The Take-OFF Problem

CAS - Calibrated Air Speed is the indicated airspeed of an aircraft, corrected for position and instrument error. Calibrated airspeed is equal to true airspeed in standard atmosphere at sea level. EAS - Equivalent Air Speed is the calibrated airspeed of an aircraft corrected for adiabatic compressible flow for the particular altitude. Equivalent airspeed is equal to calibrated airspeed in standard atmosphere at sea level. The closer to the Transonic Region of airflow (.75 - 1.25 Mach), the less the air around the aircraft acts like an incompressible fluid as in subsonic flow. IAS - Indicated Air Speed is the speed of an aircraft shown on its airspeed indicator calibrated to reflect standard atmosphere adiabatic compressible flow at sea level, uncorrected for airspeed system errors. VLOF - Lift Off Speed is the airspeed at which the airplane first becomes airborne. VMBE - Maximum Brake Energy Speed is the highest speed from which the airplane (at maximum certified take-off gross weight and unfavorable conditions of temperature, pressure & winds) can be brought to a stop without exceeding the maximum energy absorption capability of the brakes. Maximum brake energy speed is compared in take-off planning to V1 speed. = f(Wt.). The certification process consists of long taxi with numerous stops to warm up the brakes and then an aborted take-off when reaching the proposed VMBE. The brakes catching fire is OK as long as the fire is contained in the wheel wells for the first 5 minutes. Presumably, the fire trucks can be used to put it out after that. Remember that the wheels are made of a magnesium alloy with the brakes recessed in one of the wheel halfs and the flexing of the tire sidewalls during wheel rotation also builds up heat. Rejected Take-off Brake Cooling Chart - For any aborted take-off, the wheel tire assembly will be heated up. This chart provides for a cooling time to allow heat to dissapate before another take-off is attempted so that the fuseable plugs will not reach their activation temperature or tires will explode. Fuseable plugs are several channels arranged circumferentially around the wheel and filled with a solderlike material that is normally hard, but which turns to liquid at it's peak temperature and flows out of the channel allowing the nitrogen to exit the tire. VMCA - Minimum Control Speed, Air is the minimum airspeed at which, when the critical engine (with a jet like the DC-10 or B-727, this would be either wing mounted engine) is suddenly made inoperative, it is possible to recover control of the airplane with that engine still inoperative, and maintain straight f1ight, either with zero yaw, or with an angle of bank of not more than 5 degrees with the remaining engines at take-off thrust. VMCA may not exceed 1.2VS . VMCG - Minimum Control Speed, Ground is the minimum airspeed on the ground at which the take-off can be continued using aerodynamic controls alone with the critical engine failed and the remaining engines at take-off thrust. A multiple of this speed is the V1 MIN compared with . Realize that these aircraft do have nose wheel steering (NWS), but this is not allowed in the determining of VMCG. VMU - Minimum Unstick Speed is the airspeed at and above which the airplane can safely lift off the ground and continue the take-off and not display any hazardous characteristics. This speed is below VR. VS - Stalling Speed is stalling speed or the minimum steady flt speed at which the airplane is controllable. VS0 - Stalling Speed in Landing Configuration is the stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed in the landing configuration. V1 - Take-Off Decision Speed is the speed at which when an engine failure is recognized, the distance to continue the take-off to a height of 35' will not exceed the usable take-off distance, or the distance to bring the airplane to a full stop will not exceed the accelerate-stop distance available. - V will not be less than VMCG or - Greater than VR or - Greater than maximum brake energy speed (VMBE)
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Note: this is based on only average piloting skills and the call-out by th pilot not flying is usually made 23 kts early to account for reaction time of the average pilot. VR - Rotation Speed is the speed at which rotation of the airplane is initiated by lifting the nosewheel off the ground. VR occurs before lift-off, but is selected to provide lift-off and climb speeds with safe margins above the minimum control and stall speeds and will allow reaching V2 before reaching a height of 35' above the take-off surface. By definition VR cannot be less than: - V1 speed, or 105% of minimum control speed in the air (VMCA), or - A margin above the minimum speed at which the airplane can be made to lift off the ground and continue the take-off without displaying any hazardous characteristics. This speed is referred to as minimum upstick speed, (VMU). V2 - Take-off Safety Speed is the speed at which the airplane should be flown after lift-off in the event an engine fails at or subsequent to reaching V speed during the takeoff run. This speed provides the necessary climb gradient for obstacle clearance with an engine failed. V must be attained at or prior to the 35' height. By definition it must not be less than: -110% of the minimum control speed in the air (VMCA), or -120% of the idle thrust stall speed with flaps at the take-off setting.
