Instrumentation Transducers and Data Converters(ITDC) UNIT 1

Introduction to Transducers
Transducers: Definition of a transducer, Block Diagram, Active and Passive Transducers, Primary and Secondary transducers, Advantages of Electrical transducers

Prepared by: Veena Divya Prepared by: .K Asst. Prof..K Veena Divya Department of Instrumentation Technology Asst. Prof. RVCE, Bangalore Department of Instrumentation Technology RVCE, Bangalore

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UNIT -1 MODULE 1 TRANSDUCERS

DEFINITION of a TRANSDUCER A transducer is a device, usually electrical, electronic, electro-mechanical, electromagnetic, photonic, or photovoltaic that converts one type of energy or physical attribute to another for various purposes including measurement or information transfer. Examples of transducers include: Temperature transducers Thermocouples Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTD) Thermistors Resistive position transducers Displacement transducers Strain gauge

SENSOR A sensor is an element that senses a variation in input energy to produce a variation in another or same form of energy is called a sensor. A sensor receives and responds to a signal or stimulus. Here, the term "stimulus" means a property or a quantity that needs to be converted into electrical form. Hence, sensor can be defined as a device which receives a signal and converts it into electrical form which can be further used for electronic devices. A sensor differs from a transducer in the way that a transducer converts one form of energy into other form whereas a sensor converts the received signal into electrical form only. A sensor is used to detect a parameter in one form and report it in another form of energy (usually an electrical and/or digital signal). For example, a pressure sensor might detect pressure (a mechanical form of energy) and convert it to electricity for display at a remote gauge. ACTUATOR An actuator accepts energy and produces movement (action). The energy supplied to an actuator might be electrical or mechanical (pneumatic, hydraulic, etc.). An electric motor and a loudspeaker R.V.C.E Bangalore Page 3

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are both transducers, converting electrical energy into motion for different purposes. There are two general types of transducers: Self generating types (Active Transducer) do not require an external power, and produce an analog voltage or current when stimulated by some physical form of energy. Examples of these transducers include: Thermocouple Photovoltaic cell Moving coil generator Passive transducers require an external power, and the output is a measure of some variation (resistance or capacitance) Slide-wire resistor Resistance strain gauge Differential transformer

What is a Transducer?
An electronic instrumentation system consists of a number of components which together are used to perform a measurement and record the result. An instrumentation system generally consists of three major elements: an input device, a signal conditioning device and processing device and an output device. The input device receives the quantity that is to be measured and delivers a proportional electrical signal to the signal conditioning device. In the signal conditioning device, the signal is amplified, filtered or modified to a format acceptable to the output device. The output device may be a simple indicating meter, an oscilloscope, or a chart recorder for visual display. The kind of system depends on what is to be measured and how the measurement result is to be presented. The input quantity for most instrumentation system is non-electrical. In order to use electrical methods and techniques for measurement or control of input non-electrical quantity, it must be converted into an electrical signal. And this conversion is made by a device called Transducers. We can also define Transformers in simple words as it is device which is used for the conversion of energy from its one form to the other.

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Block Diagram of a Transducer

Two parts/element of transducer Sensing or detector element.

A detector or a sensing element is that part of a transducer which responds to a physical phenomenon or a change in a physical phenomenon. Transduction element. A transduction element transforms the output of a sensing element to an electrical output. The transduction element in a way acts as a secondary transducer.

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS A transducer may be classified based upon: On the basis of transduction form used. As primary and secondary transducers As passive and active transducer. As analog and digital transducer. As transducers and inverse transducers.

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1. Based on the physical phenomenon,

Primary transducer Secondary transducer

2. Based on the power type Classification,

Active transducer Passive transducer

3. Based on the type of output the classification of transducers are made,

Analog transducer Digital transducer

4. Based on the electrical phenomenon is a best Classification of Trasnducer,

Resistive transducer Capacitive transducer Inductive transducer Photoelectric transducer Photovoltaic transducer

5. Based on the non-electrical phenomenon Classification of transducer,

Linear displacement Rotary displacement

6. Based on the transduction phenomenon,

Transducer Inverse transducer. Classification based on physical effect employed

(a)Electromagnetic: Antenna - converts electromagnetic waves into electric current and vice versa. Cathode ray tube (CRT) - converts electrical signals into visual form Fluorescent lamp, light bulb - converts electrical power into visible light Magnetic cartridge - converts motion into electrical form Photodetector or Photoresistor (LDR) - converts changes in light levels into resistance changes Page 6

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Tape head - converts changing magnetic fields into electrical form Hall effect sensor - converts a magnetic field level into electrical form only.

