Report On Antenna

i
A Project Report

on

Design and Analysis of Slot Antenna

Submitted for partial fulfillment of award of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

degree

In

Electronics & Communication Engineering

By
Arjun Arya(0802931019)
Lakshya Kumar(0802931044)
Parv Jain(0802931058)
Pranay Diwakar(0802931062)

Under guidance of
Ms.Monika

Department Of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Krishna Institute of Engineering & Technology, Ghaziabad UP, INDIA
(May, 2012)
ii

CERTIFICATE

Certified that
Arjun Arya
Lakshya Kumar
Parv Jain
Pranay Diwakar
has carried out the project work presented in this project report entitled
Design and analysis of slot antenna for the award of Bachelor of
Technology in Electronics & Communication Engineering from Krishna
Institute of Engineering & Technology, Ghaziabad (Gautam Bhudh
Technical University, Lucknow) under my supervision. The project report
embodies result of original work and studies carried out by Student himself and
the contents of the report do not form the basis for the award of any other
degree to the candidate or to anybody else.

Ms . Monika Dr. Sanjay Sharma
(Assistant Professor) HoD (ECE)

Date: May 10,2012
iii

ABSTRACT

Wireless technology is one of the main areas of research in the world of
communication systems today and a study of communication systems is
incomplete without an understanding of the operation and fabrication of
antennas. This was the main reason for our selecting a project focusing on this
field. The field of antenna study is an extremely vast one, so, to grasp the
fundamentals we used a two pronged approach by dividing ourselves into
groups. The first group focused on the fabrication and testing of a slotted
waveguide omni directional antenna and a biquad directional antenna. The
second group focused on the design and simulation of patch antennas (which are
widely used in cell phones today) with an emphasis on optimization of a 2.5
GHz rectangular probe fed patch antenna. A dual band antenna and a microstrip
fed patch antenna, used in the communication lab were also simulated. The slot
antenna consists of a radiator formed by cutting a narrow slot in a large metal
surface. The slot length is a half wavelength at the desired frequency and the
width is a small fraction of a wavelength. The antenna is frequently compared to
a conventional half-wave dipole consisting of two flat metal strips. The physical
dimensions of the metal strips are such that they would just fit into the slot cut
out of the large metal sheet. This type of antenna is called the
COMPLEMENTARY DIPOLE. The slot antenna is compared to its
complementary dipole to illustrate that the radiation patterns produced by a slot
antenna cut into an infinitely large metal sheet and that of the complementary
dipole antenna are the same. Several important differences exist between the
iv

slot antenna and its complementary antenna. First the electric and magnetic
fields are interchanged. In the case of the dipole antenna shown in figure 3-
18,the electric lines are horizontal while the magnetic lines form loops in the
vertical plane. With the slot antenna, the magnetic lines are horizontal and the
electric lines are vertical. The electric lines are built up across the narrow
dimensions of the slot. As a result, the polarization of the radiation produced by
a horizontal slot is vertical. If a vertical slot is used, the polarization is
horizontal .A second difference between the slot antenna and its complementary
dipole is that the direction of the lines of electric and magnetic force abruptly
reverse from one side of the metal sheet to the other. In the case of the dipole,
the electric lines have the same general direction while the magnetic lines form
continuous closed loops. When energy is applied to the slot antenna, currents
flow in the metal sheet. These currents are not confined to the edges of the slot
but rather spread out over the sheet. Radiation then takes place from both sides
of the sheet. In the case of the complementary dipole, however, the currents are
more confined; so a much greater magnitude of current is required to produce a
given power output using the dipole antenna.

v

ACKNOWEDGMENT

It gives us a great sense of pleasure to present the report of the B.Tech Project
undertaking during the B.Tech final year. We owe special debt of gratitude to
our project mentor Mrs. Monika, Department Of Electronics And
Communication, KRISHNA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLGY, Ghaziabad for her constant support and guidance throughout
the course of our work. Her sincerity ,thoroughness and perseverance have been
a constant source of inspiration for us. It is only her cognizant efforts that our
endeavors have seen light of the day.
We also take the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of Dr. SANJAY
SHARMA, head of department(H.O.D) of electronics and communication,
KRISHNA INSTIUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ,Ghaziabad
for his full support and assistance during the development of the project .
We also do not like to miss the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of
all faculty members of the department for their kind assistance and co-operation
during the development of our project. Last but not the least ,we acknowledge
our friends for their contribution in the completion of the project.

PROJECT MEMBERS :

ARJUN ARYA (0802931019)

LAKSHYA KUMAR (0802931044)

PARV JAIN (0802931058)

PRANAY DIWAKAR (0802931062)
vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT III
LIST OF FIGURES XI
LIST OF SYMBOLS XIV

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 BASIC OF ANTENNA 5
1.3 ANTENNA PARAMETERS 6
1.3.1ANTENNA GAIN 7
1.3.2 ANTENNA EFFICIENCY 8
1.3.3 EFFECTIVE AREA 9
1.3.4 DIRECTIVITY 10
1.3.5 PATH LOSS 11
1.3.6 INPUT IMPEDENCE 11
1.3.7 ANTENNA FACTOR 13
1.3.8 RADIATION PATTERN 14
vii

1.3.9 BEAMWIDTH 15
1.4 TYPES OF ANTENNA 15
1.5 OBJECTIVE 16
1.6 SCOPE 17
1.7 METHODOLOGY 17
1.8 FLOWCHART 18
1.9 THESIS MOTIVATION 18

2. SLOT ANTENNA 21
2.1 MICROSTRIP ANTENA 21
2.2 APPLICATION OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNA 24
2.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNA 25
2.4 BASIC CHARATERSTICKS 26
2.5 FEED TECHNIQUES 28
2.5.1 MICROSTRIP LINE FEED 28
2.5.2 COAXIAL FEED 29
2.5.3 APERTURE COUPLED FEED 31
2.5.4 PROXIMITY COUPLED FEED 32
viii

2.6 APPLICATIONS OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNA 33
2.7 SLOT ANTENNA 34
2.7.1 ADVANTAGES 36
2.7.2 WORKING 38
2.8 PHOTONIC BAND GAP ANTENNA 38
2.8.1 ANTENNA USING PHOTONIC
CRYSTAL SUBSTRATE 41
2.8.2 THICK SUBSTRATE 41
2.8.3 THIN SUBSTRATE 43

3. LITERATURE REVIEW 45
3.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 45
3.2 SUBSTRATE SELECTION 45
3.3 ELEMENT WIDTH AND LENGTH 46
3.4 CALCULATION OF EFFECTIVE
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT 50
3.5 CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE 52
3.6 BEAM WIDTH 53
3.7 DIRECTIVITY 53
ix

3.8 RADIATED POWER AND RADIATED RESISTANCE 55
3.9 LOSSES AND Q FACTOR 57
3.10 BANDWIDTH 59
3.11 RADIATION EFFICIENCY 61
3.12 FEED POINT LOCATIONS 62
3.13 EFFECT OF FINITE GROUND PLANE 63
3.14 SUMMARY 64

4. SOFTWARE SIMULATION 65
4.1 INTRODUCTION OF SOFTWARE 65
4.2 RESULT AND SIMULATION 66
4.3 RECTANGULAR PATCH WITHOUT SLOT 66
4.4 RECTANGULAR MICROSTRIP PATCH WITH
SLOTS 69
4.4.1 SLOT SIZE 2.0mm 70
4.5 SUMMARY 85
5. RESULTS 86
x

5.1 GROUND WITH PHOTONIC BAND GAP 86
5.2 RECTANGULAR PATCH WITH SLOT 0.5mm 87

5.7 RETURN LOSS RESULTS FOR DIFFERENT SLOTS 89
5.7.1 RESULT OF SLOT 0.5 90

REFRENCES 93

xi

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig.1.1 3D Radiation pattern for rectangular patch 13
Fig.1.2 Determination of HPBW from radiation pattern 14

Fig.1.3 Methodology of the project 17
Fig.1.4 Field lines radiating from a patch antenna
Illustrates the formation of surface waves. 19
Fig.2.1 A Typical Microstrip Patch Antenna 22

Fig.2.2 Typical patch shapes 23
Fig.2.3 Fringing Fields in Patch Antennas 24
Fig.2.4 Typical geometry of microstrip antenna 27
Fig.2.5 Microstrip Line Feed 29
Fig.2.6 Coaxial Feed 30
Fig.2.7 Aperture Feed 31
Fig.2.8 Proximity coupled feed 32
Fig.2.9 Slot Antenna 35
Fig.2.10 Babinet principle 38
Fig.2.11 Patch Antenna without PBG 39
Fig.2.12 Patch Antenna with PBG 40
Fig.2.13 Cross-sectional view of Patch Antenna 43
xii

Fig.2.14 Photonic crystals etched in ground plane 44
Fig.3.1 Variation of current, voltage and impedance 61
Fig.4.1 Rectangular patch pattern in software 62
Fig.4.2 Return loss of rectangular patch 65
Fig.4.3 3D Radiation Pattern of rectangular patch 66
Fig.4.4 Gain pattern of rectangular patch 66
Fig.4.5 Photonic band patch with 2mm slot 67
Fig.4.6 Return loss of slot 2.0mm 67
Fig.4.7 3D radiation pattern of slot 2.0mm 68
Fig.4.8 2D polar plot 69
Fig.4.9 Directivity Vs Frequency Fractal Design 69
Fig.4.10 Efficiency Vs Frequency 70
Fig.4.11 Photonic band patch with 1.5mm slot 71
Fig. 4.13 3D radiation pattern of slot 1.5mm 72
Fig.4.17 Photonic band gap ground patch with 1.0mm slot patch 75
xiii

Fig.4.23 Photonic band gap ground patch with 0.5mm slot patch 79
Fig.5.1 Photonic band gap ground. 82
Fig 5.2 Slot of 0.5 mm 82
Fig.5.3 Slot of 2.0 mm 83
Fig 5.4 Slot of 1.0 mm 83
Fig 5.5 Slot of 1.5mm 84
Fig 5.6 Result graph of 0.5mm slot 85
Fig 5.7 Result graph of 1.0mm slot 85
Fig.5.8 Result graph of 1.5 mm slot 86
Fig.5.9 Result graph of 2.0mm slot 86

xiv

LIST OF SYMBOLS

1. RF Radio Frequency
2. UHF Ultra High Frequency
3. WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
4. SFCP- Singly FED Circularly Polarized
5. MIC Microwave Integrated Circuits
6. VSWR Voltage Standing Wave Ratio.
7.

Radiated power
8.

Radiance Conductance of patch
9.

- Radiation Intensity of Antenna
10. P
d
Power Loss in lossy dielectric
11. P
c
Power loss due to finite conductivity of the metallization
12. P
r
- Power radiated in the form of space wave.
13. P
sur
- Power loss in form of power carried away by the surface wave
14. o tan
-
the loss tangent of the substrate
15. - conductivity of the patch metallization
16.
o
o
k
x
|
= - normalized phase constant for the TM

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION OF PROJECT

1.1 INTRODUCTION:

In recent years, the current trend in commercial and government
communication systems has been to develop low cost, minimal weight, low
profile antennas that are capable of maintaining high performance over a large
spectrum of frequencies. This technological trend has focused much effort into
the design of microstrip (patch) antennas. With a simple geometry, patch
antennas offer many advantages not commonly exhibited in other antenna
configurations. For example, they are extremely low profile, lightweight,
simple and inexpensive to fabricate using modern day printed circuit board
technology, compatible with microwave and millimeter-wave integrated circuits
(MMIC), and have the ability to conform to planar and non-planar surfaces. In
addition, once the shape and operating mode of the patch are selected, designs
become very versatile in terms of operating frequency, polarization, pattern, and
impedance. The variety in design that is possible with microstrip antennas
2

probably exceeds that of any other type of antenna element. During the past
ten years, the mobile radio communications industry has grown by orders of
magnitude, fuelled by digital and RF circuit fabrication improvements, new
large -scale circuit integration, and other miniaturization technologies which
make portable radio equipment smaller, cheaper, and more reliable. These
trends will continue at an even greater pace during the next decade. Wireless
operations, such as long range communications, are impossible or impractical to
implement with the use of wires. The term is commonly used in the
telecommunications industry to refer to telecommunications systems (e.g.,
radio transmitters and receivers, remote controls, computer networks, network
terminals, etc.) which use some form of energy (e.g.,radio frequency (RF),
infrared light, laser light, visible light, acoustic energy, etc.) to transfer
information without the use of wires. Information is transferred in this manner
over both short and long distances. Applications may involve point-to-point
Communication, point-to-multipoint communication, broadcasting, cellular
networks and other wireless networks. Antenna is a very important
component for the wireless communication systems using radio frequency
and microwaves. By definition, an antenna is a device used to transform an
RF signal, traveling on a conductor, into an electromagnetic wave in free space.
The IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas (IEEE Std 145-1983)
defines the antenna or aerial as a means for radiating or receiving radio
waves. In other words it is a transitional structure between free space and a
guiding device that is made to efficiently radiate and receive radiated
electromagnetic waves. Antennas are commonly used in radio, television
broadcasting, cell phones, radar and other systems involving the use of
electromagnetic waves. Antennas demonstrate a property known as reciprocity,
which means that an antenna will maintain the same characteristics
regardless if it is transmitting or receiving.The modern trends in wireless
communication systems require wide bandwidth antennas, by which the voice,
3

data, and video information can be transmitted. So me of these wireless
communication system applications include fixed broadband local multipoint
communication services, small mobile units such as cellular phones or other
hand held units, laptops and various remote-sensing devices. Most of these
applications require miniaturized antennas. The need for increasing the
information transfer rate also demands bandwidth enhancement, without
sacrificing the performance .These requirements, put together, provide a
challenging list of specifications that demand innovation in antenna design
beyond known conventional techniques. As such, the antenna miniaturization
for mobile handsets, PC cards, and wireless Personal Digital Assistants has
received much attention.

For these applications, a slot antenna is of major importance because
of its simple structure. When a microstrip slot antenna is fed using microstrip
line it does not add weight and size to the system and is a suitable design for
such applications. In the design of printed square slot antennas fed by a
microstrip line with a fork-like tuning stub for bandwidth enhancement is
investigated. A slot is a narrow-width opening in a conductive sheet. When
excited by a voltage across the narrow dimension it appears to radiate from an
equivalent magnetic current flowing along the long dimension that replaces the
voltage (or electric field) across it.

Most slots, similar to dipoles, have a finite length with either short or
open circuits at both ends. The voltage along the slot forms a standing wave. Of
course, magnetic currents are fictitious, and real electric currents flow in the
4

conductive sheet around the slot. These currents do not have a simple
distribution and are difficult to use for analysis, so we use simpler magnetic
currents, although when analyzing a slot using the method of moments, we
model the conductors around the slot and calculate patterns.

1.2 BASICS OF ANTENNA:

An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric
currents into radio waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio
transmitter or radio receiver. In transmission, a radio transmitter applies an
oscillating radio frequency electric current to the antenna's terminals, and the
antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves (radio
waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of an
electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals, that is
applied to a receiver to be amplified. An antenna can be used for both
transmitting and receiving.

Antennas are essential components of all equipment that uses radio.
They are used in systems such as radio broadcasting, broadcast television, two-
way radio, communications receivers, radar, cell phones, and satellite
communications, as well as other devices such as garage door openers, wireless
microphones, blue tooth enabled devices, wireless computer networks, baby
monitors, and RFID tags on merchandise .Typically an antenna consists of an
5

arrangement of metallic conductors ("elements"), electrically connected (often
through a transmission line) to the receiver or transmitter. An oscillating current
of electrons forced through the antenna by a transmitter will create an
oscillating magnetic field around the antenna elements, while the charge of the
electrons also creates an oscillating electric field along the elements. These
time-varying fields radiate away from the antenna into space as a moving
electromagnetic field wave. Conversely, during reception, the oscillating
electric and magnetic fields of an incoming radio wave exert force on the
electrons in the antenna elements, causing them to move back and forth,
creating oscillating currents in the antenna .Antennas may also contain
reflective or directive elements or surfaces not connected to the transmitter or
receiver, such as parasitic elements, parabolic reflectors or horns, which serve to
direct the radio waves into a beam or other desired radiation pattern. Antennas
can be designed to transmit or receive radio waves in all directions equally
(omnidirectional antennas), or transmit them in a beam in a particular direction,
and receive from that one direction only (directional or high gain antennas). We
use antennas to transfer signals when no other way is possible, such as
communication with a missile or over rugged mountain terrain. Cables are
expensive and take a long time to install. An antenna converts bound circuit
fields into propagating electromagnetic waves and, by reciprocity, collects
power from passing electromagnetic waves. Maxwells equations predict that
any time-varying electric or magnetic field produces the opposite field and
forms an electromagnetic wave. The wave has its two fields oriented
orthogonally, and it propagates in the direction normal to the plane defined by
the perpendicular electric and magnetic fields. The electric field, the magnetic
field, and the direction of propagation form a right-handed coordinate system.
The propagating wave field intensity decreases by 1/R away from the source,
whereas a static field drops off by 1/R
2
. Any circuit with time-varying fields has
the capability of radiating to some extent.
6

We consider only time-harmonic fields and use phasor notation with
time dependence e
jwt
. An outward-propagating wave is given by e-
j(kR-wt),

where k, the wave

number, is given by 2/. is the wavelength of the wave
given by c/f, where c is

the velocity of light (3 10
8
m/s in free space) and f is
the frequency. Increasing the

distance from the source decreases the phase of the
wave. Consider a two-wire transmission line with fields bound to it. The
currents on a single wire will radiate, but as long as the ground return path is
near, its radiation will nearly cancel the other lines radiation because the two
are 180 out of phase and the waves travel about the same distance. As the lines
become farther and farther apart, in terms of wavelengths, the fields produced
by the two currents will no longer cancel in all directions. In some directions the
phase delay is different for radiation from the current on each line, and power
escapes from the line. We keep circuits from radiating by providing close
ground returns. Hence, high-speed logic requires ground planes to reduce
radiation and its unwanted crosstalk.

1.3 ANTENNA PARAMETERS:

An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of conductors
Transmitter - radiates electromagnetic energy into space Receiver - Collects
electromagnetic energy from space. The IEEE definition of an antenna as given
by Stutzman and Thiele is, That part of a transmitting or receiving system that
is designed to radiate or receive electromagnetic waves. The major parameters
associated with an antenna are defined in the following sections.
7

1.3.1 Antenna gain:

Gain is a measure of the ability of the antenna to direct the input
power into radiation in a particular direction and is measured at the peak
radiation intensity. Consider the power density radiated by an isotropic antenna
with input power P
0
at a distance R which is given by S = P
0
/4R
2
. An isotropic
antenna radiates equally in all directions, and its radiated power density S is
found by dividing the radiated power by the area of the sphere 4R
2
.An
isotropic radiator is considered to be 100% efficient. The gain of an actual
antenna increases the power density in the direction of the peak radiation:

q
t
q
q t
S
G P
R
E
R
G P
S
O O
= = = =
4
1
E or
4
2
2

(1.1)

Gain is achieved by directing the radiation away from other parts of the
radiation sphere. In general, gain is defined as the gain-biased pattern of the
antenna.

density power
4
) , (
) , (
2
R
G P
S
O
t
| u
| u =
8

intensity radiation
4
) , (
) , (
t
| u
| u
G P
U
O
= (1.2)

1.3.2 Antenna efficiency:

The surface integral of the radiation intensity over the radiation sphere
divided by the input power P
0
is a measure of the relative power radiated by the
antenna, or the antenna efficiency.

efficiency .d.d
G((,
P
e

O
= =
} }
sin
4
P
2
0 0
r
(1.3)

where Pr is the radiated power. Material losses in the antenna or reflected
power due to poor impedance match reduce the radiated power.

1.3.3 Effective area:

Antennas capture power from passing waves and deliver some of it to
the terminals. Given the power density of the incident wave and the effective
area of the antenna, the power delivered to the terminals is the product.

eff d SA P =
(1.4)
For an aperture antenna such as a horn, parabolic reflector, or flat-
plate array, effective area is physical area multiplied by aperture efficiency. In
general, losses due to material, distribution, and mismatch reduce the ratio of
9

the effective area to the physical area. Typical estimated aperture efficiency for
a parabolic reflector is 55%. Even antennas with infinitesimal physical areas,
such as dipoles, have effective areas because they remove power from passing
waves.

1.3.4 Directivity:

Directivity is a measure of the concentration of radiation in the
direction of the maximum.

o U
Umax
intensity radiation average
intensity radiation maximum
y Directivit = = (1.5)

Directivity and gain differ only by the efficiency, but directivity is
easily estimated from patterns. Gaindirectivity times efficiencymust be
measured. The average radiation intensity can be found from a surface integral
over the radiation sphere of the radiation intensity divided by 4, the area of
the sphere in steradians:
o U U = =
} }
| u u | u
t
t t
0
2
0
d . d . sin ) , (
4
1
intensity radiation average
(1.6)

This is the radiated power divided by the area of a unit sphere. The
radiation intensity U(,) separates into a sum of co- and cross-polarization
components: Both co- and cross-polarization directivities can be defined:

| u u | u | u
t
t t
d d U U U X C O . . sin )] , ( ) , ( [
4
1
0
2
0
} }
+ =
(1.7)

10

Directivity can also be defined for an arbitrary direction D(,) as
radiation intensity divided by the average radiation intensity, but when the
coordinate angles are not specified, we calculate directivity at U
max
.

1.3.5 Path loss:

We combine the gain of the transmitting antenna with the effective
area of the receiving antenna to determine delivered power and path loss. The
power density at the receiving antenna is given by equation and the received
power is given by equation . By combining the two, we obtain the path loss as
given below.

2
1 2
4
) , (
R
G A
P
P
t
d
t
| u
=
(1.8)
Antenna 1 transmits, and antenna 2 receives. If the materials in the
antennas are linear and isotropic, the transmitting and receiving patterns are
identical . When we consider antenna 2 as the transmitting antenna and antenna
1 as the receiving antenna, the path loss is
2
2 1
4
) , (
R
G A
P
P
t
d
t
| u
=
(1.9)
We make quick evaluations of path loss for various units of distance R and for
frequency f in megahertz using the formula.

) ( ) ( G - ) log( 20 loss Path
2 1
dB G dB fR K
U
+ =
(1.10)

11

1.3.6 Input impedance:

The input impedance of an antenna is defined as the impedance
presented by an antenna at its terminals or the ratio of the voltage to the current
at the pair of terminals or the ratio of the appropriate components of the electric
to magnetic fields at a point. Hence the impedance of the antenna can be
written as given below.

in in in
jX R Z + =
(1.11)

where Z
in
is the antenna impedance at the terminals
R
in
is the antenna resistance at the terminals
X
in
is the antenna reactance at the terminals
The imaginary part, X
in
of the input impedance represents the power stored in
the near field of the antenna. The resistive part, R
in
of the input impedance
consists of two components, the radiation resistance R
r
and the loss resistance
R
L
. The power associated with the radiation resistance is the power actually
radiated by the antenna, while the power dissipated in the loss resistance is lost
as heat in the antenna itself due to dielectric or conducting losses.

12

1.3.7 Antenna factor:

The engineering community uses an antenna connected to a
receiver such as a spectrum analyzer, a network analyzer, or an RF voltmeter to
measure field strength E. Most of the time these devices have a load resistor ZL
that matches the antenna impedance. The incident field strength E
i
equals
antenna factor AF times the received voltage V
rec
. We relate this to the antenna
effective height:

(1.12)

AF has units meter
1
but is often given as dB(m
1
). Sometimes, antenna
factor is referred to the open-circuit voltage and it would be one-half the value
given by equation 1.11. We assume that the antenna is aligned with the electric
field; in other words, the antenna polarization is the electric field component
measured:

G Z A Z
AF
L eff L
t
q 4 1
= =
(1.13)

This measurement may be corrupted by a poor impedance match to the receiver
and any cable loss between the antenna and receiver that reduces the voltage
and reduces the calculated field strength.

h V
E
AF
rec
i 2
= =
13

1.3.8 Radiation pattern:

The radiation pattern of an antenna is a plot of the far-field radiation
properties of an antenna as a function of the spatial co-ordinates which are
specified by the elevation angle () and the azimuth angle (). More specifically
it is a plot of the power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle which is
nothing but the radiation intensity. It can be plotted as a 3D graph or as a 2D
polar or Cartesian slice of this 3D graph. It is an extremely parameter as it
shows the antennas directivity as well as gain at various points in space. It
serves as the signature of an antenna and one look at it is often enough to realize
the antenna that produced it.

Figure1.1-3D Radiation Pattern for a rectangular patch
14

1.3.9 Beamwidth:

Beamwidth of an antenna is easily determined from its 2D radiation
pattern and is also a very important parameter. Beamwidth is the angular
separation of the half-power points of the radiated pattern. The way in which
beamwidth is determined is shown in figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 Determination of HPBW from radiation pattern

1.4 TYPES OF ANTENNAS:

Antennas can be classified in several ways. One way is the frequency
band of operation. Others include physical structure and
electrical/electromagnetic design. Most simple, non-directional antennas are
basic dipoles or monopoles. More complex, directional antennas consist of
arrays of elements, such as dipoles, or use one active and several passive
elements, as in the Yagi antenna. New antenna technologies are being
developed that allow an antenna to rapidly change its pattern in response to
changes in direction of arrival of the received signal. These antennas and the
15

supporting technology are called adaptive or smart antennas and may be used
for the higher frequency bands in the future. A few commonly used antennas are
described in the following sections:
1. Microstrip antennas
2. Wire antennas
3. Aperture antennas
4. Reflector antennas

1.5 OBJECTIVE:

For a square patch element, the easiest way to excite ideally circular
polarization is to feed the element at two adjacent edges to excite the two
orthogonal modes. Circular polarization can be obtained if two orthogonal
modes are excited with a 90 time-phase difference between them. This can be
accomplished by adjusting the physical dimensions of the patch and using either
single, or two, or more feeds. To overcome the complexities inherent in dual-
feed arrangements, circular polarization can also be achieved with a single feed.
The objective of this project is to design slot antenna .The output of the antenna
after cutting slot it should be improved. For this first the designing of simple
microstrip patch antenna is done and then the slot antenna of different shape.

To construct two-dimensional slot antenna structures in the microwave
frequency range using dielectric material.

16

1.5 SCOPE:

The project is divided into few phases as follows:
Understanding the fundamentals of microstrip rectangular patch antenna
Design a single feed fractal antenna.
Simulate the single feed fractal antenna using IE3D software.
Fabricate the design.
Analyze and compare between simulated and measured results.

1.6 METHODOLOGY:

To carry out this project, the following methodology is designed:
Generating the model, starting with a trimmed square patch
Complete the optimized design.
Simulating the derived model.
Hardware implementation using two sided PCB.
Results of the design

17

1.7 FLOWCHART:

Figure 1.3. Methodology of the project

1.8 THESIS MOTIVATION:

Despite the many advantages of patch antennas, they do have some
considerable drawbacks. One of the main limitations with patch antennas is
their inherently narrowband performance due to its resonant nature. With
START
ANALYSIS OF ANTENNA
SOFTWARE SIMULATION OF SLOT ANTENNA HAVING
DIFFERENT SIZE
HARDWARE IMPLIMENTATION OF THE SLOT ANTENNNA OF
DIFFERENT SLOT SIZE
RESULT OF ANALYSIS
STOP
18

bandwidths as low as a few percent, broadband applications using conventional
patch designs are limited. Other characteristics of patch antennas include low
efficiencies, limited power capacity, spurious feed radiation, poor polarization
purity, and manufacturing tolerance problems.
For over two decades, research scientists have developed several methods to
increase the bandwidth of a patch antenna. Many of these techniques involve
adjusting the placement and/or type of element used to feed (or excite) the
antenna. The simplest and most direct approach is to increase the thickness of
the substrate, while using a low dielectric substrate. This can extend efficiency
(as much as 90% if the surface waves are not included) and bandwidth (up to
35%). However, surface waves must be included, since surface waves extract
power from the direct radiation pattern, resulting in increased sidelobe levels,
antenna loss, and a decrease in efficiency. The probability of surface wave
formation increases as the thickness of the substrate increases. As a patch
antenna radiates, a portion of the total available power for direct radiation
becomes trapped along the surface of the substrate. This trapped
electromagnetic energy leads to the development of surface waves5. In fact, the
ratio of power that radiates into the substrate compared to the power that
radiates into air is approximately (e3/2:1). This is governed by the rules of
total internal reflection, which state that any field line radiated into the substrate
at angles greater than the critical angle are totally internally reflected at the top
and bottom surfaces. Therefore, for a substrate with dielectric constant e = 10.2,
nearly of the total radiated power is trapped in the substrate with a critical angle
of roughly 18.2 degrees. Surface wave effects can be eliminated by using
cavities or stacked substrate techniques. However, this has the fundamental
drawback of increasing the weight, thickness, and complexity of the microstrip
antenna, thus negating many of the advantages of using microstrip antennas.
These complications and others prevent microstrip antennas from becoming the
19

standard in the microwave telecommunications community. Patch will substrate
Radiated fields Surface waves.

Figure 1.4. Field lines radiating from a patch antenna; illustrates the formation
of surface waves

A recently developed method for improving the bandwidth and
efficiency of a patch antenna is the insertion of a photonic crystal array into the
substrate. Photonic crystals are a class of periodic dielectric, metallic, or
composite structures that when introduced to an electromagnetic signal can
exhibit a forbidden band of frequencies (or bandgap) in which the incident
signal destructively interferes and thus is unable to propagate. It is proposed
that if photonic crystals are inserted into the substrate of a patch antenna, then a
broadband response can be obtained from this inherently narrowband antenna.
This will result in improvements in the radiation characteristics of the patch
antenna, by reducing pattern sidelobes and improving front-to-back pattern
ratios and overall efficiency. This research has been verified through analytical
simulations and experimental investigations in the Virginia Tech (VT) anechoic
chamber.

20

CHAPTER 2

SLOT ANTENNA

2.1 MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS:

The microstrip antenna was first introduced in the 1950s, but it was
not until the 1970s and the development of printed-circuit technology7,8 that
serious advancements in this research area had begun. Through decades of
research, it was identified that the performance and operation of a microstrip
antenna is driven mainly by the geometry of the printed patch and the material
characteristics of the substrate onto which the antenna is printed. Therefore, it is
conceivable that with proper manipulations to the substrate, i.e. the inclusion of
photonic crystals, improved antenna performance can result. stated by R.C.
Hansen (IEEE Fellow, 18 Sept 98), there is little improvement to be realized in
the arrangement of wires in the antenna; a significant improvement will come
from the use of new materials. The following sections discuss the fundamental
parameters and manufacturing requirements associated with the design of
microstrip antennas.

Microstrip antennas are planar resonant cavities that leak from their
edges and radiate. Printed circuit techniques can be used to etch the antennas on
21

soft substrates to produce low-cost and repeatable antennas in a low profile. The
antennas fabricated on compliant substrates withstand tremendous shock and
vibration environments.Manufacturers for mobile communication base stations
often fabricate these antennas directly in sheet metal and mount them on
dielectric posts or foam in a variety of ways to eliminate the cost of substrates
and etching. This also eliminates the problem of radiation from surface waves
excited in a thick dielectric substrate used to increase bandwidth.