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In the case of the four-engine take-off, the speed resulting at the 35' height will be higher than V2 due to the greater acceleration avail from the same rotation speed used to establish the three-engine take-off distance. Thus, if an engine fails during the take-off run, and the take-off is continued, the pilot is assumed to fly as close to V2 speed (never below) as possible. If no engine failure occurs, he may allow the airplane to climb out at higher speeds V2+10 - the target speed for a normal takeoff (without the loss of an engine) VREF - Landing Reference Speed is the minimum CAS at the 50' height in a normal landing. This speed is equal to 1.3 times the stall speed in the landing configuration (V ). T - Thrust. Thrust actually decreases as airspeed increases. You may add thrust with throttle advancement to reset the maximum allowed as you accelerate down the runway. Maximum Take-off Thrust - Maximum set by the manufacturer = f(temp., ps, and engine bleeds) - the crew calculates this before each take-off - it has a 5 minute limit that is mandatory. EPR - Engine Pressure Ratio - PT7 / PT2 (total pressure in the exhaust / total pressure in the intake) - used by some engine manufacturers to set thrust
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N - The rotational speed (in % of maximum designed) of the low pressure compressor of the jet engine these engines idle at approximately 50% N1. - used by other engine manufacturers to set thrust since near the high RPM range, the thrust vs. N1 curve is approximately a straight line.
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Flat Rating of jet engines - jet engine thrust has a relationship with temperature that is not strictly linear. Therefore, they are certified to guarantee delivery of the max thrust up to a certain temperature specified in the aircraft limits section. Reduced Thrust Take-off - On cold days, with a light load, and when using a long runway, the max thrust will give more than sufficient acceleration and climbout capability for the weight of the aircraft. The take-off thrust setting may be reduced to save on engine wear by selecting a higher temp by which to calculate the thrust setting. This higher temp is called the assumed temperature and would serve to increase the balanced field length to the length of the runway. Analysis shows that using reduced thrust for take-off has the effect of increasing the time for the take-off and therefore slightly increases fuel useage. However, the advantage of reduction in engine failures and reduction in overall engine operating costs are far more significant. A 1% average thrust reduction yields a 5% reduction in engine operating cost as well as failure rate! Remember for safety sake, that beyond V , if the engine fails, you should increase thrust to maximum for best performance.
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Note: Reduced thrust is never used when the antiskid or any other component required for stopping ability is inoperative or if clutter exists that would decrease acceleration or create a slippery runway for stopping. METO Thrust - maximum except for take-off thrust also known as MCT or maximum continuous thrust. This is the thrust that the engine is reduced to after flaps are raised at the first power reduction. It is a mandatory maximum developed by the engineers. Maximum Climb Thrust - below METO thrust and intended to provide required climb performance while maximumizing engine life - Climb thrust is usually set at 1500 - 3000' AGL on the climbout after the final segment. - a recommended setting by the manufacturer. Maximum Cruise Thrust - below Maximum Climb Thrust and intended to provide required cruise performance while maximumizing engine life - a recommended setting by the manufacturer. Bal Field Length - The condition where the t/off dist or accelerate-go distance is equal to the acceleratestop distance. This dist must not exceed the length of the runway. It is determined by the selection of V speed. For a given set of ambient conditions and aircraft weight, only one value of V would cause these dist to be equal and also less than or equal to the associated runway length. This is called the balanced field length and is the min required for take-off. Selecting a lower value for V reduces the accelerate-stop distance, but increases the accelerate-go distance, whereas the selection of a higher V would have the exact opposite effect. Most operations calculate take-off performance based on balanced field length (i.e. stopways and clearway planes are not utilized in most cases).
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Unbalanced Field Length - The condition where the take-off distance and accelerate-stop distance are not equal. Perhaps we are using a stopway in the calculation of the accelerate-stop distance and a clearway plane in the calculation of the accelerate-go distance. Unbalanced field calculations are use in 2 cases where the stopping ability is degraded due to clutter or anti-skid inoperative. In these cases, the maximum runway limit weight is first decreased to give a balanced field distance that is much shorter than the runway length. Therefore, both the accelerate-stop and accelerate-go distance will be shorter. Next, the V1 is reduced to make the accelerate-stop shorter than the accelerate-go distance, thus unbalancing the field to the side of safety for stopping.

