MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF WATER

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SEAWATER

H2O
Two atoms of hydrogen
(one proton +, one electron -)

One atom of oxygen

(8 protons +, 8 electrons -) They are joined by COVALENT BONDS (the oxygen and hydrogen share electrons)

MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF WATER

Both hydrogen atoms are on one side of the water molecule The molecules electrons are clustered on the opposite side of the molecule This gives the water molecule POLARITY i.e. one side has a slight positive charge and one side a slight negative charge = DIPOLAR e.g. like a flashlight battery or bar magnet

HYDROGEN BONDS
The positive side of the molecule is attracted to negative charges, e.g. the opposite sides of other water molecules The attraction forms a weak bond = HYDROGEN BOND NB A hydrogen bond is much weaker than a the bond between atoms (covalent bond)

HYDROGEN BONDS
Hydrogen bonds help give water some of its properties Including SURFACE TENSION the skin on glass of water or a pond COHESION .molecules pulling together to form droplets CAPILARITY The ability to pull molecules behind it up a narrow tube (capillary) e.g. the xylem of plants

Capillarity

Surface Tension

THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENT

Water molecules not only stick to other water molecules, but also other polar substances e.g. Atoms in salt (NaCl) molecules are held together by IONIC BONDS Positive Na+ is strongly attracted to negative Cl= ELECTROSTATIC ATTRACTION When NaCl is put in water the attraction between Na+ and Cl- is reduced (80 times)

Na+ and Cl- become separated

and the salt crystals dissolve

THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENT

The process by which water molecules surround ions
(positively or negatively charged particles)

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

Water, like other matter, can exist in three states: SOLID, LIQUID or GAS What need to happen to change the state of a substance? Bonds between molecules must be broken This requires that molecules move faster and move further apart This requires ENERGY

= HYDRATION Because water molecules not only interact with other molecules, but also with polar substances water can dissolve almost anything = THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENT If water cannot dissolve a substance it is because it is not polar (e.g. oil)

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

Bonds between molecules include VAN DER WAALS FORCES Weak forces of attraction, but can be important when molecules are close together (e.g. solid) In water also Hydrogen Bonds

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of water by 1oC = THE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY The SHC of water is very high it takes more energy to increase the energy of hydrogenbonded water molecules than molecules just kept together by Van Der Waals forces

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

Therefore water can absorb a lot of heat before its temperature rises. Also a lot of energy has to be released to cause water to cool This means that water temperatures change more slowly compared to the land - for example e.g. California sea water: land: 6.3oC 20oC 3.6oC 45.7oC

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

SOLID: When water is solid (i.e. ICE) water has a rigid, regular structure (crystalline) and molecules are locked in place LIQUID: Most common state of water. Molecules move freely about, but still interact with each other (some bonds) GAS: Water molecules do not interact with each other except during random collisions and move freely

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

If enough energy is added to water, bonds break and it becomes liquid (@MELTING POINT) [0 C; 34 F]
o o

LATENT HEATS
The heat energy needed to turn 1 g of a substance at the melting point temperature from solid to liquid= THE LATENT HEAT OF MELTING
(i.e. the energy require to break bonds)

If enough energy is then added it turns into gas (@BOILING POINT) [100 C; 212 F]
o o

If energy is removed the gas reverts back into liquid (@CONDENSATION POINT) And more energy removes turns into a solid (@FREEZING POINT)

The heat energy needed to turn 1 g of a substance at the boiling point temperature liquid to gas= THE LATENT HEAT OF VAPOURIZATION

LATENT HEATS
The heat energy needed to BE REMOVED to turn 1 g of a substance at the boiling point temperature from gas to liquid= THE LATENT HEAT OF CONDENSATION
(i.e. the energy required be removed to slow molecules down and to allow bonds to reform) The heat energy needed to BE REMOVED to turn 1 g of a substance at the melting point temperature from liquid to solid=

THE LATENT HEAT OF FREEZING / FUSION

Water Phase Changes

Sea surface temperatures are usually less than 20oC nowhere near the boiling point Therefore how does liquid turn to vapor at the oceans surface? To escape the liquids surface a water molecule must take enough energy from its neighboring molecules to become a gas Because energy is taken when evaporation occurs it cools the molecules left behind = THE LATENT HEAT OF EVAPORATION NB: A greater amount of energy than the latent heat of vaporization