In its most basic form, a Microstrip patch antenna consists of a
radiating patch on one side of a dielectric substrate which has a ground plane on
the other side as shown in Figure 3.1. The patch is generally made of
conducting material such as copper or gold and can take any possible shape.
The radiating patch and the feed lines are usually photo etched on the dielectric
substrate. Arrays of antennas can be photoetched on the substrate, along with
their feeding networks. Microstrip circuits make a wide variety of antennas
possible through the use of the simple photoetching techniques.

Figure 2.1 A Typical Microstrip Patch Antenna

22

In order to simplify analysis and performance prediction, the patch is generally
square, rectangular, circular, triangular, elliptical or some other common shape
as shown in Figure 2.2. For a rectangular patch, the length L of the patch is
usually 0.3333
o
< L < 0.5
o
, where
o
is the free-space wavelength. The patch
is selected to be very thin such that t <<
o
(where t is the patch thickness). The
height h of the dielectric substrate is usually 0.003
o
h 0.05
o
. The
dielectric constant of the substrate (
r
) is typically in the range 2.2
r
12.

Figure 2.2 Typical patch shapes

A patch radiates from fringing fields around its edges. The situation is
shown in figure. Impedance match occurs when a patch resonates as a resonant
cavity. When matched, the antenna achieves peak efficiency. A normal
transmission line radiates little power because the fringing fields are matched by
nearby counteracting fields. Power radiates from open circuits and from
discontinuities such as corners, but the amount depends on the radiation
conductance load to the line relative to the patches. Without proper matching,
little power radiates. The edges of a patch appear as slots whose excitations
23

depend on the internal fields of the cavity.A general analysis of an arbitrarily
shaped patch considers the patch to be a resonant cavity with metal (electric)
walls of the patch and the ground plane and magnetic or impedance walls
around the edges .For good antenna performance, a thick dielectric substrate
having a low dielectric constant is desirable since this provides better efficiency,
larger bandwidth and better radiation. However, such a configuration leads to a
larger antenna size. In order to design a compact Microstrip patch antenna,
higher dielectric constants must be used which are less efficient and result in
narrower bandwidth.

Figure 2.3 Fringing Fields in Patch Antennas

2.2APPLICATIONS OF FRACTRAL ANTENNAS:

Microstrip patch antennas are increasing in popularity for use in
wireless applications due to their low-profile structure. Therefore they are
extremely compatible for embedded antennas in handheld wireless devices such
24

as cellular phones, pagers etc. The telemetry and communication antennas on
missiles need to be thin and conformal and are often microstrip patch antennas.
Another area where they have been used successfully is in satellite
communication.

2.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS:

Some of their principal advantages of microstrip patch antennas are
given below:
Light weight and low volume.
Low profile planar configuration which can be easily made conformal to
host surface.
Low fabrication cost, hence can be manufactured in large quantities.
Supports both, linear as well as circular polarization.
Can be easily integrated with microwave integrated circuits (MICs).
Capable of dual and triple frequency operations.
Mechanically robust when mounted on rigid surfaces.

Microstrip patch antennas suffer from a number of disadvantages as compared
to conventional antennas. Some of their major Disadvantages are given below:
Narrow bandwidth
Low efficiency
Low Gain
Extraneous radiation from feeds and junctions
Poor end fire radiator except tapered slot antennas
25

Low power handling capacity.
Surface wave excitation

Microstrip patch antennas have a very high antenna quality factor (Q). Q
represents the losses associated with the antenna and a large Q leads to narrow
bandwidth and low efficiency. Q can be reduced by increasing the thickness of
the dielectric substrate. But as the thickness increases, an increasing fraction of
the total power delivered by the source goes into a surface wave. This surface
wave contribution can be counted as an unwanted power loss since it is
ultimately scattered at the dielectric bends and causes degradation of the
antenna characteristics. However, surface waves can be minimized by use of
photonic bandgap structure. Other problems such as low gain and low power
handling capacity can be overcome by using an array configuration for the
elements.

2.4 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS:

Conventional microstrip antennas consist of a pair of parallel
conducting layers separating a dielectric medium, referred to as the substrate. In
this configuration, the upper conducting layer or patch is the source of
radiation where electromagnetic energy fringes off the edges of the patch and
into the substrate. The lower conducting layer acts as a perfectly reflecting
ground plane, bouncing energy back through the substrate and into free space.
Although similar in operation to a microstrip transmission line, the patch
antenna is much larger in volume providing a distinct contrast between the two.
Physically, the patch is a thin conductor that is an appreciable fraction of a
wavelength in extent, parallel to a ground plane and a small fraction of a
26

wavelength above the ground plane 9. In most practical applications, patch
antennas are rectangular or circular in shape10, however, in general, any
geometry is possible .Commercial substrate materials are readily available for
use at RF and microwave frequencies, specifically for the design of microstrip
antennas and printed circuits .Selection is based on desired material
characteristics for optimal performance over specific frequency ranges.
Common manufacturer specifications include dielectric constant, dissipation
factor (loss tangent), thickness, and Youngs modulus. Values for dielectric
constants range from 2.2 to 12 for operation at frequencies ranging from 1 to
100 GHz.

Figure2.4 Typical geometry of microstrip antenna

The thickness of the substrate is of considerable importance when designing
microstrip antennas. The most desirable substrates for antenna performance are
the ones that are thick with a low dielectric constant10. This tends to result in an
antenna with a large bandwidth and high efficiency due to the loosely bound
fringing fields that emanate from the patch and propagate into the substrate.
However, this comes at the expense of a large volume antenna and an increased
probability of surface wave formation. On the other hand, thin substrates with
high dielectric constants reduce the overall size of the
27

antenna and are compatible with MMIC devices, since the fringing fields are
tightly bound to the substrate. With thin substrates, coupling and
electromagnetic interference(EMI) issues are less probable. However, because
of the relatively higher loss tangents(dissipation factors), they are less efficient
and have relatively smaller bandwidths13. Therefore, there is a fundamental
tradeoff that must be evaluated in the initial stages of the microstrip antenna
design - to obtain loosely bound fields to radiate into free space while keeping
the fields tightly bound for the feeding circuitry and to avoid EMI.

2.5 FEED TECHNIQUES:

Microstrip patch antennas can be fed by a variety of methods. These
methods can be classified into two categories- contacting and non-contacting. In
the contacting method, the RF power is fed directly to the radiating patch using
a connecting element such as a microstrip line. In the non-contacting scheme,
electromagnetic field coupling is done to transfer power between the microstrip
line and the radiating patch. The four most popular feed techniques used are the
microstrip line, coaxial probe (both contacting schemes), aperture coupling and
proximity coupling (both non-contacting schemes).

2.5.1 Microstrip Line Feed:

In this type of feed technique, a conducting strip is connected directly
to the edge of the microstrip patch as shown in Figure. The conducting strip is
smaller in width as compared to the patch and this kind of feed arrangement has
28

the advantage that the feed can be etched on the same substrate to provide a
planar structure.

Figure2.5 Microstrip Line Feed

The purpose of the inset cut in the patch is to match the impedance of the feed
line to the patch without the need for any additional matching element. This is
achieved by properly controlling the inset position. Hence this is an easy
feeding scheme, since it provides ease of fabrication and simplicity in modelling
as well as impedance matching. However as the thickness of the dielectric
substrate being used, increases, surface waves and spurious feed radiation also
increases, which hampers the bandwidth of the antenna. The feed radiation also
leads to undesired cross polarized radiation.

2.5.2Coaxial Feed:

The Coaxial feed or probe feed is a very common technique used for
feeding Microstrip patch antennas. As seen from Figure, the inner conductor of
29

the coaxial connector extends through the dielectric and is soldered to the
radiating patch, while the outer conductor is connected to the ground plane.
The main advantage of this type of feeding scheme is that the feed can be
placed at any desired location inside the patch in order to match with its input
impedance. This feed method is easy to fabricate and has low spurious
radiation. However, its major disadvantage is that it provides narrow bandwidth
and is difficult to model since a hole has to be drilled in the substrate and the
connector protrudes outside the ground plane, thus not making it completely
planar for thick substrates (h > 0.02
o
). Also, for thicker substrates, the
increased probe length makes the input impedance more inductive, leading to
matching problems. It is seen above that for a thick dielectric substrate, which
provides broad bandwidth, the microstrip line feed and the coaxial feed suffer
from numerous disadvantages. The non-contacting feed techniques discussed
below, solve these problems.

Figure2.6 Coaxial Feed

30

2.5.3 Aperture Coupled Feed:

In this type of feed technique, the radiating patch and the microstrip
feed line are separated by the ground plane as shown in Figure. Coupling
between the patch and the feed line is made through a slot or an aperture in the
ground plane. The coupling aperture is usually cantered under the patch, leading
to lower cross polarization due to symmetry of the configuration. The amount of
coupling from the feed line to the patch is determined by the shape, size and
location of the aperture. Since the ground plane separates the patch and the feed
line, spurious radiation is minimized. Generally, a high dielectric material is
used for the bottom substrate and a thick, low dielectric constant material is
used for the top substrate to optimize radiation from the patch. The major
disadvantage of this feed technique is that it is difficult to fabricate due to
multiple layers, which also increases the antenna thickness.

Figure2.7 Aperture Feed

31

2.5.4 Proximity coupled feed:

This type of feed technique is also called as the electromagnetic
coupling scheme. As shown in Figure, two dielectric substrates are used such
that the feed line is between the two substrates and the radiating patch is on top
of the upper substrate. The main advantage of this feed technique is that it
eliminates spurious feed radiation and provides very high bandwidth (as high as
13%), due to overall increase in the thickness of the microstrip patch antenna.
This scheme also provides choices between two different dielectric media, one
for the patch and one for the feed line to optimize the individual performances.
Matching can be achieved by controlling the length of the feed line and the
width-to-line ratio of the patch. The major disadvantage of this feed scheme is
that it is difficult to fabricate because of the two dielectric layers which need
proper alignment. Also, there is an increase in the overall thickness of the
antenna.

Figure2.8 Proximity coupled feed

Table summarizes the characteristics of the different feed techniques:
32

Table2.1 Characteristics of different feed techniques

2.6 APPLICATION OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS:

After analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of the microstrip
antennas, it can be observed that its advantages significantly overshadow its
disadvantages. The employment of microstrip technology arises extensively
over the years. Even though conventional antennas possess far superior
performance over microstrip antennas, it is still clearly disadvantaged by the
other properties of the microstrip antennas. The reason is because it can
conform to a given shape easily. Shown below are some typical system
applications which employ microstrip technology:
Satellite communications
Doppler and other radars Radio altimeter.
33

Command and control
Missile telemetry
Weapon fuzzing
Man pack equipment
Environmental instrumentation and remote sensing
Feed elements in complex antennas
Satellite navigation receiver

2.7 SLOTANTENNA:

A slot antenna consists of a metal surface, usually a flat plate,
with a hole or slot cut out. When the plate is driven as an antenna by a
driving frequency, the slot radiates electromagnetic waves in similar way to
a dipole antenna. The shape and size of the slot, as well as the driving
frequency, determine the radiation distribution pattern. Often the radio
waves are provided by a waveguide, and the antenna consists of slots in the
waveguide. Slot antennas are often used at UHF and microwave frequencies
instead of line antennas when greater control of the radiation pattern is
required. Slot antennas are widely used in radar antennas, for the sector
antennas used for cell phone base stations, and are often found in standard
desktop microwave sources used for research purposes.
34

Figure2.9 Slot antenna

Electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) is a form
of energy emitted and absorbed by charged particles, which exhibits wave-like
behaviour as it travels through space. EMR has both electric and magnetic
field components, which stand in a fixed ratio of intensity to each other, and
which oscillate in phase perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the
direction of energy and wave propagation. In vacuum, electromagnetic radiation
propagates at a characteristic speed, the speed of light. Electromagnetic
radiation is a particular form of the more general electromagnetic field (EM
field) that is defined as the field produced by moving charges. Electromagnetic
radiation is associated with only the type of EM field which is far enough away
from the moving charges that produced it, that absorption of the EM radiation
no longer affects the behaviour of these moving charges. These two types or
behaviours of EM field are sometimes referred to as the near and far field. In
this language, EMR is merely another name for the far-field. Charges and
currents directly produce the near-field. However, charges and currents produce
EMR only indirectlyrather, in EMR, both the magnetic and electric fields are
produced by changes in the other type of field, not directly by charges and
currents. This close relationship causes the electric and magnetic fields in EMR
35

to stand in a fixed ratio of strengths to each other, and to be found in phase, with
maxima and nodes in each found at the same places in space.
EMR carries energysometimes called radiant energythrough space
continuously away from the source (this is not true of the near-field part of the
EM field). EMR also carries both momentum and angular momentum. These
properties may all be imparted to matter with which it interacts. EMR is
produced from other types of energy when created, and it is converted to other
types of energy when it is destroyed. The photon is the quantum of the
electromagnetic interaction, and is the basic "unit" or constituent of all forms of
EMR. The quantum nature of light becomes more apparent at high frequencies
(or high photon energy). Such photons behave more like particles than lower-
frequency photons do.

2.7.1 Advantages:

A slot antenna's main advantages are its size, design simplicity,
robustness, and convenient adaptation to mass production using PC board
technology. The slot antenna was invented in 1938 by Alan Blumlein, while
working for EMI. He invented it in order to produce a practical type of antenna
for VHF television broadcasting that would have horizontal polarization, an
omni-directional horizontal radiation pattern and a narrow vertical radiation
pattern .The slot antenna consists of a radiator formed by cutting a narrow slot
in a large metal surface.. The slot length is a half wavelength at the desired
frequency and the width is a small fraction of a wavelength. The antenna is
frequently compared to a conventional half-wave dipole consisting of two flat
metal strips. The physical dimensions of the metal strips are such that they
36

would just fit into the slot cut out of the large metal sheet .This type of antenna
is called the COMPLEMENTARY DIPOLE.
The slot antenna is compared to its complementary dipole to illustrate that the
radiation patterns produced by a slot antenna cut into an infinitely large metal
sheet and that of the complementary dipole antenna are the same .Several
important differences exist between the slot antenna and its complementary
antenna. First, the electric and magnetic fields are interchanged. In the case of
the dipole antenna shown in figure , the electric lines are horizontal while the
magnetic lines form loops in the vertical plane. With the slot antenna, the
magnetic lines are horizontal and the electric lines are vertical. The electric lines
are built up across the narrow dimensions of the slot. As a result, the
polarization of the radiation produced by a horizontal slot is vertical. If a
vertical slot is used, the polarization is horizontal .A second difference between
the slot antenna and its complementary dipole is that the direction of the lines of
electric and magnetic force abruptly reverse from one side of the metal sheet to
the other. In the case of the dipole, the electric lines have the same general
direction while the magnetic lines form continuous closed loops .When energy
is applied to the slot antenna, currents flow in the metal sheet. These currents
are not confined to the edges of the slot but rather spread out over the sheet.
Radiation then takes place from both sides of the sheet. In the case of the
complementary dipole, however, the currents are more confined; so a much
greater magnitude of current is required to produce a given power output using
the dipole antenna.

37

2.7.2 Working:

Slot antenna work on Babinets principle. This principle relates the
radiated fields and impedance of an aperture or slot antenna to that of the field
of its dual antenna. The field pattern of slot is exactly identical in shape as that
of dipole with E and H interchanged .If the field pattern for slot is vertical then
field pattern for the dipole will be horizontal and vice versa.

Figure2.10 Babinet principle

2.8 PHOTONIC BAND GAP ANTENNA:

A PBG is specifically defined as a range of frequencies over which
the propagation of electromagnetic waves is forbidden. The formation of the
band gap can be explained basically by two reasons viz.,
(1) the dielectric and/ or magnetic potential created by the sample rods and (2)
the Bragg diffraction.
38

Though we can have analogy with electronic band gaps, the dispersion relations
are completely different. These structures can be constructed over a wide
frequency region specifically from microwave to visible region. In acoustic
region also, these structures can be prepared and are called Phononic Band Gaps
. Photonic crystals can also be made by drilling holes in a high dielectric
constant material. Also, depending on the polarization of the incident electric
and magnetic fields, one can study these crystals with E
polarization or H polarization.

Figure 2.11 Patch Antenna without PBG

As mentioned earlier, the dielectric material that is used in constructing a
photonic crystal acts as a potential. So, as long as the dielectric constant of the
material is greater than unity, one can expect a band gap. But in general, for a
complete band gap to appear there will be a minimum dielectric constant that
varies with the geometry of the structure under consideration. However, one can
always get a band gap in the normal direction even for low values of dielectric
constant. Also, in certain applications such as antennas the normal direction is
important and maximum ,intensity can be achieved in this direction. Hickmann
39

et al constructed photonic band gap structures by cementing acrylic rods
(' =2.58) in a hexagonal array to form rectangular stacks.

Figure 2.12 Patch Antenna with PBG

Most of the applications of photonic crystals depend on two main factors; due
to efficient reflectors within the band gap frequencies and the creation of defect
mode within the band gap. By creating a defect, the structure acts as a resonator
at the defect site resulting in a defect mode. The width of the defect mode tends
to zero as the size of the crystal tends to infinity The defects can be either point
defects or line defects. Defects can be created in different ways such as
removing a sample from a particular position, insert a sample at particular
interstitial site, increasing the refractive index locally and by changing the
radius of the sample locally. By creating the line defects, the structure can be
made to act like a Fabry-Perot resonator or waveguide depending on the
direction of propagation. Fabry-Perot resonators can be used for tuning
mechanism or for a MASER cavity.
The photonic band gap structures can be analyzed theoretically using various
methods such as plane wave method, transfer matrix method, finite difference
40

time domain method and finite element method etc. Of all these methods, plane
wave method is best suited and is widely used to know the position of the band
gap.

2.8.1 Antennas Using Photonic Crystal Substrates :

With the ability to completely prohibit the propagation of
electromagnetic energy at specific frequencies, photonic crystals and their
respective bandgaps correlate well with the development of next-generation
microstrip antennas. The insertion of photonic crystals into the substrate does
not change any of the fundamental trade-offs that exist for patch antennas. In
other words, the antenna designer must still chose between using a thick or thin
substrate. The only requirement is that the refractive index ratio between the
substrate and crystals be large enough (greater than 2:1) for the bandgap to
exist. This section compares two methodologies of introducing photonic
crystals into patch antenna designs. Namely, thick and thin substrate
approaches. This section concludes with a novel technique, which combines
properties of both approaches when using the photonic crystal structure .

2.8.2 Thick Substrates:

The concept of designing microstrip antennas on a thick photonic
crystal substrate is to utilize quasi-3D bandgaps to radiate electromagnetic field
from the antenna, without using a ground plane. The ground plane is
41

removable because the 3D bandgap creates an equivalent ground plane due to
total internal reflections caused by the high index ratios in the vertical axis
(perpendicular to the patch).Cross-sectional view of a Patch Antenna radiating
from a Thick PBG Using a triangular photonic crystal, which is consistent with
the structure. These crystals are periodic in two dimensions, namely in the XY
plane, forming a 2D bandgap. The third dimension of periodicity is a result of
total internal reflection - at specific angles of incidence (greater than the critical
angle), electromagnetic waves that transverse through a high permittivity
material (substrate) into to a lower permittivity material (air) would, ideally,
perfectly reflect and become contained within the higher permittivity material.
This is defined as a quasi-3D bandgap since energy is allowed to propagate at
angles less than the critical angle. With this third dimension in the bandgap,
the ground plane can be removed. In a comparison study, Brown measured
dramatic improvements in surface wave reduction when photonic crystals were
inserted into the substrate of a conventional microstrip antenna. In his journal
article36, he also reported a decrease in back radiation with a front-to-back
pattern ratio of 24 dB, opposed to 12 dB for the conventional patch antenna.
Despite the significant improvements identified in Browns study, this style of
antenna is not very practical. First, the substrate thicknesses required for these
antennas are cited over eight centimeters for a frequency of 13.2 GHz. At such
high frequencies, this substrate is too large for most standards, making the
substrate an appreciable size in comparison to the patch. Second, the lack of a
ground plane causes many grounding complications when feeding the
antenna.The direct-coupled microstrip feed is eliminated since microstrips
require a ground plane for operation. Therefore, antenna is limited to only the
coaxial probe and the proximity coupled feeds. To resolve these issues,
antennas designed on thin substrates incorporating photonic crystals have also
been investigated.
42

Figure 2.13 Cross-sectional view of a Patch Antenna radiating
from a thick PBG

2.8.3 Thin Substrates:

The concept of using thin substrates containing photonic crystals to
design microwave devices was first conceived by Radisicet al. in 1997. In their
approach, microstrip filters were fabricated by simply etching a two-
dimensional triangular pattern into the ground plane of a conventional
microstrip line. This resulted in nearly 100% reflection loss over a span of
frequencies governed by the lattice spacing, opposed to the typical 100%
transmission expected from a microstrip line. Coccioli et al. later expanded
Radisics concepts to incorporated this approach in the development of
microstrip antennas printed on thin substrates containing similar photonic
crystals. Experimental measurements of this type of antenna illustrated a 10dB
sidelobe level reduction and minimal reduction in front-to-back ratio when
compared to a patch without the photonic crystals.
43

Figure 2.14 Photonic crystals etched in the ground plane of a patch
designed on a thin substrate

These thin substrate designs exhibit comparable results to that of the thick
substrate designs. The only drawback, however, is that the bandgap is reduced
to two dimensions, due to the inclusion of the ground plane total internal
reflections condition scarified. To reestablish the third dimension of the
bandgap, a new approach is required.

