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ORDER

The Physics of

IN

CHAOS
Transition to Turbulence

Gavin Hamilton

DEDICATION

This monograph is dedicated to my wife, Bea and my sons, Scot and Kirk.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Jeff Hamilton and Jake van Buskirk for the skillful artwork and the Aylmer Express for the cover design and help in the illustrations. I am greatly indebted to my friend, Dr. Alan Davenport (deceased), who suggested, correctly, that arteriographic standing waves might be related to the sand waves that Bagnold discussed in his book, The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert and desert Dunes. Similarly, my cousin, Dr. Donald Crombie (deceased), of Birmingham, was responsible for relating arteriographic standing waves to the speed-induced standing waves that develop in dolphins at high swimming speeds that might be related to preserving laminar flow resistance factors. My brother-in-law, Captain P.T. (Terry) Dowd was responsible for relating one form of clear air turbulence to simple harmonic shear waves between air strata.

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Copyright Gavin Hamilton, London, Ontario 2011 All rights reserved. The use of any part of this publication reproduced, transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recorded, or otherwise, or stored in a retrieval system, without the prior consent of the publisher, is an infringement of copyright law.

Library Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Hamilton, Gavin Order in chaos : the physics of transition to turbulence / Gavin Hamilton. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-0-9690567-2-0 1. Transition flow. 4. Fluid dynamics. QA911.H34 2001 2. Laminar flow. 5. Sound-waves. 532.052 3. Turbulence. 6. Standing waves.

I. Title

C2011-904025

Printed in Canada by The Aylmer Express Ltd. June 2011

ORDER IN CHAOS The Physics of Transition to Turbulence

KEY WORDS
Arteriographic standing waves (AGSWs), booming dune sound, Bagnold, Benjamin, birds, boundary layer, boundary layer flutter (BLF) waves, boundary layer oscillations (BLOs), boundary layer velocity oscillations (BLVOs), Brownian Movement, candy cane, Carpenter, chaos, characteristic acoustic impedance (CAI), clear air turbulence (CAT), cloud waves, coherent sound, colloid, compliant boundary (CB) waves, compliant panels, Crombie, Davenport, dolphin, Dowd waves, edge tones, feathers, ferromagnetic ribbon, flute, Gaines, heat, Hof, Hof-Delft, Kinetic Theory, Kramer, Kundts tube, laminar discs, laminar flow, laminar interlocking, laminar membrane, Landahl, Liebermann, mixing chambers, velocity oscillations (VOs), vibrational molecular kinesis, Morkovin membrane (MM) waves, musical notes, musical string, Newton, Newtonian fluid, Nikuradse flows, oil films, oil film lubrication, Perlschnurarterie, plastic flow, radiant cold, Rayleigh-Schlichting flows, Reynolds, reflectivity, rifling, rotation, saltation, sand waves, Schubauer and Skramstad, shear waves, silicone, sound sensitivity, spiral waves, standing waves, stationary waves, stereoscopic particle image velocimetry (SPIV), streaming flows, sub-MM waves, transition, Thomas, traveling waves, turbulence, Tyndall, ultrasound, viscosity, zigzag.

INTRODUCTION
This is an illustrated summary that presents the essence of a theory of the Physics of transition from laminar flow to turbulence. The phenomenon of AGSWs became a candle that shed some light into the nooks, crannies and cracks in the very foundation of Fluid Dynamics where the only Mathematics required for enlightenment is v = n. In 1957, as an Internal Medicine resident, I was shown an arteriogram displaying simple harmonic (SH) arteriographic standing waves (AGSWs), by Dr. Paul F. New, an unexplained phenomenon that intrigued him throughout his career as an internationally renowned neuroradiologist.1 In those AGSWs (Figure 1), I saw the similarity to the Kundts tube experiment 2 and I imagined a musical note. The Kundts tube standing waves developed in a layer of particles, or in a layer of liquid, along the base of a glass tube in which a standing sound wave was resonating, with the wavelength of the sound being twice the distance from crest to crest. How could there be simple harmonic fluid waves and coherent sound if chaos prevailed in the high flow rate of AGSWs?

Figure 1: a radiograph showing the phenomenon of arteriographic standing waves

After a decade in Family Medicine, I trained for a career in Diagnostic Radiology, encountering, again, the phenomenon of AGSWs, challenging me to research into the cause and, thus, into 1) a study of Fluid Dynamics at a very fundamental level, 2) into a study of the Physics of Sound and 3) to write about the research results.3 4 5 6 7 Although some misconceptions arose during the evolution of the theory, new pieces of the puzzle continued to fall into place

1 2

New PFJ: Arterial Stationary Waves. AJR (1966); 97: pp. 488-499 Kundt AAEE: ber eine neue Art, akustischer Straubfiguren, und ber die Anwendung der Selben zur Bestimmung der Schallgeschwindigkeit in festen Krpern und Gassen. Annalen der Physik (1866), volume 127: pp. 497-523 Hamilton G: Patterns in fluid flow . Submission as work of original research in a gold medal competition for young researchers Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (September 1, 1974). Hamilton G: Patterns in fluid flow. Unpublished submission to JFM (rejection September 19, 1975) Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes Variations on a Theme. University of Western Ontario Graphic Services, London, Ontario (1980); Chapter 3, The enigma of arteriographic standing waves. pp. 17-21 Hamilton G: Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence, UWO Graphic Services, London, Ontario (1988). Hamilton G: Dynamic Standing Waves in Transition to Turbulence . Internet posting 2009 (http://600ccx.ca).

4 5

6 7

Legend
AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

up to the present. Variations on a theme of coherent sound effects on fluid flow occurred repeatedly in the literature searches, being very prominent in the writings of scientists in the 1800s.8 9 10 11 12 In 1972, while exploring why the efflux jet from a cylinder changed from a smooth, shiny surface in laminar flow to an irregular surface that looked more like frosted glass after transition, macro-photographs of the efflux jets from a group of small cylinders as turbulence appeared, revealed an organized SH spiral wave pattern in what should have been the chaos of a turbulent jet (Figure 2).

Figure 2: the phenomenon of simple harmonic spiral waves at the onset of turbulence

Scientists in the 1800s Reynolds (1883) and Tyndall (1867) then Nikuradse in 1930, Bagnold (1941) and, more recently, Hof et al. (2004), supplied vital links that have been incorporated into the final analysis. The theory wrought in relative isolation over a lifetime has evolved into the present form that suggests the Physics behind shear waves in general and behind the problem of transition to turbulence. This represents a pictorial summary for other hands to hold and to mould, to see, to explore and to apply. There are significant differences between the flow patterns along flat plates, in tubes and in each of these when the boundary is compliant. Thus, the discussion will be divided into these three categories: Part I Transition to Turbulence Along a Flat Plate, Part II transition in cylinders and Part III Transition along compliant boundaries.

Savart F: On some acoustic phenomena produced by the motion of liquids through short efflux tubes. Philosophical Magazine (1854): pp. 186-192, abridged from Comptes Rendus, Aug. 1853 Plateau MK: Theory of the modifications experienced by jets of liquids issuing from circular orifices when exposed to vibrating motions. Phil Mag (1867); 14: pp. 1-22 Sondhaus C: ber die beim Ausstrmen der Luftenstehenden Tne. Annalen der Physik (1854); 91: pp. 126-147 and pp. 214-240 Leconte J: On the influence of musical sounds on the flame of a jet of coal gas. Phil Mag (1859); 15: pp. 235-239 Tyndall J: On the action of sonorous vibrations on gaseous and liquid jets. Philosophical Magazine (1867); 33: p. 380.

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11 12

Legend
AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

Part I Transition to Turbulence Along a Flat Plate


Boundary layer velocity oscillations
In 1929-1933, Tollmien13 and Schlichting14 proposed, theoretically, the development of simple harmonic (SH) boundary layer oscillations during transition. The wind tunnels in use around that time were unable to demonstrate the theoretical waves, so the theory did not gain general acceptance. A breakthrough occurred in 1941, at the National Bureau of Standards in Washington, D.C. when, in absolute wartime secrecy, to study the phenomenon of transition to turbulence, Schubauer and Skramstad (S and S)15 constructed an extremely refined wind tunnel, attempting to minimize any interference from unwanted external vibrations (i.e. sound energy). Unlike the failed attempts of earlier researchers to show the Tollmien-Schlichting theoretical simple harmonic (SH) boundary layer oscillations (BLOs), they detected SH velocity oscillations (VO waves) in the boundary layer along a flat plate during transition. The VO waves had greatest amplitude near the boundary, gradually diminishing to a baseline of zero velocity oscillations, then reversing in phase and gradually increasing in amplitude again to a maximum as the distance increased above the baseline. The velocity fluctuations were 180 degrees out of phase on each side of the baseline (Figure 3).

Velocity Sensors (hot wire anemometers)

Figure 3: Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic boundary layer velocity oscillations (VOs) during transition

13

Tollmien W: ber die Enstehung der Turbulenz. 1. Mitteilung, Nachrichten der Gesellschaft der Wissenshaften zu Gttingen, Mathematisch Physikalische Klasse (Report I of the Gttingen Scientific Society) (1929): pp. 21-44 Schlichting H: ber die Enstehung der Turbulenz bei der Plattenstrmung; from Nachrichten der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse (1933): pp. 181-208 Schubauer GB and Skramstad HK: Laminar-boundary-layer-oscillations and transition on a flat plate. Advance Confidential Report. National Advisory Committee to Aeronautics (1943): pp. 1-70

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Legend
AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

They showed that specific frequencies of external sound could initiate, and amplify the VO waves, while other coherent sound could damp them. S and S interpreted that the VO waves were manifestations of SH fluid waves in individual laminae at the levels of each of the velocity sensors, just as Tollmien and Schlichting had predicted theoretically. Thus, they proposed that, at the level of each of the sensors, the SH boundary layer fluid waves were sinusoidal, remaining on one side of a baseline along which there were no fluid oscillations, reversing in phase as the baseline was crossed similar to the form and distribution of the VO waves of Figure 3. However, although Schubauer and Skramstad confirmed that SH boundary layer oscillations must exist in transition, their idea of the Physics behind these fluid oscillations was incorrect. Their experiments were based on an analysis of oscillations in air, a compressible fluid, in which laminar convergence and divergence is possible, but transition to turbulence occurs similarly in liquids that are incompressible.

Flowing laminae are similar to membranes under tension


The fluid in each lamina in laminar flow is in the same plane, has the same velocity and direction and, thus, the same momentum. Each lamina can be considered as a fluid membrane under dynamic tension. The higher the velocity, the higher is the membranes momentum-induced dynamic tension. This momentum will resist any deflections introduced from adjacent laminae, or from the boundary, just as the sounding membrane of a drum will resist deflection induced by a drumstick. Thus, the dynamic tension in a laminar membrane with the help of its neighboring laminae, will result in a tendency to rebound, just as a drums membrane rebounds after displacement. A membranes oscillation (vibration), with displacement and rebound, will result in a wave in the membrane. This is consistent with Morkovins 1958 statement: Like many other continuous systems, a shear layer is capable of natural oscillations around its mean state.16 The shear layer will be the fluid flowing in the laminar membrane which will be flowing along the path of the laminar membrane waves, oscillating up and down as boundary layer flutter waves (BLF waves). The membrane waves (MM waves) move more slowly than the flow and even can be stationary, as will be discussed later. Because the idea of membrane waves is the most difficult to conceive of and because Morkovins statement crystallized how they are formed, these membrane waves will be
16

Morkovin MV: Transition from laminar to turbulent shear flow a review of some recent advances in its understanding. Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1958); 80: pp. 1121-1128

Legend
AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

alliterated as Morkovin membrane waves. The MM waves are SH ripples in the membranes and represent the paths, or tracks, on which the BLF waves flutter along at the speed of flow. One can understand how a stone jutting up from the boundary will indent the Morkovin membrane, locking the sliding MM waves into a static state. A more or less linear boundary irregularity will result in long crested standing waves, whereas a smaller irregularity will cause warping of the standing waves, creating the V-shaped surface wakes we see as shallow flowing stream water is impeded by a small rock.

The sinusoidal simple harmonic boundary layer waves in transition


Liquid laminae of transition, will not allow divergence on each side of a baseline, without cavitation, and similarly, convergence of the laminae along the baseline will be impossible because of the incompressibility of the liquid state of matter. There must be another way of explaining the Physics responsible for the boundary layer fluid waves causing the simple harmonic velocity oscillations (VO waves) found by Schubauer and Skramstad. Consider, theoretically, the fluid flowing in a single laminar membrane, moving at the rate of flow, demonstrating a high amplitude sinusoidal (simple harmonic) fluttering oscillation (a BLF wave) as it snakes along the simple harmonic wavy path of a boundary layer membrane wave (MM wave) during transition (Figure 4a). In an incompressible fluid, such as water, this sinusoidal lamina will impress its simple harmonic contour on the laminae above and below, interdigitating with them. Similarly, these laminae will convey the SH oscillations to their adjacent laminae, etc. This will result in a thick layer (the full thickness of the boundary layer laminae containing these waves), composed of many laminae, weaving in unison up and down, sinusoidally, with no areas of compression or decompression (Figure 4b).

Figure 4a:

a single BLF wave traveling at the speed of flow, weaving up and down along the path of the MM waves that travel more slowly

Legend
AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

MM waves

BLF waves

Figure 4b:

simple harmonic waves in laminar membranes (MM waves) within which the boundary layer flutter waves (BLF waves) of transition travel at the speed of flow.

Four types of shear waves along a flat plate


Because liquids are incompressible, MM waves require the development of simple harmonic long crested waves in the fluid abutting the boundary (sub-MM waves), over which the BLF waves slide in a fluttering snaking motion at the speed of flow. (Even the Schubauer and Skramstad boundary layer oscillations will demand a similar type of boundary SH waves with liquids). Otherwise, areas of liquid compression and cavitation will have to occur on the boundary to accommodate the crests and troughs of the BLF waves abutting the boundary, respectively. The sub-MM waves, through the interplay of the fluids viscosity and the boundary resistance, slide along a smooth boundary at the velocity of the membrane waves (MM waves), which is much less than the velocity of the flow.

Morkovin Membrane (MM) Waves

Boundary

BLF Waves

Sub-MM Waves

Figure 4c:

laminae along the boundary in transition The sub-MM waves (dark blue) on the boundary are formed as the BFL waves flutter over the boundary as a unit made up of multiple layers (laminae) or varying speeds. The MM waves in the laminar membranes represent the paths along which the long-crested BLF waves flutter at the rate of flow, in unison.

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Legend
AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

Thus we have the oxymoron of moving standing waves (traveling waves). Sub-MM waves and the MM waves share the same velocity, form and wavelength. Although, along a smooth flat plate, the sub-MM waves slide much more slowly than the flow, there will be situations where the sliding will be arrested, rendering them and sub-MM waves stationary. This will be discussed later. The velocity of the BLF waves is the average speed of the laminae that they are composed of (i.e. at the average velocity of flow). One must appreciate that the VO waves of Schubauer and Skramstad arent true shear waves at all, but are only fluctuations in the velocity of the fluid flowing in BLF shear waves as the fluid passes a vertical row of equally spaced velocity sensors in the boundary layer.

Transverse coherent sound produced by boundary layer flutter waves


Consider a horizontal brick-shaped block of static fluid, made up of the thickness of multiple adjacent laminae (Figure 5) abutting the boundary, as a small solid brick-shaped block that is moving at the average speed of the laminae involved. As the velocity of this block increases gradually from zero, resistance along the boundary will result in the grabbing of the inferior surface of the block, causing it to dip anteriorly and rise posteriorly, like a braking automobile. This will be followed by release and rebound, with the front end rising and the rear dropping. This natural friction-induced grabbing and releasing mechanism will continue with its inherent simple harmonic rhythmicity, oscillating like a seesaw, creating simple harmonic transverse vibrations (transverse coherent sound) from the up and down motion of the ends of the upper surfaces of the sliding block. A tiny port that releases a dye filament from the mid posterior aspect of the block will leave a dye trail filament of the path being taken by the block. The axis of the block will trace a horizontal linear path through the middle of the sinusoidal dye trail, with wave crests above and troughs below the axial plane. The dye waves will move much more slowly than the block. Converting the virtual block to normal laminar fluid will reveal fluid laminae moving in adjacent laminar membranes, at the speed of flow, fluttering up and down as BLF waves along

Figure 5:

a brick shaped block sliding along a resistant boundary, creating simple harmonic oscillation about its axis, tracing a sinusoidal simple harmonic path from a point source of dye on its mid posterior, while creating transverse coherent sound. 13

Legend
AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

paths defined by the long crested SH waves seen in the dye trail, the MM waves, moving much more slowly than the BLF waves. One can examine how the VO waves, described by Schubauer and Skramstad, can be created by simple harmonic flutter. One should understand that, as the rear end of the virtual block of boundary layer fluid swings high, all points on the upper back end will be moving faster in the direction of flow than a point on the axis of oscillation, which has a constant, oscillationfree linear velocity in the direction of flow. As the block swings below the axial baseline, all points on the lower rear end of the block will then be swinging forward at a higher velocity than the baseline axial flow. On the anterior end of the virtual fluid block, the opposite is true. As the anterior end swings upward, or swings downward, its linear forward movement in the direction of flow will be reduced by the same amount that it will be increased on the rear end. As the front and rear of these virtual blocks pass a velocity sensor, sinusoidal periodic velocity fluctuation will occur. This virtual block represents a thick layer in the mid portion of the laminae in boundary layer flutter (BLF) shear waves, with its oscillation axis on an unwavering plane. Thus, a vertical line of equally spaced velocity sensors an equal number above and below the axis of oscillation of the block will register SH velocity oscillations 180 degrees out of phase on each side of the baseline. The points on the upper and lower margins of the block will exhibit the maximum additional, or subtracted linear forward velocities. The tracings of the fluctuations in the linear forward velocity, measured by the sensors as the block of boundary layer fluid flutters by (BLF waves), will duplicate the graph of VO waves discovered by Schubauer and Skramstad who, however, misinterpreted the nature of boundary layer shear waves that created the VO waves. Thus, the VO waves are created by the BLF waves as they swing up and down along their paths defined by the waves in the individual laminar membranes i.e. defined by the SH sinusoidal contours of the MM waves. Boundary layer flutter waves are the dominant waves created in shear flows along flat rigid boundaries and are the cause of the other shear wave phenomena. The virtual blocks of boundary layer fluid are made up of laminae flowing and fluttering in a snaking motion within the MM waves, with the lowest velocity closest to the boundary, then gradually increasing in velocity. The virtual blocks thus move at the average velocity of the laminae they represent.

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Legend
AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

Simple harmonic long crested boundary layer fluttering oscillations


A single longitudinal row of these virtual fluid blocks will be moving with the flow, with the oscillation axes in a straight line, sliding along the boundary with viscosity-induced SH grabbing and releasing. The friction (viscosity) between the adjacent ends of the blocks will link the anterior dipping of the grabbing phase of one block with the posterior dipping of the block in front, in its releasing phase. The periodic fluttering of elevation and depression of each end of a block will create sound waves at right angles to the linear horizontal movement of the blocks axis. The periodic grabbing and releasing of the single row of blocks will create a longitudinal simple harmonic wave pattern in the line of blocks (Figure 6). Converting the solid blocks to boundary layer fluid will reveal a sinusoidal boundary layer wave train flowing in many adjacent laminae with similar SH waves, with one wavelength being the length of two blocks a pattern of boundary layer flutter, with axes of oscillation moving on a flat plane.

Figure 6: A single stream line row of blocks creating a simple harmonic wave pattern

The viscosity of the lateral margins and adjacent ends of the fluid blocks will link the SH oscillations transversely and longitudinally, respectively, resulting in simple harmonic long crested waves in a thick fluid layer made up of multiple laminae. The periodic dipping and elevation of each end of the flutter waves will create vertical coherent sound transverse to the horizontal longitudinal movement of the laminae comprising the boundary layer fluid waves inseparably linked to coherent transverse sound both created by viscosity-induced shear in the boundary layer. The virtual blocks represent blocks of fluid, moving at the average speed of the flow in the multiple adjacent laminae, tracing a path defined by the simple harmonic MM waves, which are waves in the laminar membranes. The waves in the laminar membranes, that describe the paths taken by the laminar fluid flowing as BLF waves, move much more slowly than the average rate of flow and may even become stationary, as will be discussed later. The laminar membrane waves (MM waves) are in motion along wind tunnel flat plates and are similar to the waves in a long horizontal carpet fixed along one end, moving slowly in the direction of flow and shaken rhythmically, like a skipping rope, that is tied at one end. The fluid flowing in a fluttering wavy manner within the carpet-like MM laminar membrane layers is rhythmically
17

Legend
AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

snaking along the boundary as BLF waves, just as the virtual blocks do and with similar axes of oscillation. The apt word, flutter, especially when spoken with the rolling r-r-r-rs of a Scottish dialect, represents the onomatopoeia of air flow past a fluttering compliant tongue (trailing edge flutter of the tongue) that is producing a simple harmonic low frequency fluttering sound, resembling transitions SH fluttering boundary layer fluid waves that are responsible for the music of the reed instruments (including the Scots bagpipe), the trailing edge flutter of the wings of aircraft, and the rhythmic flapping in the wind of the trailing edge of a vertical very compliant flag. 17 Consider a layer of virtual blocks containing several laminae in the mid section of the BLF wave formation (Figure 7a), moving at the speed of the average flow at this level. The block layer, colored blue will be oscillating on axes that will remain on a flat plane, moving significantly faster (the speed of flow) than the simple harmonic waves (MM waves) in the laminar membranes through which it flows, snaking up and down, creating SH transverse sound by the fluttering movement. This reveals that the full thickness of the fluttering shear waves (BLF waves) have axes of oscillations on a flat plane. It is on this plane of the axes of oscillation of the BLF waves that Schubauer and Skramstad detected zero velocity oscillations in their VO waves, because all the fluid on this plane will have an unwavering velocity in the direction of flow. Now consider seven adjacent laminae in the boundary (without the blocks) outlined by dye trails arranged in the colors of the spectrum, with the lowermost laminar dye trail colored violet (slowest) and the uppermost, farthest from the boundary, colored red (fastest), all

7a

7b Figure 7a: Figure 7b: central portion of BLF waves shown as virtual blocks, weaving up and down sinusoidally at the rate of flow. color coded BLF waves, moving along within slower MM wave paths as they pass a vertical row of velocity sensors (hot wire anemometers).

17

Hamilton G: Dynamic Standing Waves in Transition to Turbulence. Internet posting 2009 (http://600ccx.ca).

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Legend
AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

fluttering along similar sinusoidal MM paths as simple harmonic BLF waves within laminar membranes, but at the graduated speeds of laminar flow (Figure 7b). The coloured SH wavy lines (MM waves) are moving steadily at a speed much less than the flow. The fluid is flowing as BLF waves, at laminar speed in each coloured lamina along the paths defined by the wavy lines, the MM waves, and at laminar velocities signified by the colours (violet slowest, red fastest) of the dye contrails. In liquid flow, the boundary layer fluttering extends unchanged from the boundary to the surface because of the hydraulic effect of incompressibility. (With compressible gases, like air, the BLF waves become dissipated gradually at some distance from the boundary). The laminae that make up the BLF waves are oscillating like the virtual blocks of Figure 7a, with their axes of oscillation being on a flat plane.

