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The anatomy of muscles includes both gross anatomy, Skeletal muscle is arranged in discrete muscles, an
comprising all the muscles of an organism, and, on the example of which is the biceps brachii. It is connected by
other hand, microanatomy, which comprises the tendons to processes of the skeleton. Cardiac muscle is
structures of a single muscle. similar to skeletal muscle in both composition and action,
being comprised of myofibrils of sarcomeres, but
Gross anatomy anatomically different in that the muscle fibers are
typically branched like a tree and connect to other
cardiac muscle fibers through intercalcated discs, and
The gross anatomy of a muscle is the most important
form the appearance of a syncytium.
indicator of its role in the body. The action a muscle
generates is determined by the origin and insertion
locations. The cross-sectional area of a muscle (rather muscle contraction
than volume or length) determines the amount of force it
can generate by defining the number of sarcomeres The three (skeletal, cardiac and smooth) types of muscle
which can operate in parallel. The amount of force have significant differences. However, all three use the
applied to the external environment is determined by movement of actin against myosin to create contraction.
lever mechanics, specifically the ratio of in-lever to out- In skeletal muscle, contraction is stimulated by electrical
lever. For example, moving the insertion point of the impulses transmitted by the nerves, the motor nerves
biceps more distally on the radius (farther from the joint and motoneurons in particular. Cardiac and smooth
of rotation) would increase the force generated during muscle contractions are stimulated by internal
flexion (and, as a result, the maximum weight lifted in pacemaker cells which regularly contract, and propagate
this movement), but decrease the maximum speed of contractions to other muscle cells they are in contact
flexion. Moving the insertion point proximally (closer to with. All skeletal muscle and many smooth muscle
the joint of rotation) would result in decreased force but contractions are facilitated by the neurotransmitter
increased velocity. This can be most easily seen by acetylcholine.
comparing the limb of a mole to a horse - in the former,
the insertion point is positioned to maximize force (for
Muscular activity accounts for much of the body's energy Deeper muscles such as those involved in posture often
consumption. All muscle cells produce adenosine are controlled from nuclei in the brain stem and basal
triphosphate (ATP) molecules which are used to power ganglia.
the movement of the myosin heads. Muscles conserve
energy in the form of creatine phosphate which is Afferent leg
generated from ATP and can regenerate ATP when
needed with creatine kinase. Muscles also keep a The afferent leg of the peripheral nervous system is
storage form of glucose in the form of glycogen. responsible for conveying sensory information to the
Glycogen can be rapidly converted to glucose when brain, primarily from the sense organs like the skin. In
energy is required for sustained, powerful contractions. the muscles, the muscle spindles convey information
Within the voluntary skeletal muscles, the glucose about the degree of muscle length and stretch to the
molecule can be metabolized anaerobically in a process central nervous system to assist in maintaining posture
called glycolysis which produces two ATP and two lactic and joint position. The sense of where our bodies are in
acid molecules in the process (note that in aerobic space is called proprioception, the perception of body
conditions, lactate is not formed; instead pyruvate is awareness. More easily demonstrated than explained,
formed and transmitted through the citric acid cycle). proprioception is the "unconscious" awareness of where
Muscle cells also contain globules of fat, which are used the various regions of the body are located at any one
for energy during aerobic exercise. The aerobic energy time. This can be demonstrated by anyone closing their
systems take longer to produce the ATP and reach peak eyes and waving their hand around. Assuming proper
efficiency, and requires many more biochemical steps, proprioceptive function, at no time will the person lose
but produces significantly more ATP than anaerobic awareness of where the hand actually is, even though it
glycolysis. Cardiac muscle on the other hand, can is not being detected by any of the other senses.
readily consume any of the three macronutrients
(protein, glucose and fat) aerobically without a 'warm up'
period and always extracts the maximum ATP yield from Several areas in the brain coordinate movement and
any molecule involved. The heart, liver and red blood position with the feedback information gained from
cells will also consume lactic acid produced and proprioception. The cerebellum and red nucleus in
excreted by skeletal muscles during exercise. particular continuously sample position against
movement and make minor corrections to assure
smooth motion.