IMPORTANCE OF LATENT HEATS

The huge amount of heat exchanged in the evaporation condensation cycle allows life to be possible on the earth. Energy is moved from hotter regions to cooler regions . Water evaporates in warmer regions In the cooler regions the water is release as precipitation (releasing heat) Heat is also release when ice forms, warming higher latitudes = MODERATE CLIMATE

WATER DENSITY
Density = Mass / Volume How heavy something is Density of pure water =1g/cm3 Normally the density of a substance increases as it cools Molecules loose energy slow down closer together = THERMAL CONTRACTION BUT from 4oC to 0oC the density of water DECREASES i.e. instead of contracting it expands Therefore ice is LESS DENSE than liquid water ICE FLOATS Why? The density of water increases as it becomes cooler e.g. cold water is heavier than warm water

Below 4oC ice crystals start forming These crystals are large and bulky They take up more volume than liquid water Therefore they are less dense than liquid water When water freezes its volume increase by 9% (this is why pipes burst in winter etc) BUT adding dissolved substances INHIBITS ice crystal formation, so water can become colder before the density starts to increase THERFORE seawater becomes ice at temperature below 0oC

Density of water with and without salt (g/cm3)

MARINE BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF WATER DENSITY In warmer water (i.e. not as dense) plankton have to be smaller in order to float (higher surface area : volume ratio) Or have structure on their surface to help floatation

Ice floats when it freezes In the polar regions a layer of unfrozen, slightly warmer water is often found under ice Fish etc. can live in this slightly warmer water layer

SALINITY Salinity = total amount of solid material dissolved in water (including gases) Salinity of seawater = 3.5% i.e. 96.5% pure water content 220 time saltier than fresh water NB salinity does not include particles and sediments FLOATING in water = TURBIDITY

SALINITY Salinity is usually measured in parts per thousand 3.5% = 3.5 parts per hundred = 35 parts per thousand = 35 o/oo or 35 ppt or 35 g/kg3

MAJOR COMPONENTS

MINOR COMPONENTS

TRACE COMPONENTS

SALINITY Salinity varies in the oceans from 35 to 38 parts per thousand In coastal areas salinity can be much reduced e.g. only 10 parts per thousand in river estuaries =BRACKISH WATER (fresh water & seawater mixing)

SALINITY However, in the Red Sea salinity = 42 parts per thousand =HYPERSALINE WATER Occurs in areas with high evaporation and limited connection to / circulation with the open ocean THE DEAD SEA = 330 parts per thousand 10 times saltier than sea water

SALINITY Salinity can also vary seasonally e.g.1 Miami Beach 34.8 ppt in October to 36.4 ppt in May & June
i.e. when evaporation is high

e.g.2 Astoria, Oregon 0.3 ppt in April & May

i.e. when the Colorado River is at the greatest flow rate

to 2.6 ppt in October

i.e. the dry season

SOURCES OF SEAWATER COMPONENTS Largest source of seawater components is from streams and runoff But the composition of dissolved substances in stream water is not the same as seawater Why? Because some components have a high RESIDENCE TIME and accumulate high concentrations over years e.g. Na+ has a residence time of 260 million years BUT on average rate of salt added = rate of salt removal

SOURCES OF SEAWATER COMPONENTS

PROCESSES THAT INCREASE SALINITY

Sea also enters the crust near hydrothermal vents and picks up minerals etc. The entire volume of the ocean may pass through hydrothermal vents every 3 million years = major influence on seawater composition

Removal of water content: Evaporation Formation of sea ice

(which has only a salinity of 10ppt i.e. mostly fresh water)

REMOVAL OF SEAWATER COMPONENTS

PROCESSES THAT DECREASE SALINITY

In addition to some losses in tectonic boundaries/faults Some salts etc are lost when sea spray etc. hits the land Also living organisms extract minerals from seawater and when they die biogenous sediment Finally, some components may be absorbed (attach to the surface of) sediments

Addition of water content: Precipitation Melting of sea ice, icebergs and glaciers Streams, rivers & runoff

ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY

ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY H+ and OH- are always present in small quantities because water molecules dissociate and reform
i.e. H2O H+ + OH-

An ACID is a compound that releases hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water The resulting solution = ACIDIC An ALKALINE or BASE releases OH- ions when dissolved in water A stronger acid or alkaline releases more ions

