TRANSFORMER

What is a Transformer: A transformer is an electrical device that transfers Alternating Current (AC) electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors (the transformer's coils), without change of frequency. Principle of operation: The electric circuit which receives energy from the supply mains is called primary winding and the other circuit which delivers electric energy to the load is called the secondary winding.An AC current in the primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction. If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (VS) is in proportion to the primary voltage (VP), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (NS) to the number of turns in the primary (NP) as follows: VS/ VP = Ns/Np = Ip/Is The above ratio is named as voltage ratio or turn ratio. Ip & Is are primary current & secondary current respectively. By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making NS greater than NP, or "stepped down" by making NS less than NP. If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. In the vast majority of transformers, the coils are wound around a ferromagnetic core, air-core transformers being a notable exception.

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Energy losses of Transformer: Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and those in the magnetic circuit, termed iron loss. Copper Loss Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors due to resistance of winding. Core Loss This is again divided into following sub parts. Hysteresis loss Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected. Eddy current loss Eddy currents circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux by electromagnetic induction due to core material in magnetic flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the material thickness.

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Magnetostriction Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing/humming sound commonly associated with transformers and in turn causes losses due to frictional heating in susceptible cores. Mechanical losses In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating electromagnetic forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise and consuming a small amount of power. Stray losses Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat. There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field, but these are usually small. Polarity of Transformer: It is common in transformer schematic symbols for there to be a dot at the end of each coil within a transformer, particularly for transformers with multiple windings on either or both of the primary and secondary sides. The purpose of the dots is to indicate the direction of each winding relative to the other windings in the transformer. Voltages at the dot end of each winding are in phase, while current flowing into the dot end of a primary coil will result in current flowing out of the dot end of a secondary coil. Types: Autotransformer An autotransformer has only a single winding with two end terminals, plus a third at an intermediate tap point. The primary voltage is applied across two of the terminals, and the secondary voltage taken from one of these and the third terminal. The primary and secondary circuits therefore have a number of windings turns in common. Poly phase transformers For three-phase supplies, a bank of three individual single-phase transformers can be used, or all three phases can be incorporated as a single three-phase transformer. In this case, the magnetic circuits are connected together, the core thus containing a three-phase flow of flux. A number of winding configurations are possible, giving rise to different attributes and phase shifts.

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Instrument transformers Instrument transformers are used for measuring voltage and current in electrical power systems, and for power system protection and control. Where a voltage or current is too large to be conveniently used by an instrument, it can be scaled down to a standardized, low value. Instrument transformers isolate measurement, protection and control circuitry from the high currents or voltages present on the circuits being measured or controlled. A current transformer is a transformer designed to provide a current in its secondary coil proportional to the current flowing in its primary coil. Voltage transformers (VTs), also referred to as "potential transformers" (PTs), are designed to have an accurately-known transformation ratio in both magnitude and phase, over a range of measuring circuit impedances. A voltage transformer is intended to present a negligible load to the supply being measured. The low secondary voltage allows protective relay equipment and measuring instruments to be operated at a lower voltages. Both current and voltage instrument transformers are designed to have predictable characteristics on overloads. Proper operation of over-current protection relays requires that current transformers provide a predictable transformation ratio even during a short-circuit. Transformer Construction: Cores (Magnetic Flux path) This is made of high permeability silicon steel to reduce hysteresis loss & laminated to reduce eddy-current losses. Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer of insulation. Windings (Current path) This is made from copper or aluminum to reduce copper loss. Windings are usually arranged concentrically to minimize flux leakage. Both the primary and secondary windings on power transformers may have external connections, called taps, to intermediate points on the winding to allow selection of the voltage ratio. The taps may be connected to an automatic/manual on/off-load tap changer for voltage regulation of distribution circuits. Coolant (Heat path) Refined Mineral Oil is used as coolant & insulation of the transformer.

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Other important parts of a transformer are (a) Conservator Tank: Takes care the expansion & contraction of transformer oil with temperature. (b) Breather: Isolates conservator oil from air, so that moisture ingress in oil is avoided. (c) Buchholtz Relay : This gas operated relay indicates whether there is an internal fault of the transformer or not. (d) Winding & Oil Temperature Indicator (e) Pressure Relief Device (f) Oil Surge relay for on load tap changer transformers. (g) Radiator/Heat Exchanger: For cooling of oil.

ELECTRIC MOTOR
What is an electric motor: An electric motor is an electrical device that uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, usually through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. The reverse process, producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by a Generator or Dynamo. Electric motors can be run as generators and vice versa, although this is not always practical. An electric motor converts electrical power to mechanical power in its rotor (rotating part). There are several ways to supply power to the rotor. In a DC motor this power is supplied to the armature directly from a DC source, while in an induction motor this power is induced in the rotating device. Categorization of electric motors:

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Alternating Current (AC) types and Direct Current (DC) types. Many classic DC motors run on AC power, these motors being referred to as universal motors. AC motors are divided into two types. Asynchronous motor or Induction Motor & synchronous motors. Induction motors contribute 99% of motors in the world. Induction motors are the preferred choice for industrial motors due to their rugged construction, absence of brushes. Induction motor An induction motor (IM) is a type of asynchronous (Speed less than synchronous speed) AC motor where power is transferred to the rotor winding from stator winding by means of electromagnetic induction. Stationary stator having coils supplied with AC current produces a constant amplitude rotating magnetic field. This magnetic field interacts with the magnetic field produced by the Rotor (both the fields same rotational speed) to develop torque on the rotor. There are three types of rotor:

Squirrel-cage rotor

The most common rotor is a squirrel-cage rotor. In this the rotor bars with short circuit rings resemble a squirrel cage (hamster wheel). The bars are either solid copper (most common) or aluminum that span the length of the rotor. The rotor bars in squirrel-cage induction motors are not straight, but have some skew to reduce noise and harmonics.

Slip ring rotor

A slip ring rotor replaces the bars of the squirrel-cage rotor with windings that are connected to slip rings. When these slip rings are shorted, the rotor behaves similarly to a squirrel-cage rotor; they can also be connected to external resistors to produce a high-resistance rotor circuit. By changing the resistance connected to the rotor circuit, the speed/current and speed/torque curves can be altered. The slip ring motor is used primarily to start a high inertia load or a load that requires a very high starting torque across the full speed range. By correctly selecting the resistors used in the secondary resistance or slip ring starter, the motor is able to produce maximum torque at a relatively low supply current from zero speed to full speed.

Solid core rotor

A rotor can be made from a solid mild steel. Slip The difference between the speed of the rotor and speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator is called slip. It is unitless and is the ratio between the relative speed of the magnetic field as seen by the rotor (the slip speed) to the speed of the rotating stator field. Due to this an induction motor is sometimes referred to as an asynchronous machine.

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Construction Major parts are Stator, Rotor, Bearings, End covers etc. for Squirrel cage induction motor. Major parts are Stator, Rotor, Bearings, End covers, slip rings etc. for Slip Ring Induction Motor The stