) at or near the end of the charging stroke, the admission valve closes and the energy the flywheel moves the crank from position 2 to 1 which in turn pushes the piston from B to A thus compressing the charge into the clearance space. This results in raising both the pressure and temperature of the charge. The curved line be shows the gradual increase in pressure, due to compression, from about a pound below atmospheric pressure to 70 points at the end of the stroke. The working conditions within the cylinder are such that the compression does not take place according to any law. There is a marked variation of the actual compression line be, from the theoretical (dotted line).

Fig. 1.7 1.8 EXPANSION OR POWER STROKE:

At the end of the compression stroke ignition of the compressed charges takes place, and the pressure suddenly jumps to 225 pounds, corresponding to the initial expansion. The piston again moves outward from a to B, making the power stroke; the products of combustion expand with the increasing volume, and the pressure gradually falls as indicated by the curved expansion line . The pressure falls from 225 lbs. To 44.1 lbs. At the end of the stroke.

Fig 1.8

In the figure (a) the position of the explosion line indicates that the spark in this instance was retarded to the end of the compression stroke and that the combustion was almost instantaneous, the maximum pressure attained being 200 lbs, corresponding to an initial expansion temperature of 20 95 F. It should be noted that the theoretical pressure is 225 lbs. As shown by the dotted line. On account of the late ignition the actual pressure of combustion obtained is less than the theoretical. A movement of the piston from A to H, takes place during the explosion, hence, this increase of volume together with the effect of the comparatively cool cylinder walls, prevents the maximum pressure reaching the theoretical value; this is shown by the curved portion of the explosion line at in fig (a). when the piston has reached the point H. Corresponding to d, the products of combustion expand, driving the piston forward at the expense of its own internal energy the crank in the meantime revolving to the point 3. During the first part of the stroke, the temperature of the products of combustion is higher than that of the cylinder walls, hence the gases are unduly cooled with a rosuling fall of the pressure in excess of that due to adiabatic expansion. During the latter part of the expansion from 1 to e in fig.(a) the reverse conditions obtain, that is, the products of combustion absorb heat from the cylinder walls, resulting in an excess of pressure above that due to adiabatic expansion. Prerelease begins at e and continues to b. 1.9 EXHAUST STROKE:

At the end of the power stroke, the exhaust value opens and the pressure suddenly drops to that of the atmosphere. The exhaust valve remains open and the burnt gases are expelled from the cylinder at approximately atmospheric pressure.

Fig. 1.9 Referring to figures (a) and (b) during this operation the line of a will be traced which will either coincide with, or lie above the atmospheric line according to the following conditions: (1) If the exhaust valve be properly set and there are no wire drawing the pressure will be reduced to that of the atmosphere when the piston reaches the point G in its return stroke, and the exhaust line traced will coincide with the atmospheric line. If the exhaust valve be set so as to release at too high a pressure and there be wire drawing a line will be traced which will be above the atmospheric line at a distance corresponding to the resulting back pressure.

(2)

Fig. 1.10 1.10 From the above, it is seen that any actual engine can indicator diagram of fig. 5(a), since it is limited by take place instantaneously, that is an interval of time is necessary for a physical change to take place, hence there can be no vertical lines as cd. Or ab, on a working diagram. Again time is required for the opening of the exhaust valve, involving that it begins to open before the end of the stroke, that is, before, the point e is reached the gradual opening of the valve is accompanied by a gradual instead of an abrupt reduction of pressure. Numerous other causes tend to produce variations between the actual and ideal diagrams. Figure shows the four stroke method of operation showing the operation of the valves. OPERATION OF THE TWO CYCLE OR TWO STROKE ENGINE:

1.11.

This type of gas engine is used chiefly for small powers. The essential difference between it and the four cycle type is that the four operations of admission compression, power and exhaust comprising the working cycle are performed in one revolution instead of two. There is then, one impulse of each revolution. From this, it follows that the weight is, much less than that required for the four cycle engine.

The two stroke engine has no mechanically operated valves instead, it has three ports fairly low down in the side wall of the cylinder. One is the exhaust part leading to the exhaust pipe. Opposite and very slightly lower, is the transfer port, which connects with the crank case, under the piston. Lowest, of the three is the inlet port through which the mixture enters,. The piston itself differs slightly from that of the four stroke engine in having a raised portion on its top or crown. This is known as the deflector.

Fig. 1.11

Assuming that the engine is actually running and the piston is at the top of the stroke (see fig) the mixture in the combustion chamber is fired by the sparking plug, but at the same time the piston, in moving up, has uncovered the inlet port in the cylinder wall. This is now under the piston, so that the fresh petrol air mixture, having been sucked in by the rising piston goes directly into the crank case below it. The piston now begins to descend under the force of the burning gases, closing the inlet port once more and compressing the mixture in the crank case underneath. As it nears the bottom of its stroke, the top of it begins to uncover the exhaust port. Thus, it will be remembered above the inlet port, and the burned gases, still under a certain amount of pressure, begin to rush out through the exhaust. Almost immediately, however, since they are almost on the same level, the transfer port is also uncovered the opposite side of the cylinder. This being connected direct to the crank case where the new petrol air mixture is waiting, is really a kind of second inlet port. The rush of the burnt gases from the exhaust port, plus the pressure of the mixture in the crank case. Port , plus th4e pressure of the mixture I the crank case. Port causes the latter to rush through the transfer port into the cylinder above the piston by way of a transfer passage. But to stop it flowing straight out of the opposite exhaust port, which is still open, the deflector on the position crown comes into operation. It acts as a barrier deflecting the unburned mixture upto the top of the cylinder before it can descend again and reach the exhaust port, the piston had begun to move once more upwards, closing both the exhaust-port and the transfer port.