(b) Electrochemical: pH probes Electro-galvanic fuel cell Hydrogen sensor

(c)Electro mechanical: Electroactive polymers Galvanometer Microelectromechanical systems Rotary motor, linear motor Vibration powered generator Potentiometer when used for measuring position Load cell converts force to mV/V electrical signal using strain gauge Accelerometer Strain gauge String Potentiometer Air flow sensor Tactile sensor

(d) Electrostatic: Electrometer (e) Photoelectric: Laser diode Light-emitting diode The above convert electrical power into forms of light Photodiode Photoresistor Phototransistor Photomultiplier tube

All the above convert changing light levels into electrical form

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(f) Thermoelectric: RTD Resistance Temperature Detector Thermocouple Peltier cooler Thermistor (includes PTC resistor and NTC resistor)

(g)Electroacoustic: Loudspeaker, earphone - converts electrical signals into sound (amplified signal magnetic field motion air pressure) Microphone - converts sound into an electrical signal (air pressure motion of conductor/coil o magnetic field signal) Pick up (music technology) - converts motion of metal strings into an electrical signal o (magnetism electricity (signal)) Gramophone pick-up - (air pressure motion magnetic field signal)

Classification based on sources of energy: Active Transducers Passive Transducers

An active transducer generates an electrical signal parameter and does not require an external power source self generating devices, which operate under energy equivalent output signal (for example from pressure potential).

directly in response to the physical for its operation. Active transducers are conversion principle and generate an to charge or temperature to electrical

Typical example of active transducers are piezo electric sensors (for generation of charge corresponding to pressure) and photo voltaic cells (for generation of voltage in response to illumination). Passive transducer operates under energy controlling principles, which makes it necessary to use an external electrical source with them. They depend upon the change in an electrical parameter (R, L and C). Typical example are strain gauges (for resistance change in response to pressure), and Thermistor (for resistance change corresponding to temperature variations).

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Classification based on Requirements of the transducer: 1. Linearity The input-output should be linear. 2.Ruggedness The transducer should withstand overloads, with measures for over load protection. 3.Repeatability The transducer should produce identical output signal when the same input signal is applied at different times under the same environmental condition. 4. High stability and reliability The output from the transducer should not be affected by temperature, vibration and other environmental variation and their should be minimum error in measurements. 5.Good dynamic response The transducer should response to the changes in input as quickly as possible. 6. Convenient instrumentation The transducer should produce a sufficiently high analog output signal with high signal to noise ratio. So that the output can be measured either directly or after suitable amplification. 7. Good mechanical characteristics Working conditions subject to mechanical strains external forces deformity /affect performance.

Electrical Transducers
The transducers that convert the mechanical input signals into electrical output signals are called as electrical transducers. The output obtained from the electrical transducers can be read by the humans or it can given as input to the controllers.

What are Electrical Transducers? The transducers that convert the mechanical input signals of the physical quantity into electrical output signals are called as electrical transducers. The input given to the electrical transducers can be in the form of the displacement, strain, velocity, temperature, flow etc and the output obtained from them can be in the form of current, voltage and change in resistance, inductance and capacitance. The

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output can be measured easily and it is calibrated against the input, thus enabling the measurement of the value of the input.

Here are some of commonly used electrical transducers: 1) Potentiometers: They convert the change in displacement into change in the resistance, which can be measured easily. 2) Bridge circuits: These convert the physical quantity to be measured into the voltage. 3) Wheatstone bridge: It converts the displacement produced by the physical quantity to the current in the circuit. 4) Capacitive sensors or Variable Capacitance Transducers: These comprise of the two parallel plates between which there is dielectric material like air. The change in distance between the two plates produced by the displacement results in change in capacitance, which can be easily measured. 5) Resistive sensors or Variable Resistance Transducers: There is change in the resistance of these sensors when certain physical quantity is applied to it. It is most commonly used in resistance thermometers or thermistors for measurement of temperature. 6) Magnetic sensors: The input given to these sensors is in the form of displacement and the output obtained is in the form of change in inductance or reluctance and production of the eddy currents. 7) Piezoelectric transducers: When force is applied to these transducers, they produce voltage that can be measured easily. They are used for measurement of pressure, acceleration and force. 8) Strain gauges: When strain gauges are strained or stretched there is change in their resistance. They consist of the long wire and are able to detect very small displacements produced by the applied force or pressure. 9) Photo electric transducers: When the light is applied to these transducers they produce voltage. 10) Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT): LVDT is the transformer consisting of the primary and the secondary coil. It converts the displacement into the change in resistance. 11) Ultrasonic Transducers: These transducers use the ultrasonic or ultrasound waves to measure parameters like fluid level, flow rate etc. Apart from these there are some more electrical type of transducers like moving coil type, changing dielectric type, changing core positions type etc.

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Mechanical Transducers
The mechanical transducers are the mechanical elements that are used for converting one form of energy into other form that can be measured easily. 1) Bellows: These are the elastic elements that convert the air pressure into displacement, and it is commonly used for the measurement of pressure. 2) Bourdon tube: This elastic tube converts air pressure to the rotary motion of the pointer used to indicate the pressure. 3) Spring: The spring tend to expand when force is applied to them, thus they are used for the measurement of force. 4) Proving rings: Like the springs the proving rings also convert applied force to the displacement. 5) Diaphragm: It converts applied pressure to the displacement. 6) Manometer: The manometer converts the applied pressure into variable displacement of the liquid within it enabling to measure the pressure. 7) Thermocouple: Thermocouple is the devise that produces electric current when one of its end is heated. The current produce by the devise can be measured, which can be calibrated against the temperature enabling us to measure the temperature of the body. 8) Bimetals: These are the bimetallic strips comprising of two different metals having different coefficient of thermal expansion, joint together. When the strip is heated one metal expands lesser while the other metal expands more leading to the deflection of the bimetallic strip, which is converted into the rotary motion of the pointer that indicates the temperature. 9) Hydro-pneumatic transducers: These include devices like orifice, venturi, pitot tube, vanes and turbines that are used for measurement of pressure, velocity, flow rate and force of water. Apart from the mechanical transducers mentioned above there are many others like seismic mass, pendulum scale, float etc. Most of the mechanical transducers are used as the primary transducers, meaning the initial input is applied to them, while the output obtained from them can be used directly to measure the quantity or it can be given as input to the secondary transducer, which are mostly of electrical type. Advantage of Electrical Transducers Electrical amplification and attenuation can be done easily. Mass inertia effects are minimized. The effect of friction is minimized.

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The electrical or electronic systems can be controlled with a very small power level. The electrical output can be easily used , transmitted and processed for the purpose of measurement. Telemetry (aerospace remote indication / recording) Miniaturization on account of use of ICs.

Transducer Applications The applications of transducers based on the electric parameter used and the principle involved is given below. 1. Passive Type Transducers a. Resistance Variation Type Resistance Strain Gauge The change in value of resistance of metal semi-conductor due to elongation or compression is known by the measurement of torque, displacement or force. Resistance Thermometer The change in resistance of metal wire due to the change in temperature known by the measurement of temperature. Resistance Hygrometer The change in the resistance of conductive strip due to the change of moisture content is known by the value of its corresponding humidity. Hot Wire Meter The change in resistance of a heating element due to convection cooling of a flow of gas is known by its corresponding gas flow or pressure. Photoconductive Cell The change in resistance of a cell due to a corresponding change in light flux is known by its corresponding light intensity. Thermistor The change in resistance of a semi-conductor that has a negative co-efficient of resistance is known by its corresponding measure of temperature. Potentiometer Type The change in resistance of a potentiometer reading due to the movement of the slider as a part of an external force applied is known by its corresponding pressure or displacement. b. Capacitance Variation Type Variable Capacitance Pressure Gauge The change in capacitance due to the change of distance between two parallel plates caused by an external force is known by its corresponding displacement or pressure. Dielectric Gauge The change in capacitance due to a change in the dielectric is known by its corresponding liquid level or thickness.