Longitudinal and transverse standing wave components in the flutter (BLF) waves a musical string analogy
Take any single lamina exhibiting the shear waves of transition. This lamina will contain simple harmonic BLF waves (Figure 8a) that flutter up and down at the speed of flow in this lamina. Consider this single lamina as flowing in an arrested (static) MM wave tract. Now take a long thin longitudinal strip (the thickness of a musical string) of the BLF wave flowing as a lamina. If one moves at the speed of this string-like laminar slice of flowing fluid within the laminar membrane, the string will be seen to move up and down rhythmically as the fluid flows on the undulating path of the MM wave a string-like strand of oscillating fluid, (Figure 8b). The vibrations exhibited in a vertical plane will be in a form that is taught in the Physics of Sound to represent the harmonics of a standing wave in a musical string, with multiple loops and nodes. The wavelength of the harmonic will be twice the distance between nodes, or between loops. Since this flutter wave (BLF wave) is moving at the rate of flow, it is a traveling standing wave. Schubauer and Skramstad used a ferromagnetic ribbon in the boundary layer to initiate, amplify, or damp the simple harmonic velocity oscillations (VOs) they discovered in transition. If one were to move at the speed of a long thin transverse strip of the BLF wave (aligned with the crests) as it weaves up and down and with the thickness of a musical string, this string-like strip will be vibrating like a segment of a very long musical string fixed at each end (Figure 8c). Such a vibration in a string is a standing wave too, but transverse to the flow, with one loop between a node at each end a half wavelength of a standing wave. The midsection of the

21

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

8a

at the speed of flow

8b

8c

Figure 8a: Figure 8b: Figure 8c:

a fluttering BLF wave snaking along at the rate of flow within a static MM wave train. the transverse movement of a thin longitudinal strip of the flowing fluid of a BLF wave (like a musical string with loops and nodes), if one moves at the speed of the BLF wave (speed of flow). the mid portion of a long musical string, vibrating like a transverse strip of a BLF wave oscillating up and down like a Schubauer and Skramstad ferromagnetic ribbon.

strip will duplicate the transverse standing wave motion of a musical string and the motion of a ferromagnetic ribbon. The S and S ferromagnetic ribbons damping action will be suppressing the excursions of the BLF waves in a manner resembling the damping by the panels that Carpenter18 used to extend laminar flow to high Reynolds numbers. This analogy gives an insight into the Physics of both of these in damping the BLF waves of transition. The long crested SH BLF standing waves of transition will be composed of many in-phase string-like adjacent strips forming long crested waves longitudinally and transversely flowing as the long crested standing waves within the MM waves of a laminar membrane. To reinforce this analogy, consider a long single row of adjacent fluid blocks in the boundary layer, moving at the rate of flow, grabbing and releasing involved in simple harmonic
18

Carpenter PW, Davies C and Lucey.: Hydrodynamics and compliant walls: Does the dolphin have a secret. Current Science (2000); 6: 758-764.

23

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

9a

9b

Figure 9a: Figure 9b:

A single stream line row of blocks during transition, showing simple harmonic oscillation on the axes of the blocks oscillations, is in a straight line a baseline along which there is no oscillation. is a musical string, fixed at each end, with multiple nodes of a harmonic in a standing wave oscillation.

fluttering oscillation (Figure 9a). If we were to move at the speed of the axes of oscillation, the blocks will be seen to vibrate like harmonics in a musical string (Figure 9b) with multiple loops and nodes, with one wavelength being twice the distance between the axes of the blocks, or between the nodes. Schubauer and Skramstad considered the possibility that boundary layer oscillations (BLOs) were manifestations of sound waves, noting that, in terms of relativity, the superposition of small disturbance velocities on a uniform velocity in one direction presents to a stationary observer the appearance of wave motion. Unfortunately, they discounted the sound energy factor because the velocity of their BLOs was far below the speed of sound.19 They failed to consider the possibility of standing wave sound that was traveling with the flow 20 the paradox of traveling standing wave coherent sound. It is proposed that the viscosity-based fluid shear forces of transition, can cause 1) a Kundts tube 21 type of standing sound wave particle accumulation at half wavelength intervals; 2) SH boundary layer flutter waves (BLF waves); 3) simple harmonic standing fluid waves (MM waves) that may be in motion, or stationary.

19

Schubauer GB and Skramstad HK: Laminar-boundary-layer-oscillations and transition on a flat plate. Advance Confidential Report. National Advisory Committee to Aeronautics (1943): pp. 1-70 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services (1980); Chapter 9, An amplification crescendo at transition: p. 58-68 Kundt AAEE: ber eine neue Art, akustischer Straubfiguren, und ber die Anwendung der Selben zur Bestimmung der Schallgeschwindigkeit in festen Krpern und Gassen. Annalen der Physik (1866), volume 127: pp. 497-523

20

21

25

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

The generation of longitudinal standing sound waves is proposed as the cause of the immediate accumulation of tiny glass beads in periodic waves that slide along the bottom of a smooth shiny glass cylinder as transition onsets and which persist at turbulent flow rates which Thomas 22 correctly compared to Bagnolds SH waves, deposited by saltation in sand in wind and water shear flows. Bagnolds photographs of sand particles being deposited in long crested SH waves resemble the description of lycopodium particles being deposited at half wavelength intervals in the Kundts tube experiment of standing sound waves in a glass tube.23

22

Thomas DG: Periodic phenomena observed with spherical particles in horizontal pipes. Science (1964); 144: pp. 534-536 Bagnold RA: The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes. Butler and Tanner, Frome and London (1971, reprint of 1941 edition): pp. 31-37

23

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

Part II Transition to Turbulence in Tube Flow


The transition to turbulence in rigid straight tubes is unique, because it involves the transverse entrapment and longitudinal focusing of the sounds created by the flow.

Rayleigh-Schlichting Transverse Flow Patterns24 in Turbulence in Tubes


In 1932, Gaines, using a nickel-cadmium magnetostriction oscillator submerged in water, showed streaming flows away from this sound source. He showed counter-rotating eddies developing simultaneously on each side of the streaming flow 25 (Figure 10a). Liebermann showed an identical pattern of streaming flow with counter-rotating eddies when an ultrasound transducer was the sound source 26 (Figure 10b).

Figure 10a: counter-rotating eddies entrained on each side of streaming flows induced by a sound generator, with similar streaming flow and counter-rotating flows in Figure 10b, when the sound source is an ultrasound transducer. Blue represents higher pressure while red is lower pressure.

In 1930, Nikuradse27, using tubes with geometrical cross-section, defined transverse flow patterns in turbulent flow. In tubes with geometric cross-sections, his illustrations showed streaming flows directly away from each mid-wall, with counter-rotating eddies on each side of the streaming, identical to the flow patterns seen in Figure 10a and Figure 10b. Nikuradse

24

Bengtsson M, Laurell T: Ultrasonic agitation in microchannels. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry (2004); 378: pp. 1716-1721 Gaines N: A magnetostriction oscillator producing intense audible sound and some effects obtained. Physics (1932); 3: pp. 209-229 Liebermann LN: The second viscosity of liquids. Physical Review. (1949); 75: pp. 1415-1422. Nikuradse J: Untersuchungen ber turbulente Strmungen in nicht kreisformigen Rhren. Ingenieur Archiv, VI (1930): pp. 306-332.

25

26 27

29

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

focused his attention on the flows towards the corners of square (Figure 11a), or triangular tubes (Figure 11b), which were much faster than the flows from the walls, but these return flows were speeded up by the convergence of the return flows towards the corners. It is suggested that the primary flows arose from the mid walls, transverse to the mid axial stream flow, from the fluttering BLF waves of the boundary layer. In his triangular tubes, Nikuradse was showing the transverse flows in turbulent flow along three flat plates the walls of the tubes.

11a

11b

Figure 11a and 11b: in turbulent flows, the similar counter-rotating eddies with streaming flows from the mid-walls in tubes with a square crosssection and with an equilateral triangular cross-section.

When two parallel laminar flows in a rectangular silicone tube, separated by a partition, enter a tube section with no partition (mixing chamber), vertical transverse streaming flows are formed when a transverse standing wave sound field is created in the mixing chamber. Counterrotating flows develop on each side of the streaming flows, creating what is termed the Rayleigh-Schlichting flows of a standing wave sound field. 28 The compliant silicone side walls inhibit horizontal reverberation of the ultrasound standing wave. Ultrasound standing waves are created by the reverberations between a quartz generator as the floor of the mixing chamber and a reflective Pyrex plate as the roof. In Figure 12a, the height of the tube is one wavelength and, for the purposes of this example, the width is half a wavelength. The reflected vertically reverberating sound creates standing wave sound with streaming flows away from the floor and the roof, with counter-rotating flows on each side of these flows. If the height of the chamber is reduced to one half wavelength (Figure 12b), the tube and mixing chambers will be square in cross-section, one half wavelength in width, and with rigid (sound reflective) side walls, standing waves will reverberate vertically and

28

Bengtsson M, Laurell T: Ultrasonic agitation in microchannels. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry (2004); 378: pp. 1716-1721

31

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

transversely, with the bidirectional transverse Rayleigh-Schlichting flows as shown in Figure 12c. Now, if the corners of this square tube are rounded off to create a rigid walled cylinder, the Rayleigh-Schlichting flows will be as shown in Figure 12d.

12a

12b

12c

12d

Figures 12a and 12b: standing waves in the mixing chambers of silicone tubes with Pyrex tops and quartz crystal ultrasound generators as the bases; Figures 12c and 12d show the bidirectional standing waves created when the side walls are rigid and reflective

Thus, one can understand the similarity between the Nikuradse transverse turbulent flow pattern in square tubes (Figure 13a), the Rayleigh-Schlichting flows in a transverse standing wave ultrasound field in a square rigid tube (Figure 13b), the same Rayleigh-Schlichting transverse flows in a cylinder in a transverse standing wave sound field (Figure 13c). Using imaging technology of the Hof-Delft type,29 30 31 the identical Rayleigh-Schlichting symmetric transverse flows are created by turbulent flow in a cylinder when there are four similar flow divisions (Figure 13d). The similarity suggests that the Physics behind their creation is similar. The rifling induced in the turbulent flow column in cylinders by the transverse sound energy is inhibited in Nikuradses triangular or square tubes because they contain a fluid column with

29

Hof B, van Doorne CWH, Westerweel J, Nieuwstadt FTM, Faisst H, Eckhardt B, Kerswell RR, Waleffe F; Experimental observation during slow flow of non linear traveling waves in turbulent pipe flow. Science (2004); 305:1594-1598 Fitzgerald R: New Experiments set the scale for the onset of turbulence in pipe flow; Physics Today (February 2004): pp. 1-5. Schneider TM: State space properties of traditional pipe flow. Doctoral thesis (2007), Fachbereich Physik der Philipps Universitt Marburg, Marburg-Lahn: pp. 1-165.

30

31

33

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

a triangular, or a square cross section within a similar shaped tube. (One can turn a round peg in a round hole, but cannot turn a triangular peg in a hole of similar dimensions). Because Nikuradse first defined the transverse streaming flows of turbulence and since the turbulent triangular tube flow patterns depicted in Nikuradses illustrations was recognized as being identical to the transverse flows shown by SPIV studies in cylinders, these flow patterns should be classified as Nikuradse flows.

13a

13b

13c

13d

Figure 13a: Nikuradse flows in turbulent flow in a square tube; 13b, ultrasound bidirectional standing wave flows in a rigid walled square tube; 13c ultrasound standing wave flows in a rigid cylinder; and Figure 13d, SPIV demonstration of Nikuradse flows in turbulent flow in rigid cylinders (blue higher pressure, red lower pressure)

These highly organized patterns of fluid flow preclude a state of chaos in turbulence.

The uniqueness of turbulent flow in cylinders

14a

14b

14c

Figure 14a: Cross-sections of turbulent flow patterns, showing two similar SPIV divisions in cylinder; Figure 14b: three similar flow divisions; Figure 14c: transverse flows with four similar divisions

Turbulent flow in cylinders is unique, with Nikuradse transverse flows similar to Figure 13d. These are made up of discoid cross sectional patterns throughout the turbulent fluid column, as shown with Hof-Delft types of SPIV colouring (Figure14a, 14b and 14c)
35

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

A sound wave will echo between the rigid inner surface of a cylinder and reverberate between opposing parallel walls, creating coherent standing wave sound with a wavelength of twice the diameter, a recurring ratio in cylinder flow in the wavelength of AGSWs in the interface shear waves in the Reynolds U-tube experiment in the wavelength of the Thomas glass bead waves in turbulent cylinder flow in the wavelength of the coherent sound created in short efflux tubes 32 all linked to the fundamental equation, n = v / . In 1867, Tyndall revealed that specific frequencies of coherent sound, transverse to the flow could not only trigger turbulence in a laboratory burner flame from a circular orifice, but could impose a 90 degree axial rotation on the flame of a flat-flamed burner as turbulence was induced, the rotation persisting for the duration of the sound.33 In 1972, in the miniaturized experiments to explore the characteristics of the efflux jet from a cylinder (a blunt ended arteriogram needle), as laminar flow became turbulent, a simple harmonic torsional wave pattern was seen in freeze frame (electronic flash, 1/50,000th of a second exposure) macro-photographs of the efflux jet (Figure 15a). This phenomenon recurred with several different small diameter cylinders 34, suggesting that the onset of turbulence imposed Tyndalls rotational effect on cylinder flow. This suggests that the discoid symmetric SPIV flow patterns may be undergoing steady rotation (rifling) as the cylindrical turbulent column moves through the cylinder. Rigid cylinders reflect and entrap any sound created by the flow, resulting in reverberating echoes of coherent standing wave sound, transverse to the flow, with a natural wavelength of twice the diameter. This entrapped sound will be propagated along the tube in standing wave form, with the same wavelength. It is suggested that, in cylinders, the transverse sound generated with simple harmonic oscillations in the boundary layer, is entrapped in transverse resonance, suddenly becoming amplified as standing waves appear. This amplified transverse oscillation of molecules perpendicular to the flow, will induce interlocking of the laminae at transition to turbulence, while imposing the Nikuradse flow patterns of standing wave sound as revealed in SPIV imaging as described in Hof-Delft studies. Symmetric transverse flow patterns with two, three, four, or more similar sectors of flow can co-exist with the laminar interlocking that causes the longitudinal plastic flow in turbulence.
32

Savart F: On some acoustic phenomena produced by the motion of liquids through short efflux tubes. Philosophical Magazine (1854): pp. 186-192, abridged from Comptes Rendus (1853). Tyndall J: On the action of sonorous vibrations on gaseous and liquid jets. Philosophical Magazine (1867); 33: p. 380. Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services, 1980; Chapter 9, An amplification Crescendo at transition: pp. 59-61

33 34

37

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

The major resistance factors become shifted to the high resistance along the boundary as the interlocked laminae of turbulent fluid are flowing through the cylinder almost like a plug of plastic. Turbulence-induced rifling further increases the flow resistance in cylinders.35 Coherent transverse standing wave sound, generated by the boundary layer as turbulence onsets, will impose a constant Tyndall rotational force on the fluid column, leading to SH spiral waves in the efflux jet (Figure 15a and 15b).

15a

15b Figure 15a and 15b: Simple harmonic spiral waves in efflux jet turbulant flow.

Figure 15c: Through the cylinder

Figure 15d and 15e: bulging of higher pressure zones in the rotating efflux jet

35

Hamilton G: Dynamic Standing Waves in Transition to Turbulence. Internet posting 2009 (http://600ccx.ca): p. 7

39

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

When one incorporates a SH torsional movement with the colour-coded transverse symmetric flow patterns of turbulence in cylinders in the Hof-Delft type of SPIV studies, a candy cane appearance will occur in the fluid column and in the efflux jet 36 (Figure 15b). In Figure 15c the color-coded transverse flow is shown in turbulent flow in a cylinder when there are two similar transverse flow sectors, using Hof-Delft SPIV computerized flow imaging. In the figures, blue represents the high-pressure areas from which the flow (and sound) is coming and red represents the lower pressure areas. Photographs of the exit jet show SH bulging at the high-pressure areas (blue) and retraction associated with the counter-rotating low-pressure areas (red) (Figures 15d and 15e). With longitudinal laminae interlocked (frozen in longitudinal positions), oscillating molecules in a transverse standing wave field could sustain the Nikuradse transverse flows in the plane of the reverberating transverse sound energy that creates these flows, forming steadily rotating laminar discs.37 Varying patterns of the transverse flows in the discoid laminae (Figures 14a 14b and 14c), for 2, 3 and 4 division flows), when colored (blue for high pressure areas, red for low pressure and yellow for intermediate pressure zones), depict the spiral longitudinal flow in a cylinder and its efflux jet (Figures 15a) as a candy cane appearance (Figure 15b), with the cross section showing one of the rotating discs (Figures 15c) responsible for the appearance.

36 37

ibid: pp. 7-8 ibid

41

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

Part III Modulating Effects of Compliant Boundaries on Transition to Turbulence


Simple harmonic long crested waves developing in compliant boundaries
In his studies in animal locomotion, Gray concluded that the energy requirements for the sustained high swimming speeds achieved by dolphins exceeded the output of the animals metabolism, unless the dolphin skin somehow managed to preserve laminar flow resistance factors at speed. This became known as Grays Paradox.39 Kramer devised compliant coatings, attempting to imitate the dolphin skin layers. In his choice of materials for distributed damping of the boundary layer disturbances that result in transition to turbulence, intuitively, he selected a particular silicone because it was best for suppressing standing wave sound.40 Although his 1938 experimental results appeared to confirm Grays conclusions, many scientists since then have disputed both his results and the validity of Grays Paradox. Gad-el-Hak gave a thoughtful overview of this controversy, citing some good current supportive evidence.41 It is suggested that when the boundary is a compliant solid, like the dolphins skin layers, the sub-MM waves are replaced by Essapians stationary SH long crested compliant boundary (CB) waves 42 over which the BLF waves slither in a snaking movement within the laminar membranes which exhibit MM waves with the same contours as the CB waves. The compliant boundary is being sucked up and pushed down periodically by the Physics of the BLF waves, creating long crested simple harmonic waves conforming to the height and depth of the MM waves. To some extent, the BLFs are modulated by the inherent damping mechanism of compliant solid boundaries, somewhat similar to applying ones compliant finger tissue to a ringing bell. Compliant boundaries, such as silicone, damp both the flutter waves and the boundary layer sound the BLF waves generate. The fluid wave damping is related to the S.G. of the boundary and its resistance to rebound.

39

Gray J: Studies in animal locomotion. VI. The propulsion powers of the dolphin. The Journal of Experimental Biology (1936); 13:p. 192 Kramer MO: Boundary layer stabilization by distributed damping. American Society of Naval Engineers Journal (1960); 72: pp. 25-33 Gad-el-Hak M; Compliant coatings: a decade of progress. Applied Mechanical Reviews (1996); 49: pp. 147-157 Essapian FS: Speed-induced skin folds in the bottle-nosed porpoise, Tursiops truncatus. Breviora, Museum of Comparative Zoology (1955); 43: pp. 1-4.

40

41 42

43

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

When the boundary is compliant and is a laminar fluid (e.g. air, or water), the CB waves are pushed along (a type of entrainment) by the interplay of the flowing fluids viscosity and density and the viscosity and density of the laminar fluid upon which the CB waves are impressed. The CB waves, moving with these MM waves have a much lower velocity than the BLF waves that create them. Wind-induced CB waves on water are created by the dominant air BLF waves. These fluttering air waves alternately press down on and suck up the compliant water surface in a slowly moving standing wave fashion. The standing wave nature explains Locks dilemma of why low density air can cause waves of such high amplitude in the much more dense water. He didnt appreciate that as standing waves, they were deriving increasing amounts of energy from the air flow as the wind velocity increased. Benjamin discussed the simple harmonic waves that develop and move in the direction of the air flow on a layer of water on a flat plate. Similarly, he produced long crested CB waves in a layer of viscid syrup. Although the syrup waves appeared to be stationary,43 this static appearance was due to the high viscosity of the syrup, masking the very slow movement of the laminar syrup in waves on the boundary in the direction of the shearing flow of low viscosity, low density air. In his description of flow over a rigid simple harmonic corrugated boundary, he was describing flow characteristics that resemble the flow found over CB waves on sand (or Essapians waves on dolphin skin). SH shear waves in solid, non-particulate compliant boundaries replace the sub-MM waves and are stationary, rendering the MM waves with which they interdigitate, stationary also. My interest in compliant boundaries arose through my cousin, Dr. Donald Crombie, who linked the circumferential shear waves found on the skin of dolphins to AGSWs.44 He had learned that speed-induced standing waves on dolphins might allow the preservation of laminar flow at high speeds, suggesting that compliant boundaries might somehow modulate transitional shear wave phenomena. AGSWs and dolphin waves are circumferential CB waves. It is suggested that compliant boundaries passively damp the excursions of the oscillating BLF waves, simultaneously damping the generation of transverse sound, similar to putting ones compliant finger tissue on a ringing bell, or putting ones hand on a childs swing to reduce the swings amplitude. Remarkably, in attempting to achieve distributed damping, intuitively,

43 44

Benjamin TB: Shearing flow over a wavy boundary: The Journal of Fluid Mechanics (1959); 6: pp. 161-205. Crombie, Donald L., Birmingham, England: Suggestion of dolphin standing waves being related to arteriographic standing waves (1972), while he was a visiting professor in Family Medicine at UWO, London, Ontario

45

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

Kramer not only decided to consider the propagated boundary pressure waves as standing waves, but he selected materials for his experimental compliant boundary that could suppress standing wave sound.45 Thus, pressor sensors in, or on a smooth compliant boundary into which are integrated segmentally compartmentalized panels (parallel to expected crests of the long crested waves of the BLF waves and MM waves), containing electro-rheomagnetic fluid (such as is used currently to control the viscosity of the hydraulic fluid of automobile shock absorbers), may be able to damp the BLF waves and extend laminar flow to very high levels, just as Carpenter predicted might be possible with his compliant (rigid, but damped) panels.46 Computer control of electrical input, from the pressor sensors to the electro-rheo-magnetic fluid, could be used to actively damp the developing BLF waves and thus damp the transverse coherent sound they generate, preventing the laminar interlocking of turbulent flow. Furthermore, panel-like compartmentalization of electro-rheo-magnetic fluid should act as a damper of both sound waves and the fluids BLF waves, passively, without electrical feedback, like Kramers silicone. Similarly, Essapian suggested that the dolphin may be using dermal pressor sensory feedback to control the engorgement of the skins rich blood supply to accomplish this 47 (a type of hydraulic damping) much like the autonomic sensory control of blood vessels can alter the tissue stiffness in the erectile tissues of the nipple and genitalia. Birds compliant feathers have the potential to damp both BLF waves and the sound waves they generate. Soaring birds may so set the angles of their wing tip feathers that they act like Carpenters compliant panels,48 damping the developing air BLF waves. Furthermore, the fine features of feathers display sound deadening micro-panels that can further damp the transverse sound energy component of transition, inhibiting laminar interlocking, creating a silence in their soaring flight and an ominous quiet as raptors streak down on prey.49

45

Kramer MO: Boundary layer stabilization by distributed damping. American Society of Naval Engineers Journal (1960); 72: pp. 25-33 Carpenter PW, Davies C and Lucey AD.: Hydrodynamics and compliant walls: Does the dolphin have a secret. Current Science (2000); 6: 758-764 Essapian FS: Speed-induced skin folds in the bottle-nosed porpoise, Tursiops truncatus. Breviora, Museum of Comparative Zoology (1955); 43: pp. 1-4. Carpenter P.W and Garrad AD: The hydrodynamic stability of flow over Kramer-type compliant surfaces. Part 1 Tollmien-Schlichting instabilities. J. Fluid Mech (1985);155: 465-516 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services: p. 32

46

47

48

49

(2005); Postscript: Making Waves: pp. 73-77

47

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

Stationary liquid / liquid interface waves appear in the Reynolds classic tilted U-tube experiment, using two liquids water and the heavier carbon bisulfide.50 When the U-tube is tilted, the heavier carbon bisulfide flows towards the lower end, while the water flows towards the elevated end. At a critical angle of inclination as the interface shear rate rises, standing shear waves develop along the interface. The water BLF waves flowing over the carbon bisulfide create substitutes for sub-MM waves in the form of interface CB standing waves. The water BLF waves are snaking over the stationary interface CB waves. The carbon bisulfide flowing along the interface creates BLF waves that slither along in the MM waves, under the stationary interface waves, which consist of two compliant laminar fluids. Reynolds stated that the wavelength of the waves equaled the U-tube diameter.51 However, being standing waves, the wavelength should be two diameters, similar to the lycopodium accumulating in a Kundts tube standing wave sound field, similar to arteriographic standing waves and similar to the wavelength of Thomass glass bead waves in transition, continuing at turbulent flow rates.52 Logically, this U-tube experiment shows that the height and depth of the water shear waves are limited by the tube diameter. This is similar to Bascoms observation on wind-induced Ocean Waves, that the depth of the water limits the height of the waves.53 In the shear flows in a wind swept sky, the compliant fluid interface waves are revealed in SH cloud wave formations, outlining the form of the CB waves. When a warmer air stratum flows along another more rarefied cooler stratum, simple harmonic, long wavelength, CB waves develop along the interface (similar to the Reynolds U-tube liquid / liquid interface waves). When the water content of the warmer stratum is sufficient to cause condensation into a layer of mist, the SH long crested air waves are revealed in the SH cloud waves (Figure 16).

50

Reynolds O. An experimental observation of the circumstances which determine whether the motion in water shall be direct or sinuous, and the law of resistance in parallel channels. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London (1883); 174: pp. 935-998 ibid Thomas DG: Periodic phenomena observed with spherical particles in horizontal pipes. Science (1964); 144: pp. 534-536 Bascom W: Ocean waves. Scientific American (1959); 201: pp. 75-84.

51 52

53

49

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

Figure 16:

simple harmonic cloud waves forming in the shear interaction between two air strata

As in the Reynolds U-tube experiment, if two adjacent atmospheric strata are equal in velocity and exactly opposite in direction, the cloud waves will be stationary. Inter-stratum SH waves are present when the sky is clear (no mist and no cloud development), but are sometimes revealed in the lingering contrails of high flying jet aircraft (Figure 17) and in Captain Dowds description of a form of clear air turbulence (CAT) in which he felt the sensation of flying over a washboard as his passenger aircraft passed through such invisible (clear air) turbulence (SH inter-stratum air shear waves). 54 55 These Dowd waves revealed by the contrails are perpendicular to the resultant shear between the air strata thus, they are commonly oblique to the aircrafts flight path.

54

Dowd PT, BA, LLB , Air Canada Captain (retired), Director of Flight Operations for Sky Service (retired), currently Commercial Pilot Flight Simulator Instructor for Boeing Aircraft Corporation, member of the Canadian Transportation Accident Investigation and Safety Board: personal communication (circa 1980). Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services: p. 32 (2005)

55

51

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

Figure 17:

the invisible simple harmonic air waves created between two shearing air strata (Dowd waves) are revealed in the lingering contrail of a jet aircraft.

Bagnold spent his life puzzling over the Physics of the SH waves that develop along boundaries that are not only compliant, but are particulate composed of sand. With particulate boundaries, long crested simple harmonic waves develop at transition and grow when the fluid (air, or water) flow rates increase further, to turbulent flow 56 57 (Figure 18a and 18b). Water and sand waves on the shore, created by BLF waves, are similar in Figure 18c. The sand particles, collecting as dunes at half wavelength intervals in the wind in the desert and the low booming dune sounds that are heard, are explainable by the Physics of the Kundts tube experiment. The surface water waves display the upper margins of the MM waves in the water, within which the water is fluttering along at the speed of flow as BLF waves.
56

Bagnold RA: The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes. Butler and Tanner, Frome and London (1971, reprint of 1941 edition): pp. 31-37. ibid: p. 41

57

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

18a

18b

18c Figure 18a: long crested SH sand waves that develop on beaches during transition in wind. Figure 18b and 18c: water (MM) waves and sand waves created by the BLF waves in the ebb and flow of sea water on the shore of Fort Myers Beach. Figure 18c: note the water waves blending in seamlessly with similar CB sand waves on the shore.

The shallow water ebbing and flowing over the sand (CB) waves in Figure 18b and c exhibits similar surface standing waves at the water / air interface, when the thick layer of BLF waves snake along between the sand waves below and the air interface above. The movement of the water as BLF waves snake along MM paths will duplicate the appearance of the thick layer of boundary layer oscillations shown in Figure 7a
55

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

Stationary standing MM waves caused by boundary irregularity


Long crested simple harmonic waves form in the compliant sandy bottoms of flowing water during transition and persist and grow at turbulent flow rates (see Figure 18b). Interdigitating MM waves and sub-MM slide along smooth boundaries. A boundary irregularity, such as a stone, or other impediment, on the bed of flowing water, will cause arrest of the forward progress of the MM waves that extend from the boundary to the surface in shallow water. Foci of these stationary waves persist in fast flowing, obviously disturbed flows. Although these turbulent flows pervade the shallow water (Figure 19a) below a waterfall (Figure 19b) on the Lynn River in Port Dover, Ontario, yet there are multiple areas of stationary waves penetrating to the surface. Figure 19a waves are static standing waves MM waves, isolated between two compliant boundaries (CB sand waves below and CB air waves above). It is a revelation that, inside the MM waves, one can witness the BLF waves flowing in a planar snaking motion at the speed of flow over the static CB sand waves (the boundary). This is the proof of an MM / BLF compound nature to these waves. Order prevails within the chaos of this type of turbulent flow. Because these BLF waves show persistence of shear waves of transition, there is no laminar interlocking.

Figure 19a: BLF waves creating stationary SH surface waves (MM waves)

Figure 19b: : turbulent flow over the waterfall

57

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

In compliant boundaries, including particulate compliant boundaries, the sub-MM waves are replaced by waves in the boundary, like Essapians dermal waves on a dolphin at speed,58 or the sand waves of Figures 18a and 18b. Similar to Bascoms observation that the height of ocean waves is limited by the water depth,59 Essapian noted that the female dolphins thick dermal fat (which is liquid at body temperature) is responsible for greater amplitude and wavelength than in males which have a thinner dermal fat layer. The sand particles accumulate to form CB waves at half wavelength intervals (just as in a Kundts tube), while the boundary layer fluid flows as BLF waves with simple harmonic fluttering on paths defined by MM waves in momentum-induced laminar membranes. We can now understand the serendipity and the astonishing intuitive genius of Kramer in 1961 60 when, in his studies of distributed damping by compliant boundaries, he ........ decided to consider the propagated boundary pressure waves as standing waves. Furthermore, in choosing his materials for distributed damping of boundary layer disturbances, he explained why the choice should be similar to the selection of sound absorbing materials when standing waves are used.61

Arteriographic standing waves


The phenomenon of arteriographic standing waves (AGSWs) appears in a cylinder that is compliant (Figure 20a). It was research into the Physics behind the formation of these standing waves that resulted in the theory being presented. AGSWs occur during the rapid injection of a radio-opaque dye, (radiographic contrast agent), adding to the flow rate in an artery that already contains fast flowing blood, resulting in a combined turbulent flow rate, with implied chaotic flow. In spite of suggested chaos, a beautiful simple harmonic stationary wave pattern is revealed in radiographs. The original apt description compared the periodic waves to a string of pearls (Perlschnurarterie).62 If, as suggested, the standing waves are a manifestation of standing wave sound energy created by the flow, two pearls (Figure 20b) will be one wavelength 63 of the standing wave sound. In the
58

Essapian FS: Speed-induced skin folds in the bottle-nosed porpoise, Tursiops truncatus. Breviora, Museum of Comparative Zoology (1955); 43: pp. 1-4. Bascom W: Ocean waves. Scientific American (1959); 201: pp. 75-84 Kramer MO: Boundary layer stabilization by distributed damping. American Society of Naval Engineers Journal (1960); 72: pp. 25-33 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes Variations on a Theme. University of Western Ontario Graphic Services, London, Ontario (1980); Chapter 4: The dolphin dilemma and distributed damping; pp. 24-25 Ratschow M von: Die Perlschnurarterie. Zentralblatt fr Neurochirurgie (1955); 15: page 2 Hamilton G: Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services (2008)

59 60

61

62 63

59

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

wavelengths found in AGSWs, the sound frequency equates to over 150,000 vibrations per second.64

20a

20b Figure 20a: an arteriogram with arteriographic standing waves. Figure 20b: an unknotted string of pearls in such an artery, two pearls representing one wavelength of a stationary wave, with blue representing the higher pressure (loops) and red is for lower pressure (nodes)

A spectrum of shear waves as boundary layer oscillations


It is proposed that all shear waves are boundary layer oscillations, created by the dominant BLF waves, modified by the nature of the interface. Landahl used surface admittance to describe the ability of shear waves to penetrate compliant boundaries with their pressure effects.65 Pertinently, this is a term previously used only to describe sound waves penetrating an interface (boundary). A flat aluminum plate is unyielding, creating MM waves of short wavelength. Water offers moderate surface admittance, modulating the air BLF waves, resulting in much longer wavelengths, that are impressed on the water surface as CB waves, defining the contours of the MM waves as CB water waves. The high degree of water admittance gained by the much less dense air waves puzzled Lock.66 This significant admittance was due to the standing wave nature, which was being augmented by feeding on the energy of the air flow.

64 65

ibid Landahl MT: On the stability of a laminar incompressible boundary layer over a flexible surface. The Journal of Fluid Mechanics (1962); 13: pp. 609-632. Lock RC: Hydrodynamic stability of the flow in the laminar boundary layer between parallel streams. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society (1954); 50: pp. 105-124.

66

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

The greatest surface admittance occurs in shear flow between two gasses. This interaction results in CB waves of long wavelength as in the cloud waves that develop between air strata in Figures 16 and 17.

Prandtls plastic flow pattern in turbulence


In wind tunnels, as the laminar airflow rate increases gradually along a shiny flat plate, coherent transverse sound energy is generated in the boundary layer by the simple harmonic boundary layer flutter waves (BLF waves of transition). BLF waves travel at the speed of flow, within laminae in which there are simple harmonic undulations (MM waves), which move at speeds much less that the stream flow. The BLF waves, exhibit harmonics with loops and nodes similar to a vibrating musical string (like Figure 8b), while snaking over the sub-MM waves. The higher the velocity of the flow in the laminar membrane, the higher its momentum based tension. This is consistent with Newtons First Law of Motion and harmonizes with Morkovins 1958 statement: Like many other continuous systems, a shear layer is capable of natural oscillations around its mean state. 67 68 The shear layer in this case is a flowing lamina, or the thick layer of multiple laminae encompassing all the BLF waves. The BLF waves produce standing wave sound that is generated like the sound of a musical string, at a right angle to the laminae. Since sound radiates in all directions, it must also be propagated longitudinally along the boundary in the same standing wave form, moving as a traveling standing wave in a stream of loops and nodes. The longitudinal standing waves move at the speed of the MM waves, as shown by the slow movement of Thomass CB tiny glass bead waves in transition and in turbulent water flow.69 As the flow rate increases, the amplitude of the BLF waves increases. A critical intensity of the transverse sound energy is reached at which the oscillation of the molecules transverse to the laminae interferes with the longitudinal slip of molecules flowing as laminae within the MM waves (i.e., laminar interlocking). The reverberation of molecules in a transverse standing wave sound field, while imposing laminar interlocking, causes Nikuradse flows (the transverse Rayleigh-Schlichting type of flows defined by Hof-Delft types of SPIV studies of turbulent

67

Morkovin MV: Transition from laminar to turbulent shear flow a review of some recent advances in its understanding. Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1958); 80: pp. 1121-1128. Hamilton G: Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services (2008): p. 23 Thomas DG: Periodic phenomena observed with spherical particles in horizontal pipes. Science (1964); 144: pp. 534-536

68 69

63

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

flows in cylinders), which can still develop in the plane of the reverberation, through the longitudinally frozen laminae. The laminae no longer vary in velocity, but flow like soft toothpaste in a plastic non-laminar flow pattern. In turbulence in cylinders, the fluid flows with a flattened isovelocity profile.70 71 72 73 There is a sudden marked increase in flow resistance as Prandtls plastic flow shifts the friction to the boundary, with its much higher resistance. Because boundary layer sound frequencies associated with the wavelengths of arteriographic standing waves equate to extremely high ultrasound frequencies (over 150,000 v.p.s.), researchers sound sensors must be able to detect boundary layer sound that include these frequencies. In transition along a smooth boundary, just before turbulence erupts, small foci of laminar interlocking occur because of focal amplified spikes in the BLF waves. This creates small areas of laminar interlocking shown by the Reynolds flashes of turbulence 75 in cylinders and the Emmons turbulent sources 76 along a glass plate during late transition. When the transverse sound energy reaches a critical point with general laminar interlocking, a steady state of turbulence prevails. The depth of the fluid laminae that are linked perpendicularly in the boundary layer is related to the intensity and the frequency of the coherent sound energy being generated by the BLF waves. The higher the sound frequency, the shorter is the distance over which it exerts its effects (laminar interlocking and heating). The high resistance along the boundary causes rolls of fluid vortices to form as interlocked laminae are sheared off the boundary. Leonardo da Vinci showed somewhat similar rolls of vortices resembling carpet rolls in his drawing of turbulent flow in The Deluge, (Figure 21).

70

Nikuradse J: Untersuchungen ber die Geschwindigkeitsverteilung in turbulenten strmungen. Verhandlungen der Deutsche Ingenieur (1926), Forschungsheft 281: 1-44. Hamilton G: Patterns in fluid flow (September 1,1974). Submission as work of original research in a gold medal competition for young researchers who recently passed the Fellowship examinations of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada. Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services, 1980; Chapter 9, An amplification Crescendo at transition: p. 66 Hamilton G: Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services, 2008, p. 19 ibid: pp. 29-30 Reynolds O. An experimental observation of the circumstances which determine whether the motion in water shall be direct or sinuous, and the law of resistance in parallel channels. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London (1883); 174: pp. 935-998 Emmons HW: The laminar-turbulent transition in a boundary layer. Part I. Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences (1951); 18: pp. 490-498

71

72

73 74 75

76

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

Figure 21: from Leonardo da Vincis, The Deluge

Another way of looking at the plastic flow and carpet roll type of vortex generation is by returning to the virtual block analogy as the critical Reynolds number is reached and laminar interlocking occurs in the fluid blocks along the boundary. Because the uppermost laminae in the blocks are the fastest flowing, they have the greatest momentum. As laminar interlocking occurs suddenly, the momentum of the fast upper portions of the blocks, together with the sudden shift to the high resistance of the boundary will cause the blocks to flip over, initiating the carpet roll vortices. This is like the bicycle rider applying braking only to the front wheel, causing the increased momentum of the riders high and heavy head to cause the rider to flip over the handlebars.

The sound barrier a wall of plastic air


The plastic fluid effect is the cause of the sound barrier that affected earlier, much less aerodynamic aircraft more than modern supersonic aircraft. There is a jumbled cacophony of intense sound energy that accumulates in the air in front of the aircraft as it approaches Mach I, which renders the air incapable of laminar flow (i.e. plastic air). At speeds under Mach I (350 m/s), the leading edges of an aircrafts wings maintain laminar flow in which resistance to flow varies directly as the velocity. However, resistance to plastic flow, as in turbulence, varies as the square of the velocity. Thus, as the aircrafts speed reaches 350 m/s, the leading edges will suddenly face air resistance almost 350 times that of speeds a few meters per second slower. Quite literally, the sound barrier is a wall of plastic air that is struck at the speed of sound,78 a wall capable of causing severe damage to vintage aircraft, but which modern aerodynamic fighter planes slice through, like a knife cuts through soft (plastic) butter.

78

Hamilton G: Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services, 2008, p. 48

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

The phenomenon of edge tones


Sondhaus first described the powerful musical notes of edge tones in 1854.79 Up to that time, a resonance chamber was considered to be essential for such amplified sound generation. Coherent sound is produced when an edge cuts into jet flow as transition onsets. A constant note persists and increases in volume as the flow rate factors exceed the critical Reynolds number. As the knife edge juts up into the flow, it arrests the MM waves, just as the standing waves of Figure 19a are created. The standing sound waves generated by the flow are mirrored back into the stream. An identical sound wave is superimposed on the advancing sound, amplifying it, with this amplified standing wave sound being again reflected back off the knife edge an instance of positive feedback amplification. Although a similar type of edge tone will be created by the wind blowing past edges on a building, or other structure, a motionless observer at a distance from the sound origin (the edge) will find the notes pitch to rise and fall because the varying velocity of the wind carrying the sound introduces the Doppler effect on the ear. In 1920, with great insight, Krger 80 suggested that each jet generated its own tone, even without an edge to reveal it. His idea harmonizes with the above discussion, but was proposed ninety years earlier.

The state of flow in arteriographic standing waves


The luminae of most arteries showing AGSWs usually vary between 0.3 and 0.5 centimeters, giving a reverberating transverse standing wave wavelength of one centimeter, or less. Since the speed of sound in blood is about 1,550 meters per second, this equates to ultrasound frequencies of over 150,000 vibrations per second, frequencies which have very high reflectivity, even when there are very small differences in the characteristic acoustic impedance (CAI) between the arterial walls and the blood (to which has been added the high density X-ray dyes, which increase the CAI differences and the reflectivity). The higher the sound frequency, the faster it dissipates its energy and exerts its effects. The transverse reflection, resonance and transverse standing wave development in arteries result in AGSWs, laminar interlocking and a form of plastic flow, with the blood and contrast

79

Sondhaus C: ber die beim Ausstrmen der Luftenstehenden Tne. Annalen der Physik (1854), series 2; vol. 91; pp. 126-147 and 214-240. Krger F: Theorie der Schneidentne. Annalen der Physik (1920); 62: pp. 672-690

80

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AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

agent (X-ray dye) mixture being pushed through the artery like low viscosity toothpaste. Mee explained that standing wave sound could impose a simple harmonic wave pattern on water layered along the bottom of a cylinder.81 In a compliant cylinder, these pressure wave effects will be circumferential and will result in simple harmonic dilations and constrictions (AGSWs) in the compliant walled artery. In AGSWs, the average rate of longitudinal flow is similar through all cross-sections of the lumen of the compliant walled artery. The faster flow in the narrowed areas and the slower flow in the dilated areas are consistent with the low pressure and high pressure zones predicted by Bernouillis Principle, as well as being consistent with the low and high pressures of a standing wave sound field. This is another instance of expressing the duality of flow wave effects and sound wave effects in fluid shear states. These arguments do not explain why AGSWs appear in only a few arteriograms (ten per cent in Ishikawas series 82). It is suggested that two factors can extend laminar flow to much higher critical Reynolds numbers: 1) Wall compliance will be higher in some patients arteries (older patients may get hardening of the arteries with atherosclerosis, with or without calcification) 2) Curvatures in the paths of arteries 83 (which are never perfectly straight) may be preserving normal laminar flow, in the stage of transition, at flow rates that will cause turbulence in straight rigid pipes.

The Physics of heat and the temperature related changes in the viscosity of liquids and gases 84
Heat can be transferred through the vacuum of space as infrared emanations, as we note from the heating effects of the sun. We also are aware that a fireplace transfers heat to the side facing the embers, but our opposite side is in the infrared shadow. However, we tend to ignore the radiant cold that we feel on the side of our body closest to a cold wall, with the opposite side of our body being in the shadow of the walls longer wavelength infrared radiation. Two solid objects, separated in a vacuum by a short distance, will share their heat status, not through conduction, or convection, but through the interplay of hot to cold and cold to hot radiant

81 82

Mee FG: Sound. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., London (1967): p. 168 Ishikawa K, Mishima Y, Morioka Y and Hara K: Accordion-like shadows observed on the Arteriogram. Angiology (1973); 24: pp. 398-410 Taylor GI: The criterion for turbulence in curved pipes. Proceedings of the Royal Society (London, 1929);124:pp. 243-249 Hamilton G: Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services, 2008, pp. 66-70

83

84

71

Legend
AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

energy of heat, affecting the amplitude of molecular oscillation, eventually reaching an equilibrium with similar infrared emanations from each object. Thus, it is proposed that heat displays two energy components a mechanical component made up of molecular vibrational momentum and an electromagnetic component. Adhesion bonds of solids are responsible for their spectrum of brittleness / hardness / toughness and malleability / softness and stretchability / elasticity, then solids molecular vibrational amplitude within atomic nuclear / molecular force fields. Molecular vibrational amplitude will increase with temperature. At a critical point, the stretched adhesion bonds break, with the retention of the cohesion bonds that are responsible for the interrelated fluid characteristics of laminar flow / viscosity / volatility and surface tension and the inter-surface contact effects (positive wet-ability, and negative which cause beading of water droplets on oily surfaces) and gravity-induced fluid levels. Further temperature and amplitude of molecular vibration increase will break liquids cohesion bonds, creating gases; laminar flow and viscosity properties will continue in gases, while a mutually molecular repulsive force (negative extra-molecular force fields) could cause the even distribution of molecular density, that is influenced only slightly by gravity effects. Cooling (or compression, in the gas to liquid transformation) will reverse these processes. Chemical bonds yield to high vibrational amplitudes in smelters. Cohesion bonds will link liquid molecules in all directions in subsurface fluid. On liquid surfaces, the cohesion bonds will be substance specific in strength along air-exposed surfaces, resulting in variable evaporation tendencies. Volatile liquids have weaker cohesion bonds. Mercurys cohesion bonds are strong, leading to low volatility and high surface tension, shown by drops of mercury with sphere-inducing surface tension effects being dominant over gravitations flattening effects. Meniscus effects at liquid / solid interfaces will be the result of the interplay of positive, or negative, wet-ability factors. This molecular vibration concept can explain the differences in the viscosity response of liquids and gases to temperature change.85 In liquids, an increase in temperature stretches and weakens the cohesion bonds, lowering the viscosity, which varies inversely with the temperature. In gases, there are no cohesion bonds. With increase in temperature of a gas, each gas molecule will require more space to vibrate at a greater amplitude, thus increasing its viscosity, which varies directly with the temperature. These concepts of liquid cohesion bonds and gaseous

85

Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services, 1980; Postscript: just making waves: pp. 73-77

73

Legend
AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

molecular repulsive forces allow for laminar flow to operate down to multiples of molecular dimensions, where laminar flow may originate, something that is difficult to equate with the current concepts of the Kinetic Theory.