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Gradients of Climb 1. Gross Gradient is the demonstrated ratio expressed as a percentage of (Change of Height) / (Horizontal Distance Traveled) For Instance: A climb gradient of 3.0% means an increase in altitude of 3' for every 100' forward travel. 2. Net Gradient is the demonstrated gross climb gradient reduced by the decrement required by regulation (0.9%). Clearway - is an area beyond the runway no narrower than 500' wide. The clearway is expressed in terms of a clearway extending from the end of the runway with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25%, above which no object nor any portion of the terrain protrudes, except that threshold lights may protrude above the plane if their height above the end of the runway is not greater than 26" and if they are located to each side of the runway. NOTE: For the purposes of establishing takeoff distances and takoff runs, the clearway plane is considered to be the takeoff surface.

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Clearway Plane - is the clearway beyond the end of the runway, up to 1/2 the length of the runway, that can be used in the accelerate-go part of the take-off during which time the aircraft (after losing the most critical engine) accelerates to V and reaches 35'. Therefore, the take-off distance is considered to be 1 1/2 times the length of the runway. Of course, the ground roll portion of the take-off must not exceed the length of the runway. Stopway - is an area beyond the runway, not less in width than the width of the runway, centrally located about the extended centerline of the runway, and designated by the airport authorities for use in decelerating the airplane during an aborted takeoff. To be considered as such, a stopway must be capable of supporting the airplane during an aborted take-off without inducing structural damage to the airplane.
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* NOTE: The use of clearways and stopways (where existing) are allowed by the regulations, but used only in special cases by the airlines. Maximum Take-Off Gross Weight - the lowest of 5 possibilities In order to achieve compliance with the regulation, the take-off gross weight for any given flight must not exceed the lowest of the maximum weights allowed for: -Compliance with takeoff runway requirements -Compliance with takeoff climb requirements -Compliance with en route performance requirements (driftdown in mountainous areas) -Compliance with maximum landing weight taking into account normal fuel burnout enroute and figuring the most restrictive of the Landing Runway Limit, the Approach Climb Limit, the Landing Climb, and the Maximum Structural Design Landing Limit -Maximum Structural Design Take-off Limit of the airplane A. Takeoff Runway Limit - In determining the maximum allowable gross weight for takeoff for any given runway, the performance of the airplane must be related to the dimensions of the airport; that is, the required takeoff distance for the gross weight must not exceed the effective takeoff length available. = f (p, T, engine bleeds, wind, runway slope, clutter, with aircraft components in correct working order according to the MEL except that the most critical engine is lost at V )
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Effective Takeoff Length - In determining the effective length for takeoff of any particular runway, many factors require consideration: Runway Length - Normally, the length available will be limited to the paved area of the runway. In some cases, however, an area at the far end of a given runway may be designated as a "stopway" which can be used for roll-out in the event a takeoff is aborted. Also, some runways may have areas beyond the far end designated as a "clearway plane" which will provide obstacle clearance while accelerating to a safe climb speed while acheiving 35' Gradient - Account must be taken for the effect of runway slope on acceleration, stopping distance and climb out to 35'. Uphill grades increase the ground run to reach takeoff speed, but improve stopping distance; overall, more distance is required to reach the 35' elevation. The reverse is true of down grades. Wind - The effect of a headwind in shortening the takeoff distance may be considered, but in doing so, only one-half of the wind component parallel to the runway may be used. For a downwind takeoff, 150% of the reported tailwind must be taken into account. Additional conservatism is provided in that wind data is measured 50' above the runway, whereas the effective wind at runway level will be somewhat less due to ground friction, obstacles and so on. Since this is automatically built into Airport Analyses and performance charts, crews need use only the reported wind. Obstacle Clearance - The effective length of a runway may also be reduced by the presence of obstacles in the takeoff flight path. The takeoff gross weight of the airplane must be limited so that all obstacles not cleared by at least 300 feet horizontally will be cleared vertically by at least 35' by the "net" flight path. 5555555555555555555555555555555555555