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Capacitor Microphone The change in capacitance due to the variation in sound pressure on a movable diagram is known by its corresponding sound. c. Inductance Variation Type Eddy Current Transducer The change in inductance of a coil due to the proximity of an eddy current plate is known by its corresponding displacement or thickness. Variable Reluctance Type The variation in reluctance of a magnetic circuit that occurs due to the change in position of the iron core or coil is known by its corresponding displacement or pressure. Proximity Inductance Type The inductance change of an alternating current excited coil due to the change in the magnetic circuit is known by its corresponding pressure or displacement. Differential Transformer The change in differential voltage of 2 secondary windings of a transformer because of the change in position of the magnetic core is known by its corresponding force, pressure or displacement. Magnetostrictive Transducer The change in magnetic properties due to change in pressure and stress is known by its corresponding sound value, pressure or force. d. Voltage and Current Type Photo-emissive Cell Electron emission due to light incidence on photo-emissive surface is known by its corresponding light flux value. Hall Effect The voltage generated due to magnetic flux across a semi-conductor plate with a movement of current through it is known by its corresponding value of magnetic flux or current. Ionisation Chamber The electron flow variation due to the ionisation of gas caused by radioactive radiation is known by its corresponding radiation value. 2. Active Type Photo-voltaic Cell The voltage change that occurs across the p-n junction due to light radiation is known by its corresponding solar cell value or light intensity. Thermopile The voltage change developed across a junction of two dissimilar metals is known by its corresponding value of temperature, heat or flow. Piezoelectric Type When an external force is applied on to a quartz crystal, there will be a change in the voltage generated across the surface. This change is measured by its corresponding value of sound or vibration. Moving Coil Type The change in voltage generated in a magnetic field can be measured using its corresponding value of vibration or velocity.

Response of transducer to environmental influences R.V.C.E Bangalore Page 13

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It should not be subjected to any disturbances like stray electromagnetic and electrostatic fields, mechanical shocks and vibrations temperature changes, pressure and humidity changes, changes in supply voltage and improper mechanical mountings.

Devices used to convert one form of energy to another. Radiant Electrical Mechanical Thermal Chemical Magnetic

Radiant Electrical

Filter LED

Photodiode transistor Reverse PiezoElectricity peltier Electro -plating coil

Mechanica l

Direct PiezoElectricity, Piezo- resistance

Gear box

Thermal

seebeck

Heat exchanger Chemical reaction Magnetic ckt

Chemical

pH

Magnetic

Hall effect

Factors influencing choice of transducers R.V.C.E Bangalore Page 14

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1. Size 2. Weight 3. Shape 4. Sensitivity to desired, modifying and interfering inputs 5. Accuracy 6. Operating range 7. Transient and Frequency response 8. Static characteristics 9. Ruggedness (shock surround) 10. Reliability (MTBF, MTTR) 11. Availability and Delivery 12. Stability ( characteristics not changing with time) 13. Environmental compatibility 14. Cost 15. Electrical aspects ( Impedance, length and type of cable)

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UNIT-1 MODULE-2
RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS: POTENTIOMETERS
INTRODUCTION Electrical circuits consist of combinations of the three passive elements: resistor, inductor and capacitor. The primary parameters that describe them are respectively resistance, self or mutual inductance and capacitance. Any change in the parameter of the element can be recognized only when the element is made 'live' by electric energization or excitation; otherwise the element is in 'dead' state. Hence transducers that are based on the variation of the parameters due to application of any external stimulus are known as passive transducers.