Efferent leg
Exercise
The efferent leg of the peripheral nervous system is
responsible for conveying commands to the muscles and
glands, and is ultimately responsible for voluntary Exercise is often recommended as a means of improving
movement. Nerves move muscles in response to motor skills, fitness, muscle and bone strength, and joint
voluntary and autonomic (involuntary) signals from the function. Exercise has several effects upon muscles,
brain. Deep muscles, superficial muscles, muscles of the connective tissue, bone, and the nerves that stimulate
face and internal muscles all correspond with dedicated the muscles.
regions in the primary motor cortex of the brain, directly
anterior to the central sulcus that divides the frontal and Various exercises require a predominance of certain
parietal lobes. muscle fiber utilization over another. Aerobic exercise
involves long, low levels of exertion in which the muscles
In addition, muscles react to reflexive nerve stimuli that are used at well below their maximal contraction strength
do not always send signals all the way to the brain. In for long periods of time (the most classic example being
this case, the signal from the afferent fiber does not the marathon). Aerobic events, which rely primarily on
reach the brain, but produces the reflexive movement by the aerobic (with oxygen) system, use a higher
direct connections with the efferent nerves in the spine. percentage of Type I (or slow-twitch) muscle fibers,
However, the majority of muscle activity is volitional, and consume a mixture of fat, protein and carbohydrates for
the result of complex interactions between various areas energy, consume large amounts of oxygen and produce
of the brain. little lactic acid. Anaerobic exercise involves short bursts
of higher intensity contractions at a much greater
percentage of their maximum contraction strength.
Nerves that control skeletal muscles in mammals Examples of anaerobic exercise include sprinting and
correspond with neuron groups along the primary motor weight lifting. The anaerobic energy delivery system
cortex of the brain's cerebral cortex. Commands are uses predominantly Type II or fast-twitch muscle fibers,
routed though the basal ganglia and are modified by relies mainly on ATP or glucose for fuel, consumes
input from the cerebellum before being relayed through relatively little oxygen, protein and fat, produces large
the pyramidal tract to the spinal cord and from there to amounts of lactic acid and can not be sustained for as
the motor end plate at the muscles. Along the way, long a period as aerobic exercise. The presence of lactic
feedback, such as that of the extrapyramidal system acid has an inhibitory effect on ATP generation within the
contribute signals to influence muscle tone and muscle; though not producing fatigue, it can inhibit or
response. even stop performance if the intracellular concentration
becomes too high. However, long-term training causes produced by a muscle comes from the shortening of
neovascularization within the muscle, increasing the actomyosin filaments along the axis of the muscle.
ability to move waste products out of the muscles and During contraction, the muscle shortens along its
maintain contraction. Once moved out of muscles with longitudinal axis and expands across the transverse
high concentrations within the sarcomere, lactic acid can axis, producing vibrations at the surface.[5]
be used by other muscles or body tissues as a source of
energy, or transported to the liver where it is converted Atrophy
back to pyruvate. The ability of the body to export lactic
acid and use it as a source of energy depends on There are many diseases and conditions which cause a
training level. decrease in muscle mass, known as muscle atrophy.
Example include cancer and AIDS, which induce a body
Humans are genetically predisposed with a larger wasting syndrome called cachexia. Other syndromes or
percentage of one type of muscle group over another. An conditions which can induce skeletal muscle atrophy are
individual born with a greater percentage of Type I congestive heart disease and some diseases of the liver.
muscle fibers would theoretically be more suited to
endurance events, such as triathlons, distance running, During aging, there is a gradual decrease in the ability to
and long cycling events, whereas a human born with a maintain skeletal muscle function and mass, known as
greater percentage of Type II muscle fibers would be sarcopenia. The exact cause of sarcopenia is unknown,
more likely to excel at anaerobic events such as a 200 but it may be due to a combination of the gradual failure
meter dash, or weightlifting. People with high overall in the "satellite cells" which help to regenerate skeletal
musculation and balanced muscle type percentage muscle fibers, and a decrease in sensitivity to or the
engage in sports such as rugby or boxing and often availability of critical secreted growth factors which are
engage in other sports to increase their performance in necessary to maintain muscle mass and satellite cell
the former.[citations needed] survival. Sarcopenia is a normal aspect of aging, and is
not actually a disease state.