The heat of friction and the effects of lubrication 86


Two interrelated phenomena are the heat of friction and the effect of oil lubrication. As previously suggested, sound generation by friction may be a transient instantaneous phase in creating the heat of friction. The higher the frequency of this sound generation, the shorter will be the distance of sound absorption and heat production; in unfocused sound, the inverse square law prevails, thus producing, at times, intense heating along the contact surfaces where sound is generated. The loud, high pitch squeal of braking automobile tires is sixteen times as loud at one quarter of the distance from the observer, and will be extremely loud at the points of contact between tire and pavement, thus, the dissipation of intense sound energy can account for the smoke and smell of burning rubber at the sound source. Sparks may fly when bare metal scrapes against another hard surface and metals may melt when they grind together without lubrication, because of friction generating high intensity audible sounds and levels of ultrasound that we have been largely unaware of. Also, frictional sound and heat energy generated when tectonic plates grind together at immense pressure along fault lines must account for at least some of molten lava and explosive outbursts of volcanic activity. Here we see mechanical energy (sound) being transmuted into electromagnetic radiation, with sparks indicating that the spectrum involved covers, not only the infrared range, but extends into the white hot range of incandescence in the visible spectrum. The temperature of objects can be determined from a distance by the electromagnetic spectrum emitted, with the infrared spectrum being used most commonly. The grabbing and releasing occurring in the friction between two metal surfaces scraping together transfers vibrational energy to the molecules and this vibrational energy creates (or is at least associated with) electromagnetic radiation (infra red to white light spectrum). The momentum of the vibrational heat is responsible for heat conductivity, while the electromagnetic component is responsible for radiant heat and, the often ignored, radiant cold. Both forms obey the inverse square law, generally not considered in relation to conductivity in the vibrational momentum form of heat; this is best understood by considering

86

Hamilton G: Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services, 2008; The heat of friction, oil lubrication and temperature related changes in viscosity of liquids and gases: pp. 67-70

75

Legend
AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

heat transfer from a hot ball bearing dropped into a cold liquid, where heat is transferred by conductivity equally in all directions from the total surface area (a squared relationship) of the hot ball. Friction will be markedly reduced when there is a thin layer of oil between two smooth interfaces, which will limit the oils laminar flow potential to the very narrow space between these surfaces.87 The developing BLFs in the oil will be extremely confined and the potential for increasing in amplitude so restricted, that they will remain flattened and of low amplitude. Since transition to turbulence is dependent on BLO amplitude exceeding a critical point, that will not occur, so laminar flow will persist, resulting in a high degree of slipperiness between the surfaces and marked reduction in sound generation and thus the generation of very little heat of friction. With lubrication, there is no generation of grinding and clanking sounds (low frequency audible), no squealing and squeaking (high frequency audible), and no unheard ultrasound frequencies generated by non-lubricated hard surfaces (probably a major source of intense heating when bare metal grinds against bare metal). Put in other words, in the thin layer of lubricating oil, the simple-harmonic boundary flutter waves (BLFs) that create laminar vibrations (coherent sound energy) are very restricted, heat production is minimal and transition to turbulence does not occur.

Calming the waters with a thin film of oil


A similar argument 88 explains why the Reynolds application of a small quantity of oil to the surface of water exposed to the shearing force of a stiff breeze, completely calmed the surface as regards waves, giving the water surface the appearance of plate glass. In this case, there are three fluid layers in shear interaction the wind with the oil, and the oil with the water. Schubauer and Skramstad proved that turbulence was triggered when boundary layer oscillations gradually increased in amplitude as the airflow increased, and were suddenly amplified. Since the layer of oil is so thin, the amplitude of the air / oil and of the oil / water flutter waves is restricted to the thickness of the oil film. Since the shear waves forming along both sides of the oil interface interdigitate with the other two fluids, the flutter waves caused by the air / oil shear above the and the flutter waves caused by the oil / water shear below remain restricted and of low amplitude. Similar reasoning was proposed for the inhibition of turbulence in the thin films of lubricating oils.

87 88

Hamilton G: Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services, 2008; pp. 67-70 Ibid: pp. 51-52

77

Legend
AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

Turbulent flow studies incorporating the characteristic acoustic impedance (CAI) factor
Suspended particles are propelled in a compact trochoidal course in the direction of an ultrasound beam.89 This propelling mechanism must be active in stereoscopic particle image velocimetry (SPIV) flow studies, because of boundary layer sound generation and amplification. Therefore, it will be worthwhile to repeat the Hof-Delft type of SPIV flow studies, using tiny colored transparent particles (e.g. polyethylene colloidal spherules, with no inclusions) and which have the identical CAI of the flowing fluid. Sound will pass through the particles without refraction, or reflection, and will not propel the particles transversely into the flow. 90 (The dye must be a non-particulate Newtonian fluid dye when it is dissolved into the molten polyethylene during manufacture of the spherules). Thus, SPIV studies incorporating the CAI factor should show the transverse flows and traveling waves in cylinders in a much purer form. Similarly, if students of Fluid Dynamics were to use filaments of dye (a non-particulate Newtonian liquid, with the same CAI as the flowing fluid) in the Reynolds experiment of injecting a central dye filament into a cylinder to observe transition to turbulence, the SH spiral wave development might be observed, simply, without employing the SPIV technology. Similarly, an equidistant vertical array of these dye filaments, instead of velocity pressor sensors in a liquid flow setup similar to the Schubauer and Skramstad flat plate studies in air flow, could examine the development of MM waves, the nature of the sub-MM waves (which may contain long columnar eddies) and what occurs as turbulent flow onsets along a flat plate. Intermittent injection of short filaments will demonstrate the speed of the BLF waves within the MM waves in steady transition.

Laminar flow at small multiples of molecular dimensions


Suspended colloid particles are being buffeted incessantly by the wave fronts of omnidirectional, poly-frequency, multi-amplitude, environmental sound, displacing them erratically at the microscopic level (i.e. creating Brownian Movement). The eardrum, which can be broken up into a myriad of colloidal particles, oscillates in one plane when the wave fronts of the components of environmental sound become focused on it by the ear canal. This explanation suggests that the molecular kinesis of fluids may be much more restricted than conventional thought (the Kinetic Theory) and this idea may permit laminar flow to extend

89 90

Liebermann LN: The second viscosity of liquids. Physical Review. (1949); 75: pp. 1415-1422. Hamilton G: Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services, 2008, pp. 49-50

79

Legend
AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

down to small multiples of molecular dimensions, where the SH shear waves of transition may be born.91 92 The following two paragraphs are from Dynamic Standing Waves in Transition to Turbulence:93 Einstein used the zigzag random Brownian Movement of colloidal particles suspended in fluids to explain molecular chaos in the Kinetic Theory, but fundamental Physics suggests that the bombardment of the relatively huge surface area of these particles, not by single molecules, but by coordinated waves of vast numbers of the fluids molecules, as omnipresent, multifocal, omnidirectional, multifrequency environmental sound strikes them at the speed of sound, must explain Brownian Movement, at least partly (and likely entirely). The human eardrum, which can be broken down into a very large number of colloidal size particles, manifests this effect as molecules in waves of focused sound strike it at Mach I. A similar Physics analogy is a very low amplitude water wave (a ripple) striking a canoe broadside. It would have an almost negligible effect but if that ripple struck the canoe at the speed of sound it would propel it sideways (if not destroy it) at impact. Modification of the current conception of the Kinetic Theory of fluids to suit this idea could allow considering laminar flow of Newtonian fluids to extend down to small multiples of molecular dimensions. Molecular kinesis could be related to a random walk type of Mexican-jumping-bean molecular movement caused by temperature-related vibration of relatively quite heavy atomic nuclei within force fields defined by low mass atomic electron rings. Characteristic acoustic impedance (CAI) differences relate to interface reflectivity. Colloid particles, colored with soluble, non-particulate dye and made from particle-free, bubble-free polyethylene with the same CAI as the suspending liquid, should eliminate any Brownian Movement activity that is due to the reflection, or refraction of environmental sound. The following paragraph from Dynamic Standing Waves in Transition to Turbulence 94 suggests that sub-MM waves may start as ultramicroscopic plaques on the boundary, with the generation of ultra high frequency ultrasound:

91

Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services, 1980; Postscript: just making waves: pp. 73-74 Hamilton G: Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services, 2008, pp. 63-68 Hamilton G: Dynamic Standing Waves in Transition to Turbulence. Internet posting 2009 (http://600ccx.ca); pp. 25-26 Hamilton G: Dynamic Standing Waves in Transition to Turbulence. Internet posting 2009 (http://600ccx.ca). pp. 27-28

92 93

94

81

Legend
AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

If, as suggested, laminar flow exists at small multiples of molecular dimensions, one might suggest how and where shear-induced transition originates. Even the most highly polished surfaces show marked irregularities at the microscopic and ultramicroscopic level. Ultra-microscopically thin laminae flowing along such a surface would initiate ultra microscopic fluid waves with the obligatory simultaneous creation of transverse vibrations............ in the extreme ultrasound range. The higher the frequency of ultrasound, the shorter is the distance over which it dissipates its energy energy that should be capable of creating micro plaques of interlocked laminae on the boundary. Each boundary plaque of interlocked micro laminae now would act as a boundary micro bump creating larger waves (still microscopic) as the unaffected laminae flow over it, with transverse ultrasound of lower frequency but still extremely high. This ultrasound would create a thicker microscopic plaque of interlocked fluid laminae on the boundary. This progressive plaque and wave buildup will continue until the macro wave limit is reached, the level at which Emmons found turbulent sources and Schubauer and Skramstad found simple harmonic boundary layer velocity oscillations (VO waves). Long crested standing waves develop over the plaques. Schubauer and Skramstad may have offered a clue to this VO wave sequence of events in noting that ....the frequency remained the same ..... except very near the surface where there was a suggestion of frequency doubling... This suggests that studies should be done in transition to look for sound frequencies in the ultrasound range (extending to extremely high frequency ultrasound) in the micro layers of the very peripheral boundary layer. The microscopic boundary-abutting sub-BLOs and BLOs with the associated transverse ultra high frequency ultrasound may be the long sought primary sources of transition. 95

95

Schubauer GB and Skramstad HK: Laminar-boundary-layer-oscillations and transition on a flat plate. Advance Confidential Report. National Advisory Committee to Aeronautics (1943): pp. 1-70

83

Legend
AGSWs BLF waves BLOs BLVOs CAI CAT CB waves MM waves S and S SH SPIV Sub-MM waves arteriographic standing waves boundary layer flutter waves boundary layer oscillations boundary layer velocity oscillations characteristic acoustic impedance clear air turbulance compliant boundary waves Morkovin membrane waves Schubauer and Skramstad simple harmonic stereoscopic particle image velocimetry sub-Morkovin membrance waves

Four Types of Boundary Layer Shear Waves

Sub-MM waves (dark blue)

}
Air shear waves along a flat plate

BLF waves flowing in MM waves

Flat plate boundary

}
CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water or air) CB waves on compliant boundary (dolphin skin, sand, water, air)

BLF and MM waves

Conclusion
There are four types of simple harmonic shear waves along boundaries in transition 1) Boundary layer flutter waves (BLF waves), the dominant waves, exhibiting SH oscillating movement in laminae within waves in the laminar membranes (Morkovin membrane, or MM waves), traveling at the rate of flow, with transverse and longitudinal standing waves (fluid waves and sound waves) 2) Sub-MM waves sliding along the boundary under the crests of the boundary MM wave layer 3) Morkovin membrane waves (MM waves), long crested SH waves in the laminar membranes, interdigitating with sub-MM waves and sharing their velocity (both types may be stationary) 4) Compliant boundary (CB) waves, which move more slowly than the flow (static when compliant boundaries are solid), replace sub-MM waves. BLF waves snake over them at the rate of flow, on the paths defined by the MM waves. The pressure changes along the compliant boundary cause the sucking up of the boundary under what would have been the crests and the pushing down where troughs would have been, thus creating the crests and troughs of the CB waves. The high flow resistance of turbulence is caused by the shift of flow resistance to the high friction of the boundary because of laminar interlocking from transverse coherent sound generation from the simple harmonic flutter waves (BLF waves). The engineering aspects of flow control must address methods of suppressing the dominant BLF waves with their transverse sound production that is associated with heat generation, striving to extend laminar flow resistance factors to very high, possibly limitless Reynolds numbers with great savings in energy expenditure. Since sound energy is dissipated as heat, damping boundary layer sound should reduce the heating of the skin of reentry vehicles from space (possibly to a marked degree). The dissipation of the sound energy from very high frequency ultrasound and the associated heat production occur over a short distance and may be of particular importance in the heating of boundary materials during orbital reentry. The simple harmonic waves displayed in a compliant walled cylinder, an artery, in arteriographic standing waves (AGSWs), presented a conflict of order in what should have been chaos. The recognition of coherent sound energy in AGSWs was the key to and the driving force behind this theory of order in transition and order in what has been called the chaos of turbulent flow.