44

CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATION:

The overall goal of a design is to achieve specific performance
characteristics of a simulated operating frequency. An antenna can be designed
using the procedure describe in the next section.

3.2 Substrate selection:

The first step is to choose a suitable substrate of appropriate thickness
h and loss tangent .a thicker substrate, besides being mathematically
strong, will increase the radiated power, reduce conductance loss and improve
impedance bandwidth. However it will also increase the weight, dielectric loss,
surface wave loss and extraneous radiations from probe feed. A rectangular
patch antenna stops resonating for substrate thickness greater than 0.11 (
) due to inductive reactance of the probe feed. Surface wave power
45

deducts from the radiated power causing a reduction in antenna efficiency, and
can also call pattern degradation. It also increases the effective length of the
antenna, thereby decreasing the resonant frequency, Directivity of the antenna
increase marginally due to effective aperture area and efficiency is decreases
due to increase in cross polar level. The low value of the substrate dielectric
constant ( ) will increase the fringing field at the patch periphery and thus
radiated power. Therefore, substrate with are preferred unless a
smaller patch size is desired. An increase in the substrate thickness has a similar
effect on antenna characteristics as decrease in the value of . A high loss
tangent can increased dielectric loss and therefore reduce antenna efficiency.

3.3 Element width and length:

Patch width has a minor effect on the resonant frequency and
radiation pattern of the antenna. It affects the input impedance and bandwidth to
the large extent. A larger patch width increases the power radiated and thus
gives decreased resonant resistance, increased bandwidth, and increased
radiation efficiency .with proper excitation one can choose patch width W
greater than the patch length L without exiting undesired modes. A constraint
against a longer patch width is the generation of the grating lobes in antenna
arrays, and a small patch size might be preferred to reduce the real state
requirements. The patch width also effects cross polarization characteristics.
The patch width should be selected to obtain good radiation efficiency if real
state requirements or grating lobes are not overriding factors. It has been
suggested that . 2 1 < <
L
W

46

For a rectangular Microstrip patch antenna, the resonance frequency for any
TM
mn
mode is given by James and Hall as:

2
1
2 2
2
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
W
n
L
m c
f
reff
o
c
(3.1)

Where m and n are mode along L and W respectively
The patch length determine the resonant frequency, and is a critical parameter in
the design because of the inherent narrow bandwidth of the patch, To zero
th

order approximation, the patch length L for the TM
10
mode is given by

re r
f
c
L
c 2
= (3.2)

The next requirement is obtained by including the effect of the fringing fields at
the other end of the patch ,that is, along the edges x=0,and x=L, this effect can
be describe in terms of additional line length L on either ends of the patch than

L L L
eff
A = (3.3)
Where

4
5 3 1
o
o o o h
L = A (3.4)
And
47

( )
( ) 87 . 0
236 . 0
189 . 0
26 . 0
434907 . 0
8544 . 0
8544 . 0
81 . 0
81 . 0
1
+
+
-
+
- =
h
W
h
W
re
re
c
c
o (3.5)

( )
1 35 . 2
434907 . 0
371 . 0
2
+
- =
re
h
W
c
o (3.6)

( )
9236 . 0
9413 . 1
1
3
2
084 . 0 tan 5274 . 0
1
re
h
W
c
o
o
- -
+ =

(3.7)

( ) ( ) { } | |
r
h
W
c o - - -
|
.
|
\
|
- + =
=
1 036 . 0 exp 5 6 067 . 0 tan 0377 . 0 1
456 . 1
1
4
(3.8)

( )
h
W
- - = 5 . 7 exp 218 . 0 1
5
o (3.9)

Note: For quick analysis and design

813 . 0 258 . 0
246 . 0 3 . 0
412 . 0
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
= A
h
W
h
W
h L
re
re
c
c

(3.10)

o re
eff
f
c
L L L
c 2
= A = (3.11)

48

The width of the patch W should be taken equal to a half wavelength
corresponding to the average of the two dielectric medium. Then

o
re
f
c
W
2
1
2
+
=
c
(3.12)

If W is smaller, then the bandwidth and gain will decreases, if W is larger,
bandwidth increase due to increase in the aperture area. However if W is too
large than the higher order modes could get excited. The effective is
determine by using the following expression

( )
(
'
+ +
'
=
2
2
1 ln
2
W
h
W
hF
h
W
e
t
(3.13)
Where

( ) ( )( )
(
'
- + =
4
3
2
3
4
exp 6 2 6
W
h
F
t
t (3.14)
And

( ) ( )
( )
( )
(
(
(
+
+ + + - + = '
2
2
2
1 . 1
1
4 ln 1
t
W
h
t t
W W
t
t
(3.15)

49

3.4 Calculation of effective dielectric constant:

ab
re re
re
u
+
+
=
10
1
2
2
2
2 c c
c
(3.16)
Where

h
W
u =

( )
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
+
+ =
3
4
2
4
1 . 18
1 ln
7 . 18
1
432 . 0
52
ln
49
1
1
u
u
u
u
a (3.17)

053 . 0
3 . 0
9 . 0
564 . 0
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
r
r
b
c
c
(3.18)

The frequency dependent expression for the effective dielectric constant
are given by

( )
( ) f p
f
re r
r re
+
=
1
c c
c c (3.19)

Where
( ) ( ) { }
5763 . 1
4 3 2 1
1844 . 0
n
f p p p p f p + = (3.20)

50

( )
( ) u
f
u p
n
7513 . 8 exp 065683 . 0
0157 . 0 1
525 . 0
6315 . 0 27488 . 0
20 1

)
`
+
+ + = (3.21)

( ) { }
r
p c 03442 . 0 exp 1 033622 . 0
2
= (3.22)

( )
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
=
97 , 4
3
7 . 38
exp 1 64 . 4 exp 0363 . 0
n
f
u p (3.23)

|
.
|
\
|
+ =
8
4
916 . 15
exp 1 751 . 2 1
r
p
c
(3.24)

( ) h k mm inGHz fh f
o n
713 . 47 . = = (3.25)

Accuracy of equation is suggested to be 0.6% up to 60GHz for 20 1 s s
r
c ,
100 1 . 0 s s
h
W
and 13 . 0 0
0
s s

h
.

For quick analysis and design

2
1
12 1
2
1
2
1

(
+
+
=
W
h
r r
reff
c c
c
(3.26)

Where
reff
= Effective dielectric constant

r
= Dielectric constant of substrate
51

h = Height of dielectric substrate
W = Width of the patch

3.5 Characteristics impedance:

)
`
+ + =
2
1
4
1 ln
2 u
u
F
Z
re
o
o
c t
q
(3.27)
Where
h
W
u
o
= = , 120t q (3.28)

( ) ( ) { }
7528 . 0
1
666 . 30
exp 6 2 6
u
F - + = t (3.29)

3.6 Beam width:

The half power beam width of the antenna is equal to the angular
width between directions where radiated fields reduces to
2
1
of the maximum
value. After some approximation:

2
1
1
2
1
sin 2
)
`
+
=

e
u
o
H
k
(3.30)

52

2
1
2 2 2
1
3
03 . 7
sin 2
)
`
+
=

h k L k
o o
E
u (3.31)

Where and are the half power beam width in the H and E plans
respectively. The beam width of a microstrip antenna can be increased by
choosing a smaller element, thus reducing the W and L, for a given resonant
frequencies, thus dimensions can be reduced by selecting a substrate having a
higher relative permittivity. As beam width increases, an antenna gain and
directivity decreases.

3.7 Directivity:

It is the measure of the directional properties of an antenna compared
to those of an isotropic antenna. The directivity is always greater than one since
an isotropic radiator is not directional. It is defined as the ratio of maximum
power density in the main beam direction to the average radiated power density.
The directivity of a patch antenna is expressed as:

( )
2
0
4
2
1
r
p
H E R
D
r
e
t
u
u
=
-
= (3.32)

53

( )
2
0
2
2
2
4
2
r
p
E E
r
r
o
t
q
u
u
=
+
= (3.33)
Where Pr Radiated power , 120
A simple Approximate Expression for directivity D of a rectangular patch is
given as,

( )
r
o
G
k
D
qt
e 4
= (3.34)

is the radiation conductance of the patch.
Directivity of a patch antenna is increases with increase in substrate thickness
and patch width.
The Directive gain of an antenna is defined as
D e G
r
= (3.35)
is the radiation intensity of an antenna
Gain of an antenna is always less than directivity because lies in the range
1 0 < <
r
e .
Closed form Expression for the directivity D of an antenna is:

dB W D
r
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + ~
c
6 . 1
log 10 6 . 6 2 . 0 (3.36)

54

3.8 Radiated power and Radiation Resistance:

The power radiated by an antenna can be obtained by integrating the
real part of the pointing vector over the hemisphere above the patch, that is:

( ) u u
q
t
t
u
d d r E E p
o
r
sin
2
1
2
2
0
2
0
2
2
} }
+ = (3.37)
Where and are field in and direction. This expression is very
complicated functions of and and substrate parameter. Therefore numerical
integration is performed to obtain p
r
. However if the effect of substrate is
neglected, an approximate closed form expression can be obtained for
r
p .