In pure water

number of H+ ions = number of OHTherefore the solution is neutral (pH =7) The pH scale measure acidity (pH<7) and alkalinity (pH>7)

ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY In the ocean CO2 reacts with water and releases hydrogen ions
i.e. H2O + CO2 H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-

= CARBONIC ACID So, theoretically the ocean should be acidic BUT this is prevented by the CARBONATE BUFFERING SYSTEM

THE CARBONATE BUFFERING SYSTEM

THE CARBONATE BUFFERING SYSTEM

The bicarbonate ion can also loose a second hydrogen ion HCO3
-

If the ocean becomes too acidic HCO3- + H+ H2CO3

(acidity drops)

H+

+ CO3

2-

If the ocean becomes too alkaline/basic The carbonate ion can then react with calcium ions to form Calcium Carbonate
(which precipitates onto the seafloor = hydrogenous sediment)

H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-

(acidity increases)

Ca2+ + CO32- CaCO3

This balancing is called BUFFERING

ACIDITY IN DEEP WATER

In deep, cold waters more Carbon Dioxide dissolves in seawater

(because gas at cooler temperatures dissolves more easily)

This should make the deep sea more acidic

But when marine organisms that contain Calcium Carbonate (in shells or skeletal) die The Calcium Carbonate they release helps to buffer the acidic conditions

The Calcium Carbonate acts like an antacid

VARATION IN SALINITY

VARATION IN SALINITY Why are there variations in oceanic salinity? High latitudes increase precipitation & runoff Polar regions melting of ice Cooler temperature - Less evaporation Tropical regions little precipitation Higher temperature more evaporation At the Equator High evaporation but high precipitation balances out

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DEPTH VARATION IN SALINITY Salinity also varies with depth In low latitudes (near the tropics equator) Salinity at the surface is HIGH As depth increases salinity decreases In high latitudes (temperate & polar) Salinity at the surface is LOW As depth increases salinity increases Most of the factors affecting salinity only alter surface waters

DEPTH VARATION IN SALINITY At a depth of 300m to 1000m there is a rapid change in salinity In low latitudes a decrease in salinity In high latitudes an increase in salinity This area of rapid change is called the HALOCLINE

Haloclines separate layers of different salinity in the ocean

SEAWATER DENSITY In the ocean seawater density varies 1.022 - 1.030 g/cm3
(depending on salinity)

SEAWATER DENSITY Several factors effect seawater density As temperature increases density decreases
(thermal expansion)

Density has important effects on ocean water Denser bodies of water will sink below less dense bodies of water Therefore low density water is found at the surface, high density water found in the depths

As salinity increases density increases

(addition of more dissolved material)

As pressure increases density increases

(pressure compresses materials)

Only temperature and salinity effect surface waters Pressure only effects very deep waters (e.g. trenches) (density in greatest depths only 5% more than surface)

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SEAWATER DENSITY Temperature has the greatest effect on density

(temperature varies more than salinity)

SEAWATER DENSITY & DEPTH In Low Latitudes (equator/tropics) Seawater density in surface stays the same until a depth of about 300m
(due to good mixing of the surface waters)

Increases in temperature at higher temperatures cause greater decreases in density than the same number of degrees increased at lower temperatures. Increases in water temperature in low latitudes (tropics and equator) have three times the effect on water density than in high latitudes

Below 300m density increases rapidly until a depth of 1000m From 1000m the density remains relatively constant until the ocean floor

SEAWATER DENSITY & DEPTH In High Latitudes (temperate etc.) Density is high at the surface
(because temperature is low)

The density below the surface is also high

(due to cool temperatures)

Therefore the density remains relatively constant whether surface waters or deep waters

SEAWATER DENSITY & DEPTH In Low Latitudes the layer of rapid changing density = THE PYCNOCLINE The layer of rapid changing temperature = THE THERMOCLINE They occur between 300m & 1000m

The pycnocline acts as a barrier between deep and surface waters preventing mixing
Although above the pycnocline the surface waters are well mixed by currents/tides/waves

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SEAWATER DENSITY & DEPTH

Mixed surface layer

Thermocline + Pycnocline = Upper water In High Latitudes thermoclines and pycnoclines rarely form (except during very hot sunny periods) The water column in high latitudes = ISOTHERMAL & ISOPYCNAL

Deep water

= same temperature & density

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