SELECTING A TRANSDUCER
The transducer or sensor has to be physically compatible with its intended application. following should be considered while selecting a transducer. 1. 2. 3. 4. The

Operating range: Chosen to maintain range requirements and good resolution. Sensitivity: Chosen to allow sufficient output. Frequency response and resonant frequency: Flat over the entire desired range. Environmental compatibility: temperature range, corrosive fluids, pressure, shocks, interaction, size and mounting restrictions. 5. Minimum sensitivity: To expected stimulus, other than the measured. 6. Accuracy: Repeatability and calibration errors as well as errors expected due to sensitivity to other stimuli. 7. Usage and ruggedness: Ruggedness, both of mechanical and electrical intensities versus size R.V.C.E Bangalore Page 16

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and weight. 8. Electrical parameters: Length and type of cable required, signal to noise ratio when combined with amplifiers, and frequency response limitations.

Resistive Transducers
The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by a simple equation that involves a few physical quantities. The relationship is
R=

, A R = resistance ; L = length of conductor ; m A = cross - sectional area of conductor; m 2 = resistivity of conductor material; - m

Any method of varying one of the quantities involved in the above relationship can be the design basis of an electrical resistive transducer. The translational and rotational potentiometers which work on the basis of change in the value of resistance with change in length of the conductor can be used for measurement of translational or rotary displacement. Strain gauge work on the principle that the resistance of the conductor or a semiconductor changes when strained. This property can be used for measurement of displacement, force and pressure. The resistivity of the material changes with change of temperature thus causing a change of resistance. This property may be used for measurement of temperature. Resistive transducers are generally preferred to those employing the other principles for a simple reason that the measurement (of change in Resistance, R) can be effected with both alternating as well as direct current or voltage excitations.

Major types of Resistive transducers

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Potentiometer Also known as POT Resistive potentiometer used for the purposes of voltage division is called POT. Resistive potentiometer consists of a resistive element provided with a sliding contact. Sliding Contact-Wiper Specifications Its a Passive Transducer. Linear Pot Translational Motion Rotary Pot-Rotational Motion Helipots- Combination of the two motions (translational as well as rotational). In Electrical Measurement, Standard potentiometers are used to measure the unknown voltage by comparing it with a standard known voltage. Potentiometers Strain Gauges Resistance temperature detector (RTD) Thermistors Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

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Preset (open style)

Presets (closed style)

Multiturn preset

Variable pot

Resistive Potentiometer

Translational, Rotational and Helipots

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Consider a translational potentiometer, Let ei and eo - input and output voltages respectively in V.
e i and e 0 = input and output voltages respectively; V, xt = total length of translational pot; m, xi = displacement of wiper from its zero position; m, R p = total resistance of the potentiometer;

If the distribution of the resistance with respect to translational movement is linear, the resistance per unit length is

Rp

xt

The output voltage under ideal conditions is:

resistance at the output terminals e0 = resistance at the input terminals x input voltage R p ( xi xt ) e i = xi x e i = Rp xt

For Rotational Motion,

e0 =

i x ei t

Materials used for Potentiometer

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Materials used for POT maybe wire-wound or non wire-wound. 1. Wire wound POT 2. They are platinum, nickel chromium, nickel copper, or some other precious resistance elements. Characteristics of Potentiometer

Advantage of Potentiometers 1. They are inexpensive. 2. Simple to operate and are very useful for applications where the requirements are not particularly severe. 3. They are useful for the measurement of large amplitudes of displacement. 4. Electrical efficiency is very high, and they provide sufficient output to allow control operations. Disadvantages 1. The force needed to move the slider is provided by the displacement source. This mechanical loading distorts the measured signal itself. 2. High-frequency (or highly transient) measurements are not feasible 3. Variations in the supply voltage cause error. 4. Resolution is limited by the number of turns in the coil and by the coil uniformity. 5. Wear out and heating up in the coil or film, and slider contact cause accelerated degradation. Typical Applications The majority of suspension position monitoring on saloon cars, single seat race cars and motorbikes use hybrid linear potentiometers. Page 21

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In servo technology applications. All applications that requires simple displacement transducer For real time applications since there is no signal lag.

STRAIN GUAGES

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