And so it moves on to the top of its stroke, when the mixture is fully compressed and ignited, and the two stroke cycle is completed. The piston has, in other wards completed two a strokes, one up and one down the cylinder. The theoretical indicator diagram of the two stroke and four stroke engines are the same. Main advantages of the two stroke cycle: 1. 2. 3. 4. As there is a working stroke for each revolution, theoretically, the horse power developed will be that of a four stroke engine of the same dimensions. The scavenging is more complete in low speed engines as it does not leave the clearance volume full of burnt gases, as in the case of the four stroke engine. The work required to overcome the friction of the exhaust and suction strokes is saved. As two idle strokes are omitted, there is a more even turning moment on the crankshaft.

Main disadvantages: 1) 2) 3) High speed engines are less efficient owing to the volumetric efficiency, being less. With engines working on the otto-cycle unburned gas is wasted by escaping through the exhaust port during scavenging. This increases the fuel consumption. It is liable to cause a heavier consumption of Lubricating oil.

1.12.1 Multiple cylinder engines: A single cylinder engine revolutions and is delivering power only one-fourth of the time. To provided or a more continuous flow of power, modern engine use four, six, eight or more cylinder. The power impulses are so arranged as to follow one another, or overlap (on six and eight cylinder engines). This gives a more nearby even flow of power from the engine. 1.13 Fly Wheel: Even through the power impulses in a multi-cylinder engine follow each other, or overlap, to provide a fairly even flow of power, additional levelling off of the power impulses is desirable. This would make the engine run still more smoothly. To achieve this a fly wheel is used. The fly wheel is a fairly heavy steel wheel, attached to the rear end of the crankshaft. To get a better idea of how the flywheel does its job, only one-fourth of the time during the power stroke. During the other three strokes it is absorbing power to push put the exhaust gas, to pull in a fresh air-fuel charge, to compress the charge. Thus during the power stroke the engine, tends to speed up During the other strokes, it tends to slow down. Any rotating wheel, including the flywheel, resists any effort to change its speed of rotation. This property is known as inertia. When the engine tends to speed up, the flywheel resists it. Of course, in the single cylinder engine, there would still be some speed-up and slow down. But the flywheel minimizes it. In effect, the fly wheel absorbs power from the engine during the power stroke (or speed up time), and then gives it back to the engine during the other three strokes (or slow down time). In the multi-cylinder engine, the flywheel acts in a similar manner to smooth out further the peak and valleys of powers flow from the engine. The flywheel also has teeth on its outer diameter that mesh with the electric cranking motor drive pinion when the engine is being cranked to start it. 1.14. Valve Mechanism:

The details of the valve mechanism are shown in figures (a) and (b). The two ports (i.e. the inlet and exhaust) have valves assembled into them and these valves close off one or the other port, or both ports, during various, stages of the action taking place in the cylinder. The valves are nothing but accurately machined metal plug__ close the opening when they are seated that is, have moved down into the opening) fig. (a) shows a common type of valve and valve seat. This type of valve is called a peppet valve. The valve is shown open in fig.(a), that is lifted off its seat. When closed, it has moved down so that the outer edge of its head rests on the seat. In this position, the valve port is closed, so that no air or gas can pass through it.

Fig. 1.14 a & b The important parts of the valve mechanism are the valve spring, valve lifter and cam shaft. The cam shaft is a round shaft with a series of cams spaced at intervals from one end to other. There is one cam for each valve, and two valves for each cylinder so that a four cylinder engine will have 8 cams. A cam is an eccentric section of a shaft with a high spot or bump. This is also known as cam lobe. The cam lobe moves the valve lifter up and down, which in turn causes the valve to move up or down. A spring on the valve stem tends to hold the valve stem by a retainer which is attached to the valve stem by a retainer lock, or keeper. The end thus tries to keep the valve seated. After spring forces the valve down in its seat again. Since the valve opens once for every cam shaft revolution, in a four stroke engine it turns at one-half of the crank shaft speed. The cam shaft is driven by gears or chain from the crank shaft. When driven by chain, the gears are known as sprockets. The cam lobes so positioned on the cam shaft as to cause the valves to open and close in the cylinders at the proper time with respect to the activities taking place in the cylinders. 1.15 Fuel System:

The function of the fuel system is to deliver a mixture of petrol vapour and air. It consists of a tank in which petrol is stored, a fuel pump, a carburetor, an intake manifold and connecting fuel lines. The fuel pump, pumps the liquid petrol from the fuel take manifold. From there, it passes the intake valve ports (when valves are open and enters the engine cylinders). Where it is possible to have the tank higher than the engine, the petrol will run down from it to the engine by the force of gravity and the tank will be called a gravity tank. However, where it is on the same level or lower than the engine a fuel pump contains, as the essential working parts, a rocker arm, a flexible diaphragm, and two valves. The pump is mounted on the side of the cylinder block. The rocker arm enters an opening in the block and rests on an eccentric on the camshaft. As the camshaft rotates, the eccentric causes the rocker arm to rock, or move back and fourth. This movement causes the diaphragm in the pump to fluctuate down and up alternatively creating vacuum and pressure. When vacuum is created, the inlet valve is lifted off its seat, allowing petrol to be drawn from the fuel tank, through the fuel line and into the pump chamber. On the return stroke the diaphragm is released and the diaphragm spring forces it upward. This creates a pressure in the pump chamber. The inlet valve is closed by the

pressure and the outlet valve is opened. Petrol is forced from the pump through a fuel line to the carburetor. The rocker-arm spring keeps the rocker arm in contact with the eccentric on the camshaft. The diaphragm spring maintains pressure on the diaphragm and on the fuel in the pump chamber during the return stroke. 1.16 CARBURETOR:

This is mounted on the intake manifold on the engine. The intake manifold is essentially nothing more than a series of passages leading from the carburetor to the engine cylinders. These passages are as short and as straight as possible (Minimum of bends) so that air-fuel mixture will not excessively restricted, or held back on its way to the cylinders. The purpose of the carburetor is to mix petrol vapour and air in correct proportions. The petrol from fuel pump is delivered to the carburetor float chamber. It is a small reservoir on the side of the carburetor. It has afloat and a needle valve which operate together to regulate the deliver of petrol from the fuel, pump to the float bowl. If the petrol is delivered more rapidly than the quantity consumed by the carburetor the needle valve closes the inlet.

Fig 1.16 Apart from the float bowl, the carburetor contains three essentials:(1) (2) (3) The air horn or air passage through which air passes its way to the engine cylinders. The throttle valve, that can be opened varying amounts of mixture passing through, and A fuel nozzle or jet through which petrol is sprayed into passing air.

An air filter, mounted on the air horn, filters dirt and dust particles from the entering air. This action prevents some particles from getting into the engine, where they could damage engine bearings, cylinder walls and piston rings. After the air passes, through the air horn (where it picks up a charge of fuel), it enters, the intake manifold on which the carburetor is mounted. In order to cause petrol to feed through nozzle into passing air, a restriction of narrowing of the air horn, called Venturi is placed just above the nozzle. When the engine is running, air is moving constantly through the carburetor air horn and intake manifold to the engine cylinders. When air is passing through the Venturi a partial Vacuum is produced in it. This vacuum draws out the petrol from the fuel nozzle or jet in the form of a fine spray which rapidly turns into vapour as the droplets of petrol evaporate. The more air that moves through the faster it moves and the greater the amount of petrol delivered. The throttle valve controls the amount of airfuel mixture moving through and being delivered to the engine cylinders. The throttle valve is a round disc mounted on a shaft. When the shaft is turned, the valve tilts more or less to open or close the air passage. When the valve is tilted only slightly from the horizontal the throttle is said to be closed. Only a small amount of air can get through. Only small amounts of air-fuel mixture are delivered to the engine cylinders and the engine runs slowly. When the throttle valve is opened, more air-fuel mixture gets through to the engine cylinders and engine speed

increases. When the engine is being started especially when cold, a rich mixture is required. Larger quantity of petrol is required for satisfactory starting. The carburetor choke is designed to cause the carburetor to deliver additional petrol for starting or when the engine is cold. The choke, consists of a round or butterfly valve (much like the throttle valve in shape) assembled into the top part of the carburetor or air horn. The choke valve is attached to a shaft. When the choke valve is closed only a small portion of air can move past it. Thus a high vacuum is created inside the carburetor as, the piston draws a considerable amount of petrol out of the main nozzle and the mixture becomes enriched for starting. The choke valve must then be gradually opened out as the engine warms up. 1.17 EXHAUST SYSTEM:

Fig 1.17 After the air-fuel mixture burns in the engine cylinder, the exhaust valve opens and the upward moving piston forces the burned gases from the cylinder on the exhaust stroke. The gases pass into the exhaust manifold and from there through a pipe(the exhaust pipe) into the exhaust muffler (or silencer) as shown in the figure. The exhaust muffler provides a series of passages and chambers, through which the exhaust gases must pass before being discharged into the air. These passage and chambers muffle the exhaust noise, thus quieting the engine. 1.18 Lubricating system: In an engine, the rotating shaft journals are floated in thin layers of oil to reduce friction. Metal to metal contact is prevented and wear is reduced. Actually the layers of oil are vary thin, in fact less than 0.001. The lubricating oil in addition to oiling all engine bearings, also provides lubrication for the piston and rings cylinder walls, valve stems and valve guides, timing gears and other moving parts.

Fig 1.18(b)

One of the most important properties of oil is its viscosity. This term refer to the thinness of the oil. A thick oil flows slowly and has high viscosity. Thin oil is less viscous. The viscosity of the oil is expressed in numbers 10,20, 30 etc. the lower numbers indicating light, low viscosity oils. The important parts of lubricating system are: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) The oil pan or sump Oil filters or strainer Oil pump Oil relief valve Oil lines to the parts, requiring lubrication.