Delayed onset muscle soreness is pain or discomfort
that may be felt one to three days after exercising and Physical inactivity and atrophy
subsides generally within two to three days later. Once
thought to be caused by lactic acid buildup, a more
recent theory is that it is caused by tiny tears in the Inactivity and starvation in mammals lead to atrophy of
muscle fibers caused by eccentric contraction, or skeletal muscle, accompanied by a smaller number and
unaccustomed training levels. Since lactic acid disperses size of the muscle cells as well as lower protein
fairly rapidly, it could not explain pain experienced days content.[6] In humans, prolonged periods of
after exercise.[4] immobilization, as in the cases of bed rest or astronauts
flying in space, are known to result in muscle weakening
and atrophy. Such consequences are also noted in small
Disease hibernating mammals like the golden-mantled ground
squirrels and brown bats.[7] Representatives of the Ursid
Main article: Neuromuscular disease species make for an interesting exception to this
expected norm.
Symptoms of muscle diseases may include weakness,
spasticity, myoclonus and myalgia. Diagnostic Bears are famous for their ability to survive unfavorable
procedures that may reveal muscular disorders include environmental conditions of low temperatures and
testing creatine kinase levels in the blood and limited nutrition availability during winter by means of
electromyography (measuring electrical activity in hibernation. During that time Ursids go through a series
muscles). In some cases, muscle biopsy may be done to of physiological, morphological and behavioral
identify a myopathy, as well as genetic testing to identify changes.[8] Their ability to maintain skeletal muscle
DNA abnormalities associated with specific myopathies number and size at time of disuse is of a significant
and dystrophies. importance. During hibernation bears spend four to
seven months of inactivity and anorexia without
Neuromuscular diseases are those that affect the undergoing muscle atrophy and protein loss.[7] There are
muscles and/or their nervous control. In general, a few known factors that contribute to the sustaining of
problems with nervous control can cause spasticity or muscle tissue. During the summer period, Ursids take
paralysis, depending on the location and nature of the advantage of the nutrition availability and accumulate
problem. A large proportion of neurological disorders muscle protein. The protein balance of bears at time of
leads to problems with movement, ranging from dormancy is also maintained by lower levels of protein
cerebrovascular accident (stroke) and Parkinson's breakdown during the winter time.[7] At times of
disease to Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. immobility, muscle wasting in Ursids is also suppressed
by a proteolytic inhibitor that is released in circulation.[6]
A non-invasive elastography technique that measures Another factor that contributes to the sustaining of
muscle noise is undergoing experimentation to provide a muscle strength in hibernating bears is the occurrence of
way of monitoring neuromuscular disease. The sound periodic voluntary contractions and involuntary
contractions from shivering during torpor.[9] The three to • The external muscles of the eye are
four daily episodes of muscle activity are responsible for conspicuously large and strong in relation to the
the maintenance of muscle strength and responsiveness small size and weight of the eyeball. It is
in bears during hibernation.[9] frequently said that they are "the strongest
muscles for the job they have to do" and are
Strength sometimes claimed to be "100 times stronger
than they need to be." However, eye movements
A display of "strength" (e.g. lifting a weight) is a result of (particularly saccades used on facial scanning
three factors that overlap: physiological strength and reading) do require high speed movements,
(muscle size, cross sectional area, available and eye muscles are exercised nightly during
crossbridging, responses to training), neurological rapid eye movement sleep.
strength (how strong or weak is the signal that tells the • The statement that "the tongue is the strongest
muscle to contract), and mechanical strength (muscle's muscle in the body" appears frequently in lists of
force angle on the lever, moment arm length, joint surprising facts, but it is difficult to find any
capabilities). Contrary to popular belief, the number of definition of "strength" that would make this
muscle fibres cannot be increased through exercise; statement true. Note that the tongue consists of
instead the muscle cells simply get bigger. Muscle fibres sixteen muscles, not one.