85

At turbulent flow rates in the simple harmonic standing waves of arteriographic standing waves in the musical notes of edge tones in the symmetric transverse turbulent flows in cylinders and in the simple harmonic waves on sand in wind and water shear ....instead of finding chaos and disorder, the observer never fails to be amazed at a simplicity of form, an exactitude of repetition and a geometric order... The coherent harmony in Bagnolds 96 1941 words of wonderment and wisdom will resonate through the ages.

96

Bagnold RA: The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes. Butler and Tanner, Frome and London (1971, reprint of 1941 edition): pp. 31-37.

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Bibliography
Bagnold RA: The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes. Butler and Tanner, Frome and London (1971, reprint of 1941 edition): pp. 31-37. Bascom W: Ocean waves. Scientific American (1959); 201: pp. 75-84 Benjamin TB: Shearing flow over a wavy boundary: The Journal of Fluid Mechanics (1959); 6: pp. 161205. Bengtsson M, Laurell T: Ultrasonic agitation in microchannels. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry (2004); 378: pp. 1716-1721 Carpenter PW, Davies C and Lucey AD: Hydrodynamics and compliant walls: Does the dolphin have a secret. Current Science (2000); 6: 758-764 Crombie, Donald L., Birmingham, England: Personal communication regarding dolphin standing waves being related to arteriographic standing waves (1972), while he was a visiting professor in Family Medicine at UWO, London, Ontario Dowd PT, BA, LlB, Air Canada Captain (retired), Director of Flight Operations for Sky Service (retired), currently Commercial Pilot Flight Simulator Instructor for Boeing Aircraft Corporation, member of the Canadian Transportation Accident Investigation and Safety Board: personal communication (circa 1980). Emmons HW: The laminar-turbulent transition in a boundary layer. Part I. Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences (1951); 18: pp. 490-498 Essapian FS: Speed-induced skin folds in the bottlenosed porpoise, Tursiops truncatus. Breviora, Museum of Comparative Zoology (1955); 43: pp. 1-4. Fitzgerald R: New Experiments set the scale for the onset of turbulence in pipe flow; Physics Today (February 2004): pp. 1-5. Gad-el-Hak M; Compliant coatings: a decade of progress. Applied Mechanical Reviews (1996); 49: pp. 147-157 Gaines N: A magnetostriction oscillator producing intense audible sound and some effects obtained. Physics (1932); 3: pp. 209-229 Hamilton G: Patterns in fluid flow (September 1,1974). Submission as work of original research in a gold medal competition for young researchers who recently passed the Fellowship examinations of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada. Internet posting, 2009: http://600ccx.ca Hamilton G: Patterns in fluid flow. Unpublished submission to JFM (rejection September 19, 1975) Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services, 1980 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services (2005) Hamilton G: Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services (2008) Hamilton G: Dynamic Standing Waves in Transition to Turbulence . Internet posting 2009: http://600ccx.ca Hof B, van Doorne CWH, Westerweel J, Nieuwstadt FTM, Faisst H, Eckhardt B, Kerswell RR, Waleffe F; Experimental observation of non linear traveling waves in turbulent pipe flow. Science (2004); 305:1594-1598 Ishikawa K, Mishima Y, Morioka Y and Hara K: Accordion-like shadows observed on the Arteriogram. Angiology (1973); 24: pp. 398-410 Krger F: Theorie der Schneidentne. Annalen der Physik (1920); 62: pp. 672-690 Kramer MO: Boundary layer stabilization by distributed damping. American Society of Naval Engineers Journal (1960); 72: pp. 25-33 Kundt AAEE: ber eine neue Art, akustischer Straubfiguren, und ber die Anwendung der Selben zur Bestimmung der Schallgeschwindigkeit in festen Krpern und Gassen. Annalen der Physik (1866), volume 127: pp. 497-523 Landahl MT: On the stability of a laminar incompressible boundary layer over a flexible surface. The Journal of Fluid Mechanics (1962); 13: pp. 609-632. Leconte J: On the influence of musical sounds on the flame of a jet of coal gas. Phil Mag (1859); 15: pp. 235-239

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Liebermann LN: The second viscosity of liquids. Physical Review. (1949); 75: pp. 1415-1422 Lock RC: Hydrodynamic stability of the flow in the laminar boundary layer between parallel streams. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society (1954); 50: pp. 105-124. Mee FG: Sound. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., London (1967): p. 168 Morkovin MV: Transition from laminar to turbulent shear flow a review of some recent advances in its understanding. Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1958); 80: pp. 1121- 1128. New PFJ: Arterial Stationary Waves. AJR (1966); 97: pp. 488-499 Nikuradse J: Untersuchungen ber die Geschwindigkeitsverteilung in turbulenten strmungen. Verhandlungen der Deutsche Ingenieur (1926), Forschungsheft: 281: 1-44. Nikuradse J: Untersuchungen ber turbulente Strmungen in nicht kreisformigen Rhren. Ingenieur Archiv, VI (1930): pp. 306-332. Plateau MK: Theory of the modifications experienced by jets of liquids issuing from circular orifices when exposed to vibrating motions. Phil Mag (1867); 14: pp. 1-22 Ratschow M von: Die Perlschnurarterie. Zentralblatt fr Neurochirurgie (1955); 15: pp. 154-159 Reynolds O. An experimental observation of the circumstances which determine whether the motion in water shall be direct or sinuous, and the law of resistance in parallel channels. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London (1883); 174: pp. 935-998

Savart F: On some acoustic phenomena produced by the motion of liquids through short efflux tubes. Philosophical Magazine (1854): pp. 186-192, abridged from Comptes Rendus (1853). Schlichting H: ber die Enstehung der Turbulenz bei der Plattenstrmung; from Nachrichten der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse (1933): pp. 181- 208 Schneider TM: State space properties of traditional pipe flow. Doctoral thesis (2007), Fachbereich Physik der Philipps Universitt Marburg, Marburg-Lahn: pp. 1-165. Schubauer GB and Skramstad HK: Laminarboundary-layer-oscillations and transition on a flat plate. Advance Confidential Report. National Advisory Committee to Aeronautics (1943): pp. 1-70 Sondhaus C: ber die beim Ausstrmen der Luftenstehenden Tne. Annalen der Physik (1854), series 2; vol. 91; pp. 126-147 and 214-240. Taylor GI: The criterion for turbulence in curved pipes. Proceedings of the Royal Society (London, 1929); 124: pp. 243-249 Thomas DG: Periodic phenomena observed with spherical particles in horizontal pipes. Science (1964); 144: pp. 534-536 Tollmien W: ber die Enstehung der Turbulenz. 1. Mitteilung, Nachrichten der Gesellschaft der Wissenshaften zu Gttingen, Mathematisch Physikalische Klasse (Report I of the Gttingen Scientific Society) (1929): pp. 21-44 Tyndall J: On the action of sonorous vibrations on gaseous and liquid jets. Philosophical Magazine (1867); 33: p. 380

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About the Author


Gavin Hamilton MD FRCP(C) Curriculum Vitae
Education: Attended St. Thomas Collegiate Insitute, 1944-1949. Entered the University of Western Ontario in 1949 with the UWO Board of Governors Prize in Physics and Chemistry and a scholarship in Sciences, Mathematics and Languages, graduating in Medicine in 1955. Internal Medicine residency program, July 1, 1955, to June 30, 1957 Family Medicine, solo, in a private office, London, Ontario, July 1957 to June 1966 Diagnostic Radiology residency program, Victoria Hospital, London, Ontario, July 1966 to June 1969. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (Diagnostic Radiology), November 1969 Diagnostic Radiologist, Westminster Hospital, D.V.A., London, Ontario, 1970-1973 Private Diagnostic Radiology practice, Colborne-Central X-ray, London, mostly solo practice, with a rank of Assistant Professor (UWO) 1973 to 1994 Assistant Professor, Diagnostic Radiology, UWO, 1973-2000 Locum tenens Diagnostic Radiology 1994-1999 Retired from Diagnostic Radiology in 1999, while holding the rank of Assistant Professor of Diagnostic Radiology until 2001. President of UWO Meds 1955, member of Sunningdale Golf and Country Club, active member of the London Squash Racquets Club, member of OMA, CMA, CAR Articles 1) Hamilton G: Unilateral decrease in renal vascularity on the excretory urogram. Canadian Medical Association Journal (1971), Volume 105, pages 1151-1154. 2) Hamilton G: The vascular nephrogram phase of excretory urography and its implications. Radiology (1972); Volume 102: pages 37-40.
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3) Hanna MK, Hamilton G. and Wyatt JK. Postprostatectomy urinary tract infection. Urology (1977); volume 10: pages 71-78 4) Hamilton G.: Adverse reactions to intravenous contrast agents. CMAJ (1983); Volume 129: Pages 405-406. 5) Hamilton G: Contamination of contrast agents by rubber components of 50 ml disposable plastic syringes. Radiology (1984), Volume 152, pages 539-540. 6) Hamilton G: Severe adverse reactions to urography in patients taking beta adrenergic blocking agents. CMAJ (1985); volume 133: page 122. 7) Hamilton G: Hypotension during urography in patients taking beta-blockers. CMAJ (1985); 30: 1201- 1202. 8) Hamilton G: Contamination of contrast agent by MBT in rubber seals. CMAJ (1987); volume 136: pages 1020-1021. 9) Hamilton G: Zero-added-dose gastrointestinal film studies. JCAR (1989); volume 40: pages 203-205 10) Hamilton G: Zero-added-dose gastrointestinal film studies an update (Letter). JCAR (1990) 11) Hamilton G.: Medical rubber anaphylaxis. Lancet (1990); volume 336: page 187. 12) Hamilton G: A simple method of producing diagnostic copies from overexposed radiographs. CARJ (1991); volume 42: pages 216-217. 13) Hamilton G: The nurses are innocent. The Canadian Nurse, December 1993: page 2731. 14) Hamilton G: Its time for justice for the Sick Kids Nurses. The Lawyers Weekly; November 18, 1994. 15) Hamilton G; Controversy over ionic and nonionic radiopaque contrast media. CARJ (1994): volume 45: page 331. 16) Hamilton G: Echogenic blood during slow flow (Letter). CARJ (1994); volume 45: page 487. 17) Hamilton G: Ultrasound images on thermal paper are best displayed on a view box. CARJ (1997); 48: page 359. 18) Dynamic standing waves in transition to turbulence : December 16, 2009; Internet posting, Gavin Hamilton, MD, FRCP(C): pp. 1-36. Books 1) Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services, 1980 2) Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services, 2005 3) Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services, 2008 4) The Nurses are Innocent: The Digoxin Poisoning Fallacy Dundurn Press (in Press, 2011).

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Gavin Hamilton, MD In retirement, continued the author has

(1) to research and write about a potentially lethal toxic and allergenic natural rubber chemical, MBT (mercaptobenzothiazole), which continues to contaminate injections worldwide 2) to challenge and put to rest the persisting theory that the 1980-81 baby deaths at the Toronto Hospital for Sick Children were caused by digoxin poisoning and 3) to pursue a 40-year interest in fundamental Fluid Dynamics, expanding on his theory that coherent sound energy is responsible for the phenomenon of transition of laminar flow to turbulence, it having been a longstanding tenet in Fluid Dynamics theory that sound is an effect rather than the cause of transition to turbulence. A book, The Nurses are Innocent The Digoxin Poisoning Fallacy (Dundurn Press, 2011) integrates the resolution of the first two problems. This monograph, explains the authors theory of the physics behind transition to turbulence.

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