The "net" flight path for takeoff is derived by subtracting 0.9% gradient from the actual climbout path the airplane is capable of flying, thus producing conservative data. Clutter - Most 121 operations allow take-off with certain depths of standing water, slush (1/8"), or snow (wet 1/4" or dry 1"). These are referred to as clutter and affect both V as well as max weight you may take-off with. Clutter has greater and greater effect as the aircraft builds up speed. Clutter will make it harder to stop during an abort due to the slippery runway and will slow accel for the take-off due to the drag of the bow wave and the tires. It may also affect the climb limit on some aircraft where cycling of the gear is req after t/off. To compensate for clutter, both a weight reduction and a V reduction are required.
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Anti-skid operation - Anti-skid brakes give maximum stopping capability in the case of an aborted takeoff. If they are inoperative, V as well as the maximum take-off weight will be affected. Also, operation in clutter is prohibited. Anti-skid braking action provides two protective features:
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1. Anti-skid Protection - Tach generators are used on each main wheel to sense wheel rotation speed at any given moment. A computer is used to analyse the rotational speed data from moment to moment and knows when the maximum rate of deceleration that would send that wheel into a skid is exceeded. Before this rate is exceeded, the correct amount of the hydraulic brake pressure is released to the hydraulic return line to prevent the deceleration of the wheel rotation to be to great. This occurs despite the fact that the pilot is pressing the master brake pistons with the toe brakes as hard as he can. This protection engages at about the rotational speed that gives 10-12 kts of forward motion of the aircraft. 2. Locked Wheel Protection - Each tach generator for a wheel on the right side is paired with a tach generator for a wheel on the left side of the aircraft. The computer compares these two tach generator outputs continuously. If the wheel on one side goes through a puddle, the braking will easily bring that wheel to a complete stop causing hydroplaning despite the first protective feature. The locked wheel protection will remove all hydraulic pressure from the locked wheel that is stopped so that it is not "locked" by braking action when it reaches the other side of the puddle, protecting against tire damage. Required Take-Off Distance - (FAR 121.189) is the longer of the following distances: 1. 3 Engine Take-Off Distance: The total of the distance required to: - Accelerate with all engines at take-off thrust to 35' height above the runway at V +10; - Plus a 15% margin.
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2. Accelerate-Stop Distance: The total of the distance required to: - Accelerate, with all engines at take-off thrust from a standing start to Take-off Decision Speed, V - Make a transition from take-off to idle thrust, decelerate, and; - Bring the airplane to a full stop within the length of the runway (or runway plus stopway) remaining.
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Note: In the certification tests that were conducted to determine the accelerate-stop distance, stopping distance was based on the drag from the take-off wing flap setting, speed brakes, and maximum wheel braking. No credit was taken for reverse thrust which can be used for an additional margin of stopping ability. Certification does not take into effect the runway composition or contamination with reverted rubber, or cross-wind considerations. 6666666666666666666666666666666666666

3. 2 Engine Take-Off Distance: The total of the distance required to: - Accelerate to V1, as above; - Continue with one engine inoperative to a rotation speed VR at which time the nose wheel is raised off the ground, then; - the aircraft must leave the runway by the end of the runway, and: - Climb out through 35' height achieving the take-off safety speed V2. It can be seen from the above that, except for an aborted take-off, the Take-off Distance consists of two parts, a ground run and an air distance. The ground run is the distance from the start of take-off to lift-off. The air distance may be either: (a) the distance required to reach a height of 35' after lifting off with one engine inoperative, or: (b) 115% of the distance required to reach a height of 35' from the lift-off point with all three engines operating. B. Take-off Climb Limit - The maximum weight for take-off from any given runway may be limited to allow airplane performance equal to certain minimum climb gradients on two engines, assuming the critical engine to have failed at V speed and the take-off continued. For the climb it is assumed the aircraft will not be banked before reaching 50' and thereafter no more than 15 degrees AOB until completion of climb segments. The Take-Off Path - is the accelerate-go path to 35' plus the flight path climb profile on a take-off with the most critical engine failure occurring at V speed. The path extends from the standing start to a point in the take-off where a height of 1,500' above the take-off surface is reached (jet airport traffic pattern altitude), or to where transition from take-off to en route configuration is complete, whichever is higher. For performance specifications, the FAA divides the climb into only 3 segments, gear down climb, gear up climb and final segment. However, the manufacturers divide the take-off flight path further into 5 segments for the certification process:
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- 1st Segment - Starts at 35' height (reference zero) and ends when gear retraction is complete. The weight may not be in excess of that which will allow 0.3% climb gradient. - 2nd Segment - Starts when gear retraction is completed and ends at height of not less than 400' above the take-off surface (most operations use 800' however). The weight may not be in excess of that which will allow a climb 2.4% for 2 engine, 2.7% for 3 engine and 3% for 4 engine gradient with the remaining engines at take-off thrust, the flaps at the take-off setting and the airplane flown at V airspeed - 3rd Segment - Starts at not less than 400' height (most operations use 800' however) and continues until flaps are retracted. The climb gradient must be at least 1.2% for 2 engine, 1.5% for 3 engine and 1.7% for 4 engine. - 4th Segment - Starts at end of flap retraction and continues until acceleration to V + 50 knots where the thrust is reduced after the 5 minute maximum time limit at take-off thrust is reached. The climb gradient must be at least 1.5%. - Final Segment - Extends to a gross height of 1500' AFE (above field elevation) or more, at a constant speed of V + 50 knots, flaps up, with maximum continuous thrust. Most use 3000' or 2500' the typical top of class D airspace.
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The Gross Take-Off Flight Path - From 400' height to the end of the final segment must have a climb gradient of not less than 1.5%. The Net Take-Off Flight Path - Is a profile starting at reference zero, having a gradient 0.9% below the actual take-off flight path. The net flight path must clear all obstacles by 35' vertically or 200' horizontally within the airport boundary and 300' horizontally outside the airport boundary. Since there is no means for a pilot to determine his gradient of climb while in flight, it is important that he observe quite closely the prescribed techniques and airspeeds, particularly during the early stages of flight, to assure obstacle and terrain clearance in the event of engine failure. 7777777777777777777777777777777777777

C. En Route Performance Limit - (FAR 121.191) To establish the maximum allowable gross weight for any given flight, the performance of the airplane must be related to the terrain over which it is to be flown. Consideration must be taken of the possibility of engine failure en route and the resulting performance deterioration, to effect a safe landing after either one or two engine failures. The aircraft in the event of a loss of an engine at any point enroute over mountainous terrain should be able to achieve a landing at an enroute or drift down alternate. Basically, the route over the mountainous area must be segmented so that each segment, in the event of an engine failure, offers an adequate airport as an alternate such that descent can be made with 2000' obstacle clearance within 5 miles either side until arrival at the alternate with a positive climb capability 1500' above the airport (all at METO power and assuming 100 kt headwinds no matter which direction to the alternate airport). Method I Dispatch - at that weight, the aircraft has adequate engine out capability to clear all obstacles within 5 sm by 1000' with a 300 fpm climb rate at that clearing altitude. Method II Dispatch - at that weight, the aircraft with engine out cannot clear all obstacles, but by dividing the route up into several segments, on each segment there is an adequate airport with alternate weather minimums to use in case of engine loss during that segment. D. Maximum Landing Weight - (FAR 121.195 & 197) - at Destination and Alternate Airports. The allowable weight for take-off from the departure point must be limited so as to comply with the following approach climb limit, the landing performance limit and the structural limit at the destination airport assuming a normal rate of burn of fuel to destination without dumping fuel. Landing distance - begins at 50' over where the effective runway length begins, and continues to the point where the aircraft touches down and then continues on to the point at which the aircraft comes to a complete stop using maximum braking and speed brakes only. No credit was taken for reverse thrust which can be used for an additional margin of stopping ability. 1. Approach Climb Weight Limit (or Landing Performance Weight Limit) - ability to perform a missed approach with loss of the most critical engine and: Go-around thrust on remaining engines, gear up, flaps at go-around setting Go-around speed: < 1.5 VS (go-around flap setting) < 1.1 VS (approach flap setting) minimum climb gradient of 2.1% for 2-engine, 2.4% for 3-engine, and 2.7% for 4-engine aircraft this is a function of weight, temperature, pressure, and engine bleeds as well as approach flap position 2. Landing Climb Weight Limit (Go-around in approach configuration with all engines) - Typically not limiting. - In the landing configuration a go-around can accomplished with: - Three engines operating. - Thrust that is available 8 seconds after throttle movement from idle to take-off position. - Climb gradient not less than 3.2%. - Climb speed not to exceed 1.3 VS. 3. Landing Runway Weight Limit - Turbojets must land within 60% of the effective runway length at both the destination and at the alternate if the runway is dry and braking action is good or better. Landing distance is a function of weight, temperature, pressure, wind, runway slope and approach speed as well as runway braking action. Speed not less than 1.3 Vso at 50' height above runway. Flaps, speed brakes and wheel brakes used (reverse thrust not considered). The landing distance increased 15% if landing runway on wet or slippery Wind correction factors for not more than 50% for headwind and not less than 150% for tailwind must be used. 8888888888888888888888888888888888888

 Typically a weight penalty is taken when the runway is wet or when the visibility is low (<3/4 sm) 4. Maximum Structural Landing Weight - The aircraft maximum certified landing gross weight is set by the manufacturer based on structural considerations. E. Structural Limit -The aircraft maximum certifiedtake-off gross weight is set by the manufacturer based on structural considerations.

The Landing Problem

VREF - Landing Reference Speed is the minimum CAS at the 50' height in a normal landing. This speed is equal to 1.3 times the stall speed in the landing configuration (V ). There are typically two landing flap settings, the greater of which is typically not used due to the high fuel burn associated with it.
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Go-Around Thrust - Basically the same as Take-off thrust except that the EPR or N value is different based on the fact that the aircraft is at a much higher velocity. Reverse Thrust - Through the use of blocking doors and deflectors the jet engine's exhaust flow is directed at an angle forward to slow the aircraft after touchdown. On a turboprop aircraft, the same effect is accomplished by changing prop blade angle to a negative angle. Reverse thrust is not considered in performance calculations for either landing or accelerate-stop. The Obstruction Clearance Plane - a 20:1 sloped plane that usually intercepts the end of the runway and through which no obstacle protrudes. The aircraft on approach maintains a minimum of 1.3 Vso at least 50' above this obstruction clearance plane. It must begin 1500' prior to the intersection with the runway. Effective Runway Length for landing - measured from the point that the obstruction clearance plane intercepts the runway near the approach end to the far end of the runway. Usually it is the entire runway length. However, if there is an obstruction that rises high enough near the approach end, the effective runway length would be shortened from the entire runway length. Landing distance - begins at 50' over where the effective runway length begins, and continues to the point where the aircraft touches down and then continues on to the point at which the aircraft comes to a complete stop using maximum braking and speed brakes only. No credit was taken for reverse thrust which can be used for an additional margin of stopping ability. 1. Approach Climb Weight Limit (or Landing Performance Weight Limit) - ability to perform a missed approach with loss of the most critical engine and: Go-around thrust on remaining engines, gear up, flaps at go-around setting Go-around speed: < 1.5 VS (go-around flap setting) < 1.1 VS (approach flap setting) min climb gradient of 2.1% for 2-engine, 2.4% for 3-engine, and 2.7% for 4-engine aircraft this is a function of weight, temp, pressure, and engine bleeds as well as approach flap position
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2. Landing Climb Weight Limit (Go-around in approach configuration with all engines) - Typically not limiting. - In the landing configuration a go-around can accomplished with: - Three engines operating. - Thrust that is available 8 seconds after throttle movement from idle to take-off position. - Climb gradient not less than 3.2%. - Climb speed not to exceed 1.3 V .
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3. Landing Runway Weight Limit - Turbojets must land within 60% of the effective runway length at both the destination and at the alternate if the runway is dry and braking action is good or better. Landing distance is a function of weight, temperature, pressure, wind, runway slope and approach speed as well as runway braking action. 9999999999999999999999999999999999999

Speed not less than 1.3 Vso at 50' height above runway. Flaps, speed brakes and wheel brakes used (reverse thrust not considered). The landing distance increased 15% if landing runway on wet or slippery Wind correction factors for not more than 50% for headwind and not less than 150% for tailwind must be used.

Typically a weight penalty is taken when the runway is wet or when the visibility is low (<3/4 sm) 4. Maximum Structural Landing Weight - The aircraft maximum certified landing gross weight is set by the manufacturer based on structural considerations.

Landing Technique's affect on total Landing Distance 1. Threshold crossing height - The target is 50' over the end of the effective runway length. If you are 100' above instead, this will add approximately 100' to the landing distance when using the typical 3 degree glide slope. 2. Flare Technique - trying to make the perfect greese job landing could increase the landing distance considerably more than the high approach as well as increase the chances for a tail strike. 3. Touchdown speed faster than VREF - Since the object is to dissapate kenetic energy, the faster the touchdown speed, the longer the stoping distance. The equation for kenetic energy is (mV2)/2. A 10% increase in weight or mass will yield about a 10% increase in landing roll, whereas a 10% increase in landing speed will cause about a 20% increase in the landing roll. Compounding the problem - If on the typical airliner, you were to cross the threshold 30' high and 5 kts fast, you would use up 1/2 of the 40% of the runway that is your margin of safety

The Climb Problem

Maximum Climb Thrust Best Climb Angle Best Rate of Climb Optimum Climb Speed - balance between 3 competing goals 1. getting to altitude as quickly as possible - jet engines burn less fuel at the higher altitudes in cruise 2. using the minimum fuel in the climb 3. traveling as far as possible in the climb Note: most airlines try to minimize costs by considering crew costs and maintenance costs (time on the airframe) as well as minimizing fuel useage. By flying faster, we can increase fuel costs but decrease time on the airframe and engines and how much they have to pay the crew. In general, given a climb speed profile, when flying into a headwind, fly a TAS faster by approximately half the headwind for maximum range, and when flying with a tailwind behind you, fly a TAS slower by approximately half the tailwind for maximum range. Typically a profile would consist of maintaining a constant IAS until the "crossover altitude" after which a constant mach number is used until level-off. 10101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010