have a limited capacity for growth through hypertrophy • The heart has a claim to being the muscle that
and some believe they split through hyperplasia if performs the largest quantity of physical work in
subject to increased demand.[citation needed] the course of a lifetime. Estimates of the power
output of the human heart range from 1 to 5
The "strongest" human muscle watts. This is much less than the maximum
power output of other muscles; for example, the
quadriceps can produce over 100 watts, but only
Since three factors affect muscular strength
for a few minutes. The heart does its work
simultaneously and muscles never work individually, it is
continuously over an entire lifetime without
misleading to compare strength in individual muscles,
pause, and thus does "outwork" other muscles.
and state that one is the "strongest". But below are
An output of one watt continuously for eighty
several muscles whose strength is noteworthy for
years yields a total work output of two and a half
different reasons.
gigajoules.
The Tongue: And another unique muscle is the Skeletal muscle cells are stimulated by acetylcholine,
tongue, which is free at one end and only attached which is released at neuromuscular junctions by motor
on the other end. The tongue actually comprises of a neurons[2]. Once the cells are "excited", their
group of muscles, which work in unison, enabling sarcoplasmic reticulum will release ionic calcium (Ca2+)
you to chew and swallow food, and talk. which interacts with the myofibrils to induce muscular
contraction (via the sliding filament mechanism). This
Muscle cells (also called muscle fibers) are cylindrical, process also requires adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
and are multinucleated (in vertebrates and insects). The The ATP is produced by metabolizing creatine
nuclei of these muscles are located in the peripheral phosphate and glucose (stored as glycogen or absorbed
aspect of the cell, just under the plasma membrane, from blood) within the muscle cells by mitochondria, as
which vacates the central part of the muscle fiber for well as by metabolizing fatty acids obtained from the
myofibrils. (Conversely, when the nucleus is located in blood and within the cell. Each motor neuron activates a
the center it is considered a pathologic condition known group of muscle cells, and collectively the neurons and
as centronuclear myopathy.) muscle cells are known as motor units. When more
strength is required than can be obtained from a single
motor unit, more units will be stimulated; this is known as
Skeletal muscles have one end (the "origin") attached to
motor unit recruitment. This is spatial summation. If more
a bone closer to the centre of the body's axis and the
strength is required than can be obtained from the
other end (the "insertion") is attached across a joint to
current number of motor units, the motor neurons
another bone further from the body's axis. The bones
continue to recruit more motor units. When all the motor
rotate about the joint and move relative to one another
units are recruited, there will be no further increase in
by contraction of the muscle (lifting of the upper arm in
contraction strength. To increase the force of contraction,
the case of the origin and insertion described here).
it is necessary to increase the frequency of neuronalT
firing. This results in tetanic contraction, which is a
There are several different ways to categorize the type smooth contraction. This is temporal summation...
of skeletal muscle fibers (see below). One method uses
the type of protein contained in myosin (one of the
TENDON Function
A tendon (or sinew) is a tough band of fibrous Tendons have been traditionally considered to simply be
connective tissue that usually connects muscle to bone[1] a mechanism by which muscles connect to bone,
and is capable of withstanding tension. Tendons are functioning simply to transmit forces. However, over the
similar to ligaments and fascia as they are both made of past two decades, much research focused on the elastic
collagen except that ligaments join one bone to another properties of tendons and their ability to function as
bone, and fascia connect muscles to other muscles. springs. This allows tendons to passively modulate
Tendons and muscles work together and can only exert forces during locomotion, providing additional stability
a pulling force. with no active work. It also allows tendons to store and
recover energy at high efficiency. For example, during a
Structure human stride, the Achilles tendon stretches as the ankle
joint dorsiflexes. During the last portion of the stride, as
the foot plantar-flexes (pointing the toes down), the
Normal healthy tendons are composed of parallel arrays
stored elastic energy is released. Furthermore, because
of collagen fibers closely packed together. The fibers are
the tendon stretches, the muscle is able to function with
mostly collagen type I, however there are also collagen
less or even no change in length, allowing the muscle to
type III and V present. These collagens are held together
generate greater force.