The oil pan is attached to the bottom of the cylinder, the actual capacity varying with the engine. The oil pump is located in the oil pan, and is driven by a gear on the camshaft. The driven gear (in one type) is on the ignition distributor shafts and a tongue on the end of the distributor. Shaft fits into the groove of the oil pump shaft. The gear on the cam shaft thus causes both the distributor and the oil pump shaft to rotate as the cam shaft turns. The oil pump is usually of using 2 gears, assembled between gear teeth. At the outlet the gears mesh, forcing oil between the gear. The oil pump is usually of gear type using 2 gears, assembled between two end plates (Fig. a). As the gears rotate, they pull oil through intake and carry oil around in the spaces between gear teeth. At the outlet the gears mesh, forcing oil between the gear teeth and through the outlet. To prevent building up of oil pressures, a relief valve is used. The relief valve consists of a spring loaded ball located either in the oil pump or in the main oil line from the pump. When pressure goes too high the valve is pushed off its seat and part of oil runs past the ball and back into the oil pan. The are different types of oil filters. The filter usually contains porous cellulose material, metal mesh or a similar substance which passes the oil, but retains most of the solid impurities in the oil. Filters are of two types, by pass and full flow. The by pass filter filters only part of the oil from the oil pump. That is, the line is so connected that oil is fed to the engine through one line, and to the filter through another. Although only part of the oil from the pump is filtered the fact that some oil clean. The full-flow filter is directly in the line from the oil pump the all oil from the pump goes through the filter. This type of filter contains a by pass valve which opens if the filter becomes clogged. This permits lubrication of the engine when the filter has become too closed with impurities to pass an adequate amount of oil. Since the oil filters are effective only so long as they are sufficiently clean to pass oil, it is obvious that the filter element should be changed periodically or before they have become completely clogged. The type of the lubricating system are mainly two. In the splash type dippers on the bottom of the connecting rods dip for each revolution and splash the oil upto the cylinder walls, stems and bearings. In the full pressure type oil lines from pump deliver oil to moving parts. Oil lines consist of metal tubes and holes drilled in cylinder block, crankshaft and connecting rods and bearings. In addition to providing lubrication, the oil also carries away some of the heat from the moving engine parts. The oil picks up heat, becomes hotter, and then, when it returns to the oil pan, gives up heat and cools off, The oil pan gives up heat to the passing air circulating around the under it.

Air is constantly entering and leaving the crank case. Moisture in the air will combine with oil and form sludge. Liquid petrol also finds its way down the oil pan past piston rings when engine is cold. The two liquids, petrol and water reduce the lubricating properties of oil and to remove them crank cases are ventilated crank case ventilation is accomplished by the natural whirling motion of air in crank-case caused by crank shaft rotation. Air enters at the front through breather pipe, circulates through the crank case and passes out through an other tube at the back. As the engine warms up, water and petrol evaporate and the flow of air carries these vapours out. Figure(b) shows how the coil goes round the engine from the oil pan or sump to the bearings. 1.19 Cooling system: The explosion of the mixture in the cylinder or cylinders causes a great deal of heat. In fact the temperature of the combustion chamber during ignition may reach 40000F. This heat would damage the engine if provisions is not made to keep its parts cool. a) Air Cooling system:

for small engines where the cylinders are exposed to good flow of air, air cooling alone is usually sufficient. The cool air issued to carry the heat away. To help it in this, the cylinders have a number of flanges or fine all round the outside. Since the surface of all these fins obviously has a much greater area than the area of the outside of the cylinder flow out into the fins the cooling air has a larger area to flow over and from which to pick up the heat. It can, therefore, do it much more rapidly.

b)

Water Cooling System:

On bigger and more power-full engines, where the heat is greater and on those enclosed in spaces where air cannot flow so easily air cooling generally is not sufficient. In such cases, water cooling is employed.

c)

Fig 1.18(c)

The water cooling system consists of a series of water jackets in engines cylinder blocks and head, a water pump, radiator and connecting hose. Water jacks sets are hollow spaces between outer shell of the cylinder blocks and inner shells that form the cylinder walls. The cylinder head also has hollow spaces that serve as water jackets. The cylinder block water jacket and cylinder head water jacket are connected by openings to permit water to pass from the block to head. Circulation of the water between the engine water jackets and the radiator is produced by the water pump. The water pump contains in impeller which is mounted on the pump shaft. When