The Cruise Problem

Maximum Cruise Thrust - below METO thrust and intended to provide required cruise performance while maximumizing engine life Optimum Cruise - the maximum range will be optimum at a certain altitude where winds and engine performance are optimum - once again as in the climb, if you are proceeding against a headwind a faster TAS by approximately 1/2 the wind component yields better range and vice versa for a tailwind. Long Range Cruise - move along curve until Specific Range (nm/lb of fuel) drops 1% and you get a 2% - 10% increase in speed and, therefore, a time savings for minimal fuel cost increase. Buffet Boundaries - depending on your weight, the maximum altitude that you can attain will be determined by the buffet boundaries at various g-levels due to turbulence, normally 1.2 to 1.6 1. low speed buffet - stall or g-buffet -caused by separation of flow over the top of the wing due to high angle of attack - remember that your IAS at stall increases with g-loading (essentially increased weight) when you encounter varying degrees of clear air turbulence. 2. High speed buffet - mach buffet - caused by separation of airflow over the top of the wing or any portion of the airframe as the speed of sound is approached by the aircraft - shock formation can begin as low as Mach .77 on some aircraft - it is annoying to passengers and causes a huge increase in drag which causes higher fuel useage - the higher the altitude, the lower the IAS at which it buffet occures for a given weight aircraft , since the speed of sound decreases for a higher altitude where the temperature is lower [(a2 = gamma (RT)] and TAS is higher for a given IAS - Weight also has an effect as it requires higher AOA and therefore faster airflow over the top of the wing or fuselage. Therefore, as altitude is increased or weight is increased, the spread between low & hi speed buffet decreases. For a given weight, there will be an altitude restriction. For a heavy aircraft flying a long dist, the desired altitude may only be reached later in the flt after a series of "step climbs" as fuel is burned off.

The Descent Problem

A properly timed descent can yield a substantial fuel savings over flight plan values. Once again into a headwind, proceed faster and vice versa. If you can time the descent use idle power all the way to the 500' AGL point VFR or to the final aproach fix for IFR, and don't spend much time at low altitude with flaps and/or gear extended, you will acheive the most efficient use of the fuel. ATC vectoring, icing conditions, or a leaky pressure vessle could preclude using idle power. In general, given a descent speed profile, when flying into a headwind, fly a faster TAS by approximately half the headwind for maximum range, and when flying with a tailwind behind you, fly a slower TAS by approximately half the tailwind for maximum range. Typically a profile would consist of maintaining a constant mach number (perhaps the same as the cruise mach number) until the "crossover altitude" after which a constant IAS is used until approach maneauvering. Drag Induced Drag Parasite Drag - D = 0.5pVS C Compressibility Thrust Req'd. (D) vs. TAS curve 1. wt. increase - curve moves up and minimum moves to the right 2. alt. increase - curve lays back toward the higher speeds and minimum moves to the right 3. dirty - curve moves up and minimum moves to the left 4. critical Mach Number - at a slightly lower TAS than the knee where compressibility drag takes off
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5. Performance in climb = f (Thrust Available - Drag)(V/W) or excess power available at a given TAS 6. Minimum on curve is Max L/D point and minimum Drag. and max endurance 7. Max Range at tangent from origin or from a point removed from the origin by the value of the wind, causing a increase (HW) or decrease (TW) in the speed for max range of about 1/2 the HW/TW component. Specific Range = NAM/1000# of fuel = TAS/FF 1. Specific Range vs. Mach Number 2. Max range is at the peak of curve 3. at a given wt. this curve & it's peak move higher and to the Right 4. curve is relatively flat at the peak for a relatively large airspeed range 5. Long Range Cruise - move along curve until Spec. Range drops 1% and you get a 2% - 10% increase in speed and, therefore, a time savings for minimal fuel cost.

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