with other proteins, particularly the proteoglycan, decorin
and, in compressed regions of tendon, aggrecan. The
tenocytes produce the collagen molecules which Pathology
aggregate end-to-end and side-to-side to produce
collagen fibrils. Fibril bundles are organized to form Tendinitis refers to inflammation of a tendon.
fibers with the elongated tenocytes closely packed
between them. Collagen fibers coalesce into Tendinosis refers to non-inflammatory injury to the
macroaggregates. Groups of macroaggregates are tendon at the cellular level. The tendons in the foot are
bounded by connective tissue endotendon and are highly complex and intricate. If any tendons break it is a
termed fascicles. Groups of fascicles are bounded by the long painful healing process, not to mention the intricacy
epitendon and peritendon to form the tendon organ. of the repairing (if fully severed) process. Most people
that do not receive medical attention within the first 48
Blood vessels may be visualized within the endotendon hours of the injury will suffer from severe swelling, pain,
running parallel to collagen fibers, with occasional and an on-fire feeling where the injury occurred. They
branching transverse anastomoses. are very painful when they are inflamed or not in use.
Nemaline myopathy (also called rod myopathy or Actions can be described by one of two methods. The
nemaline rod myopathy) is a congenital, hereditary first, a muscle such as the biceps brachii is said to
neuromuscular disorder that causes muscle weakness, perform "flexion of the forearm." The second method, of
generally nonprogressive, of varying severity."Myopathy" increasing use among specialists such as kinesiologists,
means "muscle disease," and a biopsy of muscle from a identifies the joint involved. With this method, the action
person with nemaline myopathy shows abnormal thread- of the biceps brachii muscle would be "flexion at (or of)
like rods, called nemaline bodies, in the muscle cells. the elbow." Both methods are valid, and each has its
People with nemaline myopathy (or NM) usually advantages. We shall primarily use the latter method.
experience delayed motor development and weakness
in the arm, leg, trunk, throat, and face muscles.
When complex movements occur, muscles commonly thereby stabilizing the origin of the agonist. Such
work in groups rather than individually. Their cooperation synergists are called fixators.
improves the efficiency of a particular movement. For
example, large muscles of the limbs produce flexion or NAMES OF SKELETAL MUSCLES
extension over an extended range of motion. Although
these muscles cannot develop much tension at full Except for the platysma and the diaphragm, the
extension, they are generally paired with one or more complete names of all skeletal muscles include the term
smaller muscles that provide assistance until the larger muscle. Although the full name, such as the biceps
muscle can perform at maximum efficiency. At the start brachii muscle, will usually appear in the text, for
of the movement, the smaller muscle is producing simplicity only the descriptive name (biceps brachii) will
maximum tension while tension production by the larger be used in figures and tables.
muscle is at a minimum. The importance of this smaller
"assistant" decreases as the movement proceeds and
the efficiency of the primary muscle increases. You need not learn every one of the approximately 700
muscles in the human body, but you will have to become
familiar with the most important ones. Fortunately,
On the basis of size and range of motion, muscles are anatomists assigned names to the muscles that provide
described as follows: clues to their identification. If you can learn to recognize
the clues, you will find it easier to remember the names
• An agonist, or prime mover, is a muscle whose and identify the muscles. The name of a muscle may
contraction is chiefly responsible for producing a include information about its fascicle organization,
particular movement. The biceps brachii muscle location, relative position, structure, size, shape, origin
is an agonist that produces flexion at the elbow. and insertion, or action.