the impeller is rotated, blades or vanes on the impeller throw water outward by centrifugal force, there by forcing the water to flow through the pump. Water is drawn from the bottom of the radiator (through hose) and is forced out into the engine water jackets. From there it enters the top of the radiator. The impeller shaft is supported in a bearing, and a seal is used to prevent water leakage at the point where the shaft passes through the pump body. Also assembled on the pump impeller shaft are the fan pulley and engine fan. The fan pulley is connected by a V belt to the engine pulley. The fan turns with the pump impeller, causing a strange blast of air to move through the radiator, which helps cool the radiator. The radiator is a device for holding a large volume of water in close contact with a large volume of air. It is divided into two separate and intricate sets of passages. One set carries water from the water tank at the top of the radiator to the water tank at the bottom of the radiator. The other set allows air to pass through from the front to the back of the radiator. Figs (a) and (b) illustrate two types or radiators. The tubular radiator in figure (a) contains a series of water tubes that stretch from the upper to the lower water tank. Water passes down through these tubes. Fins are placed around the tubes to improve heat transfer to the air that passes around the tubes through the radiator. The cellular radiator is made up of a series of narrow water passages formed by pairs of thin metal ribbons soldered together along their edges. The water tubes zig zag down from the upper to the lower tank so that water can pass down through them. The spaces between the water tubes form air passages, through which air can pass as it moves from the front to the back on the radiator. Since the engine operates more efficiently when warm, it is desirable that it would reach the operating temperatures quickly. To help the achievement of rapid warm up, the cooling system has a device called a Thermostat. It is located in the water passage between cylinder head and top of the radiator. It has one function to close off this passage when engine is cold and to open when it is warm. The thermostat contains a metal bellows filled with a substance, having a low boiling point. When the temperature is low, the substance is a liquid and the bellows has contracted to pull the thermostat valve down on its seat. In this position the valve prevents water circulation to the radiator. When the engine begins to heat up, the liquid in the bellows, boils, creating an internal pressure that expands the bellows. This raises the valve so that water can circulate to the radiator. Certain engines are provided with a pressure cap for the radiator so that the water could circulate at a higher temperature without boiling. It contains a blow off valve which opens if the pressure exceeds a safe maximum. It also has a vacuum valve which opens to admit air into the radiator when the engine cools as otherwise atmospheric pressure might cause collapse of the radiator or hose due to the partial vacuum formed in the cooling system when the engine cools off. Water alone is used as cooling liquid when there is no danger of freezing. At temperatures nearing or below the freezing point of water, it is necessary to use anti-freeze compounds. Fig 1.19 shows the circulation of the water through the cooling system 1.20 Electric System: This includes the staring motor which cranks the engine, a battery that furnishes current for starting motor, a generator which charges the battery an ignition vapour and to supply current for meters such as fuel, temperature and oil pressure. The starting motor (or cranking motor) is a special electric motor that operates on 6 to 12 volts furnished by the battery-when it is operated the drive pinion move towards the flywheel teeth. The starting motor armature rotates as current from battery flows through it and thus causes the drive pinion and engine flywheel to rotate. The rotation of the fly-wheel causes engine piston to

move up and down causing petrol vapour and air to be drawn in . the ignition system produces sparks that ignite these charges of vapour and air so that engine fires and starts. After the engine starts running, the drive pinion is pulled back out of mesh from the fly-wheel teeth. It is necessary to do this to prevent damage to the starting motor. The gear ratio between drive pinion and flywheel may be as high as 15 to 1. This high gear ration is necessary so that high cranking speed is obtained for starting. But when the engine rotates on its power its R.P.M may be as high as 2000 or 30000 R.P.M. This terrific speed would wreck the motor. Two types of devices are used to prevent the armature being spun at high speed after engine starts. They are (1) over running clutch drive and (2) Bendix drive. Over running clutch drive: This drive has a clutch assembled behind the drive pinion that transmits power from starting motor armature to the engine fly-wheel during cranking. After engine starts the over running clutch permits the drive piston to run faster than the motor armature. This prevents the armature being spun at high speed. The over running clutch drive pinion is moved into and of mesh by a shaft lever. Bendix Drive: The second device for meshing and de-meshing the drive pinion and flywheel makes use of a drive pinion that is loose fit on screw the reads cut on Bendix sleeve. The sleeve is fastened to the armature shaft. When the starting motor armature begins to rotate the sleeve rotates inside the drive pinion causing screw threads to move the pinion end-wise and into mesh, with the flywheel. When the pinion reaches the pinion stop on the end of the sleeve it begins to turn with armature so that flywheel is turned and engine cranked when engine gets started, pinion turns faster to that it is backed out of mesh from flywheel, a heavy drive spring connects armature and the Bendix sleeve. This spring compresses slightly to take up the shock of the meshing on a different design. A rubber pad is used instead of a spring to absorb shock of meshing. Ignition System: The function of the ignition system is to produce high voltage sparks at the electrodes of the sparking plugs located in each cylinder, combustion of the fuel air mixture being initiated by virtue of the spark temperature. In a four stroke engine, half the number of cylinders fire for each engine revolution. This is a four cylinder engine running at 3000 RPM each cylinder fires 25 times per second, so that the equipment is called upon to produce 100 sparks each second at this speed. Moreover, for reasons of engine performance and fuel economy, each spark must be timed relative to its successor and to the crank shaft position with an accuracy of the order of one seven-thousand of a second-and a means is required of advancing or retarding the spark timing with variations of engine speed load. The voltage necessary to produce the spark in the cylinder depends upon the gap between the sparking plug electrodes and the compression ratio of the engine. Varying from 5 KV to 15KV or sometime seven higher; while the energy required to cause the onset of combustion in the least inflammable mixtures is of the order of 0.01 joule. Types of Ignition System: the requirements set out above achieved in the modern petrol engine by either of two methods:a) d) a battery coil system, or a magnetic, operating independently of an external electrical source.