( )
( )
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
189 7
2
5 420 15
1 1
23040
2 2 2 4 2
0
A A B A A
B
A h E
p
r
t
(3.38)
Where

2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
o
A
te
and
2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
o
L
B
(3.39)
Accuracy of such expression is 2.5% for ( ) 5 . 2 3 . 0 = =
r
o
L
c
, 6 . 0 s
o
W
and
( ) 12 15 . 0 ~ =
r
o
L
c
, 3 . 0 s
o
W
.
The resonant radiation conductance G
r
for the patch feed at an edge can be
determined from the power radiated p
r
as follows:

55

( )
2 2
2
1
2
1
o r o r r
V G h E G p - = - = (3.40)

r
r
G
R
1
= (3.41)
The expression for
r
R , with an estimated accuracy of 10% average for
o
h 030 . 0 s and 10 s
r
c are given below

2
2 2
120 2 I
Z
p
V
R
o
re
r
o
r
c = = (3.42)
Where for 5 <
r
c :
( ) ( )
(
=
re
o o
k h k I
c
e 03553 . 0
2
03795 . 0 53 . 0
2
2
2
(3.43)
For 10 5 s s
r
c :
1
2
I
I
I
L
= (3.44)

( )
( )
9
57 . 3 29 . 1
1
1
r
r
h
I
c
c

= (3.45)

( )
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
r
r r
r
r
o
r r
o L
W k
h k I
c
c c
c
c
c c
2
2
2
2
2
159887 . 0 373071 . 0
248714 . 0
03795 . 0
08856 . 0
08856 . 0
2
53 . 0
3
4
3 . 1
(3.46)

56

3.9 Losses and Q factor:

The quality factor of a patch antenna needs to be determined to
implement the cavity model. It is also useful to determine the VSWR bandwidth
of the antenna. The total quality factor of the patch Q
T
can be determine in
terms of quality factor associated with various types of losses in the patch
antenna one can write

sur r c d T
Q Q Q Q Q
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + = (3.47)
Where

loss power associated
w w
Q
T r
T

= (3.48)
The energy stored at resonance is the same, independent of the mechanism
of power loss. Therefore

T r
sur r c d
T
w w
P P P P
Q
+ + +
=
1
(3.49)
Where Pd Power loss in the lossy dielectric
Pc Power loss due to finite conductivity of the metallization.
Pr Power radiated in the form of space wave.
Psur Power loss in form of power carried away by the surface wave.
57

Expression for

o tan
1
=
d
Q (3.50)
o t
o c
f h Q =

r
r T
r
p
w w
Q = (3.51)
hLW W
o r T
c c
4
1
=
Where
o tan is the loss tangent of the substrate.
is the conductivity of the patch metallization,

The surface wave power is given by:
dz d H E p
Z r

t
} }
-
=
0
2
0
Re
2
1
(3.52)
Where and are the field of the dominant TM
0
surface wave mode.
For accurate analysis

( ) ( )
( )

c
c t
c
t
d x Wk c
x
x
A P
o o
re o
re o
s re sur
2
2
0
2
2
2 2
2
cos
2
sin sin
cos
2 cos cos
60 -
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
-
=
}
(3.53)

Where

58

( )
( )
( )
( )
(

+ +
(
(
=
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
o r
o r
o o
o r
o
o
o r
o o re
s
x
x
h k x
x
x
x
x
x x
A
c
c
c
c
c
(3.54)

And
o
o
k
x
|
= for TM
0
surface wave.
Let us approximate

r
T r
T
p
w w
Q ~ (3.55)
Also
r T
h w c and
h
Q h p
r
T r
c

2
. Similarly
W
Q
T
1
. (3.56)

3.10 Bandwidth:

For an antenna, the bandwidth can be defined in the number of ways
depending on the characteristics selected. For example, for circularly polarized
antenna the axial ratio bandwidth can be given precedence over other
characteristics. Similarly gain and pattern bandwidth are more important for
arrays .in the absence of any such stated precedence, the impedance bandwidth
or the VSWR bandwidth for Microstrip antenna is specified. Impedance
bandwidth or VSWR bandwidth of an antenna is specified as frequency range
over which VSWR is less than two.
The VSWR bandwidth is as follows:

S Q
S
BW
T
1
= (3.57)
Where S VSWR
59

Then W BW and
r
h
BW
c
.
The approximate expression for patch bandwidth is

.
1
2 3
16
q
L
W h
e
P
BW
o r r
c
= for 05 . 0 s
o
h
(3.58)
Where
( ) ( ) ( )
2 4 2
009142 . 0
560
02283 . 0
20
16605 . 0
1 L k W k W k P
o o o
+ = (3.59)

2
5
2 1
1
r r
q
c c
+ = (3.60)
e
r
= radiation efficiency

Bandwidth can also be calculated as
From Cavity analysis

LC
f
r
t 2
1
= and
C
L
R Q
T
= (3.61)

T
r
Q
f
BW = (3.62)
Bandwidth of the patch antenna can also be increased by increases the
inductance of the radiators by cutting holes or slot in it or by adding reactive
60

component to improve the match of the radiators to the feed line or by parasitic
loading of the radiators.

3.11 Radiation efficiency:

It is defined as the ratio of the radiated power P
r
to the input power P
i
,
that is

i
r
r
P
P
e = (3.63)
The input power gets distributed in the form of radiated power, surface wave
power and dissipation in conductors and dielectrics. Therefore

sur d c r
r
r
P P P P
P
e
+ + +
= (3.64)
The dissipated power is generally small for the low loss substrate at microwave
frequency, and one can write

sur r
r
r
P P
P
e
+
= (3.65)
It has been observes that radiation efficiency depends primarily on the substrate
thickness and permittivity, and not effected very much either by patch shape or
the feed. Numerical results indicate that radiation efficiency is almost
independent of the aspect ratio W/L of the rectangular patch.
Closed form expression based on infinitesimal current distribution is

61

( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
r r
o o r
h k k P
c c 5
2 1
1 40
2 2
(3.66)

( )
( )
( )
( )
(

+ +
(
(
=
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
30
o r
o r
o
o r
o
o
r
o r
o sur
x
x
h k
x
x
x
x
k P
c
c
c
c
c
t (3.66)
Where
o
o
k
x
|
= normalized phase constant for the TM.

3.12 Feed point location:

If the feed is located at x
0
= x
f
and 0 y
f
, the input resistance at
resonance for the dominant mode can be expressed as

|
.
|
\
|
=
L
x
R R
f
r in
t
2
cos R
r
R
in
for L x
f
s s 0 (3.67)

|
.
|
\
|
=
L
x
R
f
r
t
2
sin for
2
0
L
x
f
s s (3.68)
Where x
f
is the distance from the radiating edge.

The inset distance x
f
is selected such that R
in
is equal to the feed line impedance
usually taken to be 50 .although the feed point can be selected anywhere along
62

the patch width. It is better to choose y
f
=w/2 if w>L. so that TM
0n
(n odd) modes
are not exited along with the TM
10
modes.

Figure 3.1 Variation of current, voltage and impedance in the patch

3.13 Effect of finite ground plane:

It has been assumed that the analysis of design of microstrip antenna
that the size of ground plane is infinite. An actual use, only a finite ground plane
can be implemented. Finite ground plane are rise to the diffraction of the
radiation from the edges of the ground plane results in the change in radiation
pattern, radiation conductance and resonant frequency.
It is found that for a patch antenna with ground plane size equal to the patch
metallization, the resonant frequency is higher compared to that of an infinitely
sized ground plane antenna. As the size of the ground plane is increased, the
Current
Impedance
L/2
L
Voltage
63

resonant frequency decreases and approaches of the infinite size ground plane
case when the increase in size is about lam/20 on all sides. In finite ground
plane, the resonance frequency of the patch antenna is almost the same but the
input impedance is slightly higher than that of infinite ground plane, back lobes
are also present, whereas for infinite ground plane, there are no back lobes in
the radiation pattern.

3.14 SUMMARY:

This is a literature review chapter explaining the design consideration
for designing the antenna.

64

CHAPTER 4

SOFWARE SIMULATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION OF SOFTWARE:

In order to get good accuracy in the results and to get the improve
performance slot antenna design is first simulated using the software and the
results of software simulations can be used as ideal results.In proper conditions
and by accurate designing of Printed circuit board better results can be
obtained.In order to simulate the design we have use the software IE3D. The
software used to perform all simulations is Zealand Incs IE3D. IE3D is a full-
wave electromagnetic simulator based on the method of moments. It analyzes
3D and multilayer structures of general shapes. It has been widely used in the
design of MICs, RFICs, patch antennas, wire antennas, and other RF/wireless
antennas. It can be used to calculate and plot the S parameters, VSWR, current
distributions as well as the radiation patterns. Some of IE3Ds features are :
1) Can model true 3D metallic structures in multiple dielectric layers in open,
closed or periodic boundary.
2) High efficiency, high accuracy and low cost electromagnetic simulation tool
on PCs with windows based graphic interface

65

3) Automatic generation of non-uniform mesh with rectangular and triangular
cells.
4) Can model structures with finite ground planes and differential feed
structures.
5) Accurate modelling of true 3D metallic structures and metal thickness.
6) Efficient matrix solvers.
7) 3D and 2D display of current distribution, radiation patterns and near
field.For our purposes it is a very powerful tool as it allows for ease of design
and accurate simulation results. The results obtained for each patch were 2D
view of patch, 3D view of patch, RL curve, Directivity, gain, beam width and
other such parameters, true 3D radiation pattern, mapped 3D radiation pattern
and 2D polar radiation pattern.

4.2 RESULTS OF SIMULATION:

Different simulation of different types of patches with slot of
different types are carried out and the results of simulation are as follows:

4.3 RECTANGULAR PATCH WITHOUT SLOT:

The rectangular microstrip patch without any slot is shown in figure
4.1.Dimensions and other parameters for the patch are as given in table 4.1.
66

Figure 4.1 Rectangular patch pattern in software

Parameters Values
Material used Glass epoxy
Thickness of material 1.6mm
Permittivity 4.4
Length 18.24982345mm
Width 18.24982345mm
Loss tangent 0.001
Feed point At 16.5mm x4.5 mm.
Table 4.1 Parameters of rectangular patch

Now the S
11
parameters of the patch that shows its return loss, can be
calculated and this -13.8191db to be at 2.45 GHz.The return loss pattern is
as shown in figure 4.2:
67

Figure 4.2 Return loss of rectangular patch

The radiation pattern of the rectangular can be drawn by software in
3D.The radiation pattern of the patch is shown in figure 4.3:

Figure 4.3 Radiation pattern of rectangular patch
68

The gain pattern is also drawn by using the software.The pattern is shown in
figure 4.4:

Figure 4.4 Gain pattern of rectangular patch

4.4 RECTANGULAR MICROSTRIP PATCH WITH SLOTS:

Rectangular patchs results are shown in the previous section. The
output of the antenna can be improve by using many techniques. Here to
provide improvisation slots are used. Slots are of Zigzag shape and the size of
slots are varied and their results are as shown:

4.4.1 Slot size 2.0mm:

The photonic band gap slot antenna having slot width of 2 mm in
figure 4.5. The middle portion shows the slot having zigzag pattern with a width
of 2 mm. The area covering the slot is the photonic band gap ground. Here we
69

have used two sided PCB. On one side there is slot and other side is having
photonic band gap ground. The current distribution of above 2mm width
photonic band gap slot antenna is shown in which different colour shows
different amount of losses.The red colour shows maximum amount of loss and
blue colour shows minimum amount loss and as the colour varies amount of
losse also varies.