• Antagonists are muscles whose actions
oppose that of the agonist under consideration. Fascicle Organization
The triceps brachii muscle is an agonist that
extends the elbow. It is therefore an antagonist A muscle name may refer to the orientation of the
of the biceps brachii muscle, and the biceps muscle fibers within a particular skeletal muscle. Rectus
brachii is an antagonist of the triceps brachii. means "straight," and rectus muscles are parallel
Agonists and antagonists are functional muscles whose fibers generally run along the long axis
opposites; if one produces flexion, the other will of the body. Because we have several rectus muscles,
produce extension. When an agonist contracts the name typically includes a second term that refers to
to produce a particular movement, the a precise region of the body. For example, the rectus
corresponding antagonist will be stretched, but it abdominis muscle is located on the abdomen, and the
will usually not relax completely. Instead, it will rectus femoris muscle on the thigh. Other directional
contract eccentrically, with the tension adjusted indicators include transversus and oblique for muscles
to control the speed of the movement and whose fibers run across or at an oblique angle to the
ensure its smoothness. You may find it easiest longitudinal axis of the body, respectively.
to learn about muscles in agonist/antagonist
pairs (flexors/extensors, abductors/adductors)
that act at a specific joint. This method highlights Location
the functions of the muscles involved, and it can
help organize the information in a logical They are common as modifiers that help identify
framework. The tables in this chapter are individual muscles, as in the case of the rectus muscles.
arranged to facilitate this approach. In a few cases, the muscle is such a prominent feature
• When a synergist contracts, it helps a larger of the region that the regional name alone will identify it.
agonist work efficiently. Synergists may provide Examples include the temporalis muscle of the head and
additional pull near the insertion or may stabilize the brachialis muscle of the arm.
the point of origin. Their importance in assisting
a particular movement may change as the Relative Position
movement progresses. In many cases, they are
most useful at the start, when the agonist is Muscles visible at the body surface are often called
stretched and unable to develop maximum externus or superficialis, whereas deeper muscles are
tension. For example, the latissimus dorsi termed internus or profundus. Superficial muscles that
muscle is a large trunk muscle that extends, position or stabilize an organ are extrinsic; muscles
adducts, and medially rotates the arm at the located entirely within the extrinsic organ are intrinsic.
shoulder joint. A much smaller muscle, the teres
major muscle, assists in starting such Structure, Size, and Shape
movements when the shoulder joint is at full
flexion. Synergists may also assist an agonist by
Some muscles are named after distinctive structural
preventing movement at another joint and
features. The biceps brachii muscle, for example, has
two tendons of origin; the triceps brachii muscle has
three; and the quadriceps group, four. Shape is and includes the remaining 40 percent of all
sometimes an important clue to the name of a muscle. skeletal muscles.
For example, the trapezius, deltoid, rhomboideus, and
orbicularis muscles look like a trapezoid, a triangle, a The major axial and appendicular muscles of the human
rhomboid, and a circle, respectively. Long muscles are body. These are the superficial muscles, which tend to
called longus (long) or longissimus (longest), and be relatively large. The superficial muscles cover deeper,
teres muscles are both long and round. Short muscles smaller muscles that cannot be seen unless the
are called brevis. Large ones are called magnus (big), overlying muscles are either removed or reflected--that
major (bigger), or maximus (biggest); and small ones is, cut and pulled out of the way. Later figures that show
are called minor (smaller) or minimus (smallest). deep muscles in specific regions will indicate whether
superficial muscles have been removed or reflected for
Origin and Insertion the sake of clarity.
Many names tell you the specific origin and insertion of Paying attention to patterns of origin, insertion, and
each muscle. In such cases, the first part of the name action, we will now examine representatives of both
indicates the origin, and the second part the insertion. muscular divisions. This discussion assumes that you
The genioglossus muscle, for example, originates at the already understand skeletal anatomy. As you examine
chin (geneion) and inserts in the tongue (glossus). the figures in this chapter, you will find that some bony
and cartilaginous landmarks are labeled for orientation
Action purposes. These labels are shown in italics, to
differentiate them from the muscles that are the primary
focus of each figure.