While the former method is more common, magnetic system is used in the case of certain small engines. The battery coil Ignition system: The electrical connections of this system are shown in Fig (a) and its essential components are:-

Fig 1.19 (A)

a) b) c) d) e) f)

The battery the ignition coil which transforms the battery voltage of 6 or 12 volts into the high voltage necessary to cause a spark at the plugs gaps. The contact breaker, which is driven by the engine and controls the flow of current through the primary winding of the ignition coils. The high-voltage distributor, which, as its name implies distributes the high voltage from the ignition coil to the appropriate sparking plug. The mechanism whereby spark timing is varied automatically to meet the exact requirements of engine speed and load, and, The spark plugs.

Fig 1.19(b) The ignition coil: Fig (b) shows the components parts of a typical coil. A laminated iron core carries windings, the secondary inner most and over this the primary. A typical secondary winding a comprises 18,000 20,000 turns of 14 SWG enamel covered copper wire in thirty layers, each insulated from the next by paper. A corresponding 12 volt primary winding may

consist of some 360 turns 25 SWG enamel covered wire in three layers, with varnished paper interlayer insulation, such a winding having a resistance of about 4.5 ohms. The core and windings are placed within an iron sheath, and the complete assembly is housed in a sealed container filled with an insulating compound. Low and high-voltage connections are brought out to terminals in the cover moulding. As indicated, in the circuit diagram of Fig. (A) an auto transformer connection is employed, the starting end of the secondary winding being connected to the finishing end of the primary winding. Most modern coils are would to give negative polarity at the high voltage terminal, and hence, the produce what is termed a negative spark at the plug. There are two reasons for this. First, it is known that the breakdown voltage of the sparking plug gap decreases as the temperature of the negative electrode normally becomes hotter than the outer electrode, from which heat is conducted away readily, it is advantageous to make the central electrode negative and thereby reduce the breakdown voltage. Secondly, the positive electrode of a spark gap is affected to a greater extent by burning, and so, by making the outer electrode of the sparking plug positive burning the disbursed over its considerably larger surface area. The same applies equally to the distributor, where the burning is spread over the stationery electrode instead of being concentrated on the rotor arm. The Distributor: The contact breaker and high voltage distributor together with the automatic timing-control mechanisms described later, form a combined unit usually called simply the distributor. Reference to fig. (C) will help in understanding the design of a typical modern unit for 4 cylinder engines. The body is a die casting, with a steel shank bored to accommodate a long oil-impregnated bearing bush, in which runs the hardened steel driving shaft. The upper end of this shaft drives a hardened steel cam having four lobes, which the lower end is coupled to a half engine-speed drive by means of a dog clutch, arranged off-centre to prevent incorrect assembly.

Fig 1.19(c) The contact-breaker comprises, two tungsten contacts, one mounted on a pivoted lever and the other on an adjustable bracket screwed to the contact-breaker plate. The pivoted lever is attached to a spring which tends to hold the contacts closed. Integral with the pivoted lever is a Bakelized fabric heel which is actuated by the lobes of the dam when the latter rotates, causing the contacts to separate against spring tension each time the heal is lifted.

A condenser of a bout 0.2 microfared capacitance is connected directly across the contacts to reduce sparking on separation. On modern distributors this condenser is often of the selfhealing metalized paper type, as compared with the paper and foil type in extensive general used upto a few years ago. High voltage distribution is achieved by means of a moulded rotor attached to the driving shaft above the cam. A brass electrode on this rotor is connected electrically to the ignition coil by a rubbing carbon-bush contact, while fixed electrodes in the cover moulding are connected to the sparking plugs by means of rubber covered high voltage cables. As the shaft rotates, the rotor electrode passes very close to the fixed electrodes. It is arranged that at the instant when the high voltage is induced in the coil (that is, when the contacts are separated), the rotor electrode is adjacent to the appropriate stationary electrode, and a high voltage spark jumps the small gap to effect distribution. Mode of Operation: When the ignition is switched on the engine is cranked by means of the starter motor the distributor shaft rotates and causes the contact breaker to close and open alternately. When the contacts are closed, current flows from the battery through the primary winding, the circuit being completed by way of the contact-breaker and the frame of the vehicle. Each time the contacts open, the collapse of the magnetic field associated with the current in the primary winding induces a high voltage in the secondary winding, which at that instant is connected to the appropriate sparking plug through the high voltage-distributor as explained above. In detail the secondary circuit associated with it a natural capacitance of the plug, cable and outer portion of the secondary winding which in effect forms a capacitor of about 50 Micro farads connected across the plug electrodes. As the voltage is induced in the secondary winding, the capacitor becomes charged, until such time as the plug gap break down voltages is attained, when the stored energy is discharged across the gap. This produces what is known as the capacitance component of the spark, carrying an instantaneous current of 50 amp or more, and usually lasting for not more than one micro seconds. This is followed by the inductance which is released comparatively slowly, and may last a millisecond or more, with a current of the order of 50 ma. Under normal running conditions, it is the capacitance components which is responsible for the onset of combustion. Shortly after the spark occurs, the contact breaker closes and the cycle of operations is repeated for a spark to occur in the cylinder next in the firing order. The firing order for a four cylinder engine will usually 1.3.42. Contact Breaker and Cam Design: The profile of the cam, in conjunction with the design of the contact breaker will determine the closed period of the system, i.e., the period during which energy can be stored in the magnetic field of the coil. In a 4 cylinder unit of the type described, the closed period is equivalent to the about 60 0 of cam rotation, the open period in consequence being equivalent to 30 0. For a modern coil system of standard design, the minimum closed period for a satisfactory spark is approximately 2 milli sec., so that an engine speed of 6,000 RPM could theoretically be attained without misfiring assuming that the contact breaker actuating heel followed the cam faithfully. In practice this is difficult to achieve at high speed without employing excessive spring loading, and the whole art of contact breaking design lies in striking a compromise between the mass and strength of the moving parts, the spring loading and the cam contour. A gently rising and dialling cam, which would make possible a reduction in spring loading, meets its limitation in the large variation in ignition timing which would follow a small change in the gap setting. With careful design it is possible to satisfy these requirements on single-lever contact-breakers upto engine speeds of 6000 rpm on both four-and six cylinder units. At one time considerable use was made of double-lever contact breakers for six and eight cylinder engines, but these are nowadays confined to engines working at abnormally high rotation speeds. In that units the work is divided between two contact breakers operating alternately so that each has twice the effective time in which to perform its cycle.