Figure 4.5 Photonic band gap ground patch with 2 mm slot patch

Figure 4.6 shows the amount of dip in S
11
parameter of photonic band
gap slot antenna. We have taken reference mode as X axis. The maximum dip
of -18 Db comes at 11.25 GHz. It shows that maximum power is radiated at
11.25 GHz. Hence the antenna will work at 11.25 GHz.

70

Figure 4.6 Return loss of slot 2.0mm

The 3D radiation pattern of the photonic band gap slot antenna is
shown in figure4.6.Taking (0,0) as the centre radiation pattern is drawn .The red
portion shows maximum radiating power of antenna. The major lobes are
shown by the red portion ,minor lobes are shown by the green portion and blue
portion shows the back lobe of the radiation pattern of the antenna. These major
lobes shows the direction of radiation of photonic band gap slot antenna.

Figure 4.7 3D radiation pattern of slot 2.0mm
71

Figure 4.6 shows the 2D polar plot of photonic band gap slot antenna .
The blue line shows the radiation pattern at phi =0(deg) and green is for
phi=90(deg). The maximum directivity occurs at angle equals to 30
degree.Figure 4.7 shows graph plotted between total directivity vs frequency.
The blue line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (0,0). The
green line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (90,0). The red
line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (0,90). The brown line
shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (90,90).As the photonic
band gap slot antenna is designed for 11.25 GHz frequency, the different
directivity variations at 11.25 GHz can be observed.

Figure 4.8 2 D polar plot

Figure 4.9 Directivity vs frequency
72

Graph of figure 4.8 shows the variation of efficiency with respect to
frequency. The blue line shows the variation of antenna efficiency with
frequency and green line shows the variation of radiation efficiency with
frequency. The antenna efficiency is highest at 11.25 GHz. 11.25 GHz is the
frequency at which we have designed our photonic band gap slot antenna. Even
the radiation efficiency is also highest at 11.25 GHz. Therefore this is our
desired result.

Figure 4.10 Efficiency vs frequency


The photonic band gap slot antenna having slot width of 1.5mm in
figure 4.9. The middle portion shows the slot having zigzag pattern with a width
of 1.5mm. The area covering the slot is the photonic band gap ground. Here we
have used two sided PCB. On one side there is slot and other side is having
photonic band gap ground. The current distribution of above 1.5mm width
photonic band gap slot antenna is shown in which different colour shows
different amount of losses.The red colour shows maximum amount of loss and
73

losse also varies.

Figure 4.11 Photonic band gap ground patch with1.5mm slot patch

11
parameter of photonic
band gap slot antenna. We have taken reference mode as X axis. The maximum
dip of -21.5 Db comes at 11.5 GHz. It shows that maximum power is radiated at

74

shown in figure 4.11.Taking (0,0) as the centre radiation pattern is drawn .The
red portion shows maximum radiating power of antenna. The major lobes are

Figure 4.13 3D radiation pattern of slot 1.5mm

Figure 4.12 shows the 2D polar plot of photonic band gap slot
antenna. The blue line shows the radiation pattern at phi =0(deg) and green is for
phi=90(deg). The maximum directivity occurs at angle equals to 30 degree
.Figure 4.13 shows graph plotted between total directivity vs frequency. The
blue line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (0,0). The green
line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (90,0). The red line
shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (0,90). The brown line
75

Figure 4.14 2D polar plot


the radiation efficiency is also highest at 11.5 GHz. Therefore this is our desired
result.
76



figure 4.15. The middle portion shows the slot having zigzag pattern with a
width of 1.0mm. The area covering the slot is the photonic band gap ground.
Here we have used two sided PCB. On one side there is slot and other side is
having photonic band gap ground. The current distribution of above 1.0mm
width photonic band gap slot antenna is shown in which different colour shows
different amount of losses. The red colour shows maximum amount of loss and
losse also varies.
77

Figure 4.17 Patch with1.0mm slot patch

11
dip of -34 Db comes at 11.75 GHz. It shows that maximum power is radiated at

78


Figure 4.19 3D Radiation pattern of slot 1.0mm

phi=90(deg). The maximum directivity occurs at angle equals to 30
degree.Figure 4.19 shows graph plotted between total directivity vs frequency.
The blue line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (0,0). The
green line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (90,0). The red
line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (0,90). The brown line
79



the radiation efficiency is also highest at 11.75 GHz. Therefore this is our
desired result.
80



figure 4.21. The middle portion shows the slot having zigzag pattern with a
width of 0.5mm. The area covering the slot is the photonic band gap ground.
Here we have used two sided PCB. On one side there is slot and other side is
having photonic band gap ground. The current distribution of above 0.5mm
width photonic band gap slot antenna is shown in which different colour shows
different amount of losses. The red colour shows maximum amount of loss and
losses also varies.
81

Figure 4.23 Patch with 0.5mm slot patch

11
dip of -37 Db comes at 11.5 GHz. It shows that maximum power is radiated at


82


Figure 4.25 3D Radiation pattern of slot 0.5mm
phi=90(deg). The maximum directivity occurs at angle equals to 30 degree.
Figure 4.25 shows graph plotted between total directivity vs frequency. The
blue line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (0,0). The green
line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (90,0). The red line
shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (0,90). The brown line
83



the radiation efficiency is also highest at 11.5 GHz. Therefore this is our desired
result.
84


4.5 SUMMARY:

In this chapter we have discussed about simulation of antenna with
slot and without slot using IE3d software. Various dimensions of slots have
been discussed.

85

CHAPTER 5

RESULTS

HARDWARE IMPLIMENTAION OF DESIGN

5.1 GROUND WITH PHOTONIC BAND GAP

Figure 5.1 Photonic band gap ground.
In the above figure, a photonic band gap ground patch is shown. A coaxial
probe is feed to it. The slots in the figure shows the gaps that are created to
make it photonic band gap. This ground patch is common to all designs.

86

5.2 RECTANGULAR PATCH WITH SLOT OF 0.5mm

Figure5.2 Slot of 0.5 mm

In the above figure, a rectangular slot is cut on the other side of PCB. A zig-zag
slot of 0.5mm is made in the middle of the rectangular patch and coaxial probe
feed is given to it.


Figure 5.3 Slot of 1.0 mm

87

In the figure on adjacent page, a rectangular slot is cut on the other side of PCB.
A zig-zag slot of 1.0 mm is made in the middle of the rectangular patch and
coaxial probe feed is given to it.


Figure 5.4 Slot of 1.5 mm

slot of 1.5mm is made in the middle of the rectangular patch and coaxial probe

88


Figure 5.5 Slot of 2 mm
slot of 2.0 mm is made in the middle of the rectangular patch and coaxial probe

RESULTS OBTAINED FROM MEASURMENT NARRATED
THROUGH GRAPHS:

5.6 RETURN LOSS RESULTS FOR DIFFERENT SLOTS

Return losses for the hardware are measured and the graph
showing above are as shown:

89

5.6.1 Results of slot 0.5:

From the graph, it is clear that the return loss of slot of 0.5 mm is -36 Db at 11.5
GHz frequency. Showing a considerable amount of return loss at 14 GHz. This
also radiate power at 14 GHz but here mainly it is focused at 11.5 GHz only.

90

GHz frequency. It is also showing a considerable amount of return loss at 14
GHz. But on comparison to slot of 0.5 mm, the return loss is less.



GHz. But on comparison to slot of 0.5 and 1.0 mm, the return loss is less.

91



GHz. But on comparison to slot of 0.5 and 1.0 and 1.5 mm, the return loss is
very much less.

92

FUTURE SCOPE

The bandwidth of the antenna can be increase more by using a new type of
antenna called METAMATERIAL ANTENNA. Metamaterial antennas are a
class of antennas which use metamaterials to increase performance of
miniaturized (electrically small) antenna systems. Their purpose, as with any
electromagnetic antenna, is to launch energy into free space. However, these
incorporate metamaterials, which are materials engineered with novel,
often microscopic, structures to produce unusual physical properties. Antenna
designs incorporating metamaterials can step-up the radiated power of an
antenna. Novel components such as compact resonators and metamaterial
loaded waveguides offer the possibility of previously unavailable applications.
With conventional antennas that are very small compared to the wavelength,
most of the signal is reflected back to the source. The metamaterial, on the other
hand, makes the antenna behave as if it were much larger than it really is,
because the novel antenna structure stores energy, and re-radiates it. These
novel antennas appear to be useful for wireless systems that continue to
decrease in size, such as emergency communications devices, micro-
sensors and portable ground-penetrating radars to search for tunnels, caverns
and other geophysical features.

93

REFERENCES

[1] Ramesh Garg,Prakash Bhartia,Inder Bahl(2001),Apisak
Ittipiboon,Microstrip Antenna Design Handbook,Artech house
Publications-Boston,London,ISBN-0-89006-513-6,pp253-311,643-646.
[2] Thomas A.Malligan(2005),Modern antenna Design,second
edition,John Wiley& sons Publications,Inc.,Hoboken,New Jursey,pp 1-
30,222-223,287-333.
[3] C.T Tang,H.T.Cheng and K.L.Wong, small circular microstrip antenna
with dual frequency operations, electronics letters,33,june 1997,pp.
1112-1113.
[4] Amit A. Deshmukh and K.P.Ray (2010) Multi-Band confriguration of
slotted rectangular microstrip antennas IEEE antennas and propogation
magazine,vol 52.
[5] J. Sze and K. Wong(2001), Bandwidth enhancement of a microstrip-
line-fed printed wide slot antenna, IEEE Trans. Antennas and
Propagation, July 2001, Vol. 49, pp. 10201024.
[6] M. Kahrizi, T. K. Sarkar, and Z. A. Maricevic,(1993) Analysis of a
wide radiating slot in the ground plane of a microstrip line, IEEE
Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. 41, pp. 2937, 1993.
[7] J. P. Kim and W. S. Park,(1998) Network modeling of an inclined and
offcenter microstrip-fed slot antenna, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag.,
vol.46, no. 8, pp. 11821188, Aug. 1998.

94

[8] A.K. Skriverik, J. F. Zurcher, O. Staub, and J. R. Mosig(2001), PCS
antenna design: The challenge of miniaturization, IEEE Antennas
Propag.Mag., vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 1226, Aug. 2001.

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