Many muscles are named flexor, extensor, retractor,
abductor, and so on. These are such common actions
that the names almost always include other clues as to Innervation is the distribution of nerves to a region or
the appearance or location of the muscle. For example, organ; the tables indicate the nerves that control each
the extensor carpi radialis longus muscle is a long muscle. Many of the muscles of the head and neck are
muscle along the radial (lateral) border of the forearm. innervated by cranial nerves, such as the facial nerve, or
When it contracts, its primary function is extension at the seventh cranial nerve (N VII), which innervates the facial
carpus (wrist). musculature. Cranial nerves originate at the brain and
pass through the foramina of the skull. Spinal nerves are
connected to the spinal cord and pass through the
A few muscles are named after the specific movements
intervertebral foramina. For example, spinal nerve L1
associated with special occupations or habits. The
passes between vertebrae L1 and L2 . Spinal nerves may
sartorius muscle is active when you cross your legs.
form a complex network, or plexus; one branch, such as
Before sewing machines were invented, a tailor would sit
the sciatic nerve of the thigh, may contain axons from
on the floor cross-legged, and the name of this muscle
several spinal nerves. Thus, many tables include the
was derived from sartor, the Latin word for "tailor." On
spinal nerves as well as the names of the peripheral
the face, the buccinator muscle compresses the cheeks,
nerves.
as when you purse your lips and blow forcefully.
Buccinator translates as "trumpet player." Another facial
muscle, the risorius muscle, was supposedly named
after the mood expressed. The Latin term risor, however,
means "laugher"; a more appropriate description for the The axial muscles fall into logical groups on the basis of
effect would be "grimace." location, function, or both. The groups do not always
have distinct anatomical boundaries. For example, a
AXIAL AND APPENDICULAR MUSCLES function such as extension of the vertebral column
involves muscles along its entire length and flexion at
The separation of the skeletal system into axial and each of the intervertebral joints. We will discuss the axial
appendicular divisions provides a useful guideline for muscles in four groups:
subdividing the muscular system as well:
1. The muscles of the head and neck. This group
1. The axial musculature arises on the axial includes muscles that move the face, tongue,
skeleton. It positions the head and spinal column and larynx. They are therefore responsible for
and also moves the rib cage, assisting in the verbal and nonverbal communication—laughing,
movements that make breathing possible. It talking, frowning, smiling, whistling, and so on.
does not play a role in movement or support of You also use this group of muscles when you
either the pectoral or pelvic girdle or the limbs. eat—especially in sucking and chewing—and
This category encompasses roughly 60 percent even when you look for something to eat, by
of the skeletal muscles in the body. controlling your eye movements. This group
does not include muscles of the neck that are
2. The appendicular musculature stabilizes or
involved with movements of the vertebral
moves components of the appendicular skeleton
column.
2. The muscles of the spine. This group includes covers the ventral surface of the neck, extending from
numerous flexors, extensors, and rotators of the the base of the neck to the periosteum of the mandible
vertebral column. and the fascia at the corner of the mouth.
3. The oblique and rectus muscles. This group
forms the muscular walls of the thoracic and Extrinsic Eye Muscles
abdominopelvic cavities between the first
thoracic vertebra and the pelvis. In the thoracic Six extrinsic eye muscles, or oculomotor muscles,
area these muscles are partitioned by the ribs, originating on the surface of the orbit control the position
but over the abdominal surface they form broad of each eye. These muscles are the inferior rectus,
muscular sheets. The neck also has oblique and medial rectus, superior rectus, lateral rectus, inferior
rectus muscles. Although they do not form a oblique, and superior oblique muscles. The extrinsic
complete muscular wall, they share a common eye muscles are innervated by the third (oculomotor),
developmental origin with the oblique and rectus fourth (trochlear), and sixth (abducens) cranial nerves.
muscles of the trunk.
4. The muscles of the pelvic floor. These muscles Muscles of Mastication
extend between the sacrum and pelvic girdle.