Setting of the contact breaker gap affects ignition performance in two ways. If the gap is greater than the specified width usually 0.015 inch, the closed period will be reduced, with detriment to ignition performance at high engine speeds, and also the instant of ignition will be advanced, since contact separation will occur to be seen. On the other hand if the gap is too small the spark timing will be delayed, this again affecting engine performance. Additionally, it can be shown that the rate of contact separation (determined by the cam profile) and the setting of the contact breaker gap play a larger part in determining the degree of contact wear through transfer of tungsten from one contact to the other. Alteration of the Spark timing: The flame propagation starts very quickly after the heat of the spark has been developed, but the flame takes a relatively appreciable time to spread completely through the combustion chamber. As engine speed increases, the piston will obviously move an increasing amount while the mixture is burning; thus, in order for combustion to be completed soon after the piston reaches the top of its compression stroke (a necessity for optimum performance) the spark must occur progressively earlier as engine speed increases). Further, the rate of flame propagation is affected by the density of the mixture in the cylinder, being greatest at fully open throttle when the density is highest. Thus, for a given engine speed, the less the throttle, the slower the combustion, and the greater the distance travelled by the piston wh9ile the combustion is taking place. To compensate for this the ignition should be advanced as the throttle is closed. This is clear from fig.(D) which shows the variation of engine power with ignition advance for different throttle settings. The Speed-conscious control operates for maximum power at fully open conscious control operates for maximum power at fully open throttle (whatever the speed), as shown by the line AOA, and will not, of itself give maximum power at part-throttle settings, which can be obtained only for some additional

advance to the points B2, B3 and B4. To satisfy the speed requirement, a centrifugal operated mechanism is housed in the body of the distributor unit beneath the contact breaker, and acts as a governor which alters the position of the cam relative to the driving shaft. In its most common form, this mechanism comprises two pivoted weights which move outwards under the influence of centrifugal force as engine speed increases. Movement of the weights is controlled by the tension of two springs, the characteristics of which deter the rate and degree of ignition advance. The cam foot is linked to these weights, so that their outward movement causes the cam to turn in the direction of rotation of the distributor shaft; the contracts are thus separated earlier, so advancing the spark timing relative to the piston position in the engine cylinder as shown in Fig. (e).

To alter the spark timing with variation in the engine lead, advantage is taken of the fact that the suction in the intake depends upon the position of the throttle. Control is achieved by means of a flexible diaphragm enclosed in a metal housing attached to the distributor body. One side of this diaphragm is subjected to pressure variations in the induction pipe. The opposite side is linked to the plate which carries the contract breakers, this plate being capable of rotation within limits. Consequently, as the pressure varies, the diaphragm is deflected against the tension of a control spring and its movement causes rotation of the contact breaker actuating heel in relation to the cam and causing variation in ignition timing. Connection to the vacuum control unit is not normally made to the manifold itself, but to a point in the carburetor adjacent to the butterfly valve, slightly on the atmospheric side when the valve is in its closed position. Often the engine is idling and the throttle nearly closed, there is practically no vacuum; thus the diaphragm control does not affect the ignition timing, small opening of the throttle brings the tapping on to the engine side of the butterfly valve, the degree of vacuum is increased and the timing is advanced. This continues upto maximum advance at a throttle opening corresponding to about one quarter full load, after which further valve opening causes a decrease in vacuum and the ignition timing is retarded accordingly. A further timing control fitted to many distributors is a manually operated micrometer control by means of which fine adjustments to the static ignition timing can be made easily to allow for changes in fuel and the state of carbonization of the engine. This control is linked to the loadconscious control just described, movement of the knurled adjusting nut causing rotation of the contact breaker plate in the same manner. Magneto Ignition: Magnetos in current use fall into two main groups rotating armature machines in which primary and secondary windings are carried on an engine-driven rotating core in the field of a stationary permanent magnet, and rotating magnet types in which the magnet forms the rotor, the winding being carried on one limb of a laminated iron circuit. The performance of these two types is identical, but the rotating magnet design makes for a more robust construction. The coil system namely the induction of a high voltage in the secondary winding, but the method by which it is achieved is rather different. Reference to Fig. (F) will assist in following the sequence of events in magneto. As the armature rotates, voltages are induced in both primary and secondary windings. Current flowing in the primary winding (through a closed cam operated contact breaker) opposes any change of the magnetic field through the laminated core, and in effect distorts the flux due to the permanent magnet. At a predetermined instant, the contact breaker in the primary circuit is arranged to open. So removing the constraining influence of the primary current, and the consequent rapid reversal of the magnetic field linked with the secondary winding causes a high voltage to be induced it it. This high voltage is applied to the sparking plugs by means of the high voltage distributor similar to that used in the battery coil system. Such a design will obviously produce two complete flux reversals per revolution of the armature, by suitable choice of driving speeds and distributor gear ratios, it can be adapted to suit normal engines of any number of cylinders.