This group forms the perineum, a muscular The muscles of mastication move the mandible at the
sheet that closes the pelvic outlet. temporomandibular joint. The large masseter muscle is
the strongest jaw muscle. The temporalis muscle
MUSCLES OF THE HEAD AND NECK assists in elevation of the mandible. The pterygoid
muscles, used in various combinations, can elevate,
We can divide the muscles of the head and neck into depress, or protract the mandible or slide it from side to
several groups by function. The muscles of facial side, a movement called lateral excursion. These
expression, the muscles of mastication (chewing), the movements are important in making efficient use of your
muscles of the tongue, and the muscles of the pharynx teeth while you chew foods of various consistencies. The
originate on the skull or hyoid bone. Muscles involved muscles of mastication are innervated by the fifth cranial
with sight and hearing are also based on the skull. We nerve, the trigeminal nerve.
will consider here the extrinsic eye muscles--those
associated with movements of the eye. We shall discuss Muscles of the Tongue
the intrinsic eye muscles, which control the diameter of
the pupil and the shape of the lens, and the tiny skeletal The muscles of the tongue have names ending in
muscles associated with the auditory ossicles. In the glossus, the Greek word for "tongue." Once you can
neck, the extrinsic muscles of the larynx adjust the recall the structures referred to by palato-, stylo-, genio-,
position of the hyoid bone and larynx. and hyo-, you will follow this group. The palatoglossus
muscle originates at the palate, the styloglossus
Muscles of Facial Expression muscle at the styloid process of the temporal bone, the
genioglossus muscle at the chin, and the hyoglossus
The muscles of facial expression originate on the muscle at the hyoid bone. These muscles, used in
surface of the skull. At their insertions, the fibers of the various combinations, move the tongue in the delicate
epimysium are woven into those of the superficial fascia and complex patterns necessary for speech, and they
and the dermis of the skin: When they contract, the skin manipulate food within the mouth in preparation for
moves. These muscles are innervated by the facial swallowing. Most are innervated by the hypoglossal
nerve. nerve (N XII), a cranial nerve whose name indicates its
function and its location
The largest group of facial muscles is associated with
the mouth. The orbicularis oris muscle constricts the Muscles of the Pharynx
opening, and other muscles move the lips or the corners
of the mouth. The buccinator muscle has two functions The muscles of the pharynx are responsible for initiating
related to eating (in addition to its importance to the swallowing process. The pharyngeal constrictors
musicians). During chewing, it cooperates with the (superior, middle, and inferior) move materials into the
masticatory muscles by moving food back across the esophagus. The laryngeal elevators elevate the larynx.
teeth from the space inside the cheeks. In infants, the The palatal muscles, the tensor veli palatini and the
buccinator provides suction for suckling at the breast. levator veli palatini, raise the soft palate and adjacent
portions of the pharyngeal wall and also pull open the
Smaller groups of muscles control movements of the entrance to the auditory tube. As a result, swallowing
eyebrows and eyelids, the scalp, the nose, and the repeatedly can open the entrance to the auditory tube to
external ear. The epicranius, or scalp, contains two help you adjust to pressure changes when you fly or
muscles, the frontalis and the occipitalis muscles. dive.
These muscles are separated by the galea
aponeurotica, a collagenous sheet. The platysma Anterior Muscles of the Neck
The anterior muscles of the neck include (1) muscles
that control the position of the larynx, (2) muscles that
depress the mandible and tense the floor of the mouth,
and (3) muscles that provide a stable foundation for
muscles of the tongue and pharynx. The
digastric muscle has two bellies, as the name implies.
One belly extends from the chin to the hyoid bone, and
the other continues from the hyoid bone to the mastoid
portion of the temporal bone. Depending on which belly
contracts and whether fixator muscles are stabilizing the
position of the hyoid bone, the digastric muscle can open
the mouth by depressing the mandible, or it can elevate
the larynx by raising the hyoid bone. The digastric
muscle overlies the broad, flat mylohyoid muscle, which
provides a muscular floor to the mouth. The stylohyoid
muscle forms a muscular connection between the hyoid
bone and the styloid process of the skull. The
sternocleidomastoid muscle extends from the clavicle
and the sternum to the mastoid region of the skull. The
omohyoid muscle attaches to the scapula, the clavicle
and first rib, and the hyoid bone. The other members of
this group are straplike muscles that extend between the
sternum and larynx (sternothyroid) or hyoid bone
(sternohyoid), between the larynx and hyoid bone
(thyrohyoid), and between the hyoid bone and chin
(geniohyoid).