Alternate positive and negative sparks are produced from the magneto (except in the case of certain single cylinder units in which one spark is suppressed per revolution of the motor). This follows from the fact that in the magneto, the magnetic held is reversed in direction through the winding core, whereas in the battery coil system the flux collapses to zero and builds up again in the same direction. Some magnetos incorporate a centrifugal operated timing control mechanism similar to that described for coil systems, the mechanism being interposed between the engine driving shaft and the magneto rotor. Other magnetos are fitted with a manual timing control which either changes the position of the cam with respect to the contact-breaker or viceversa, depending on the type of machine. To improve low-speed performance of the magneto-particularly important if the engine has to be started by hand an impulse coupling is often employed between engine drive and magneto rotor, when the engine is turned, a pawl prevents movement of the magneto rotor, whilst a spring within the coupling is would up. At a certain instant the pawl is tripped and under the influence of the unwinding spring, the rotor is turned rapidly through the sparking position, resulting in a high energy retarded spark. Centrifugal force holds the pawl out of engagement above a speed of about 120 RPM. 1.21 The relative merits of coil and magneto system:

The ability of the magneto to function independently of the battery became of secondary importance with the successful development of more reliable generators and batteries. The fundamental difference between the two systems lies in the fact that the spark energy output of the coil system decreases with increasing speed, whereas that of the magneto increased, that is, the output of the coil system is high when starting the engine, while the output of the magneto is then low. From the point of view of ignition performance, however, either equipment can be designed to deal adequately with any application. The really important advantages of the coil system are found in the small amounts of power required to drive the cam spindle and the fact that the cam spindle can be driven at cam shaft speed. This low speed means freedom from noise, while the low power and moment of inertia mean that it is possible to fit alight, simple speed conscious timing control mechanism, and also that the vacuum operated load-conscious control can be readily incorporated. Spark Plugs: Spark plugs differ in detail design and construction to meet the varying conditions under which they operate. Essentially, however, all consists of a metal body, usually of rustproof steel, the lower end of which is threaded to enable the plug to be screwed into the engine block. Contained within this body is an insulator, through the centre of which runs the electrode, carrying a terminal at its upper end for connection to the distributor by high voltage cable. The lower end of the electrode is arranged to give a small air-gap between itself electrode and the earthed body the spark occurring at that point. The chief functional requirements of a spark plug can be summarized as follows:(1) Insulation of good electrical properties, high mechanical strength and resistance to thermal shock.

(2) (3)

Reasonable life and freedom from through-leakage of combustion gases. freedom from through-leakage of combustion gases.

Modern plug insulators are almost exclusively of sintered alumina, this material best meeting all the requirements. It has the necessary characteristics in (a) above, and is virtually inert to combustion products. A part from accidental breakage or other damage caused by mishandling the life of a plug should be determined by the erosion characteristics of the electrodes, during which period the insulation should be free from fracture and should maintain its insulation resistance at a sufficiently high level to prevent electrical leakage to earth. The electrodes used in modern sparking plugs are nickel alloy with small additions of manganese, silicon and some times chromium. For special purpose plugs, where extra-long life is an essential requirement platinum (generally alloyed with small amounts of tungsten or iridium) is used. Any leakage of combustion gas, between either the central electrode and the insulator, or the insulator and the body will cause the temperature of the sparking plug to rise rapidly beyond safe limits, leaking to ultimate disintegration and probable damage to the engine. Fused glass, cement and compressed powder are commonly used for the sealing of the central electrode in the insulator, while the seal between the outer surface of the insulator and the body is generally a soft metal washer copper, cupro nickel, phosphor bronze and mild steel all being currently employed. 1.22 Ignition interference Suppression: Ignition systems can seriously interfere with the reception of high frequency radio signals, even when the receiver is located for some distance from the interfering source. The source of the interference (which is radiated from the high voltage cables) is the exceedingly rapid rise and decay of current of each spark discharge occurs, which may be followed by a succession of such surges of diminishing amplitude. The remedy adopted is the insertion of resistors of the order of 10,000 ohms in the high voltage circuit to damp down this initial oscillatory current. The number of resistors necessary to ensure compliance with the standard laid down varies for different engines. Often only one resistor positioned at the distributor cover in the coil to distributor high voltage cable may be adequate, but sometimes it may be necessary to provide additional resistors at each distributor highvoltage outlet and at each sparking plug. Resistive loads are some times employed instead of individual resistors. Many modern distributors are provided with a measure of in build suppression which may prove wholly adequate. The carbon brush, used to connect the high-voltage coil-to-distributor feed to the rotor arm of the distributor is of composite construction the resistive component being tipped by softer carbon to avoid wear of the rotating metal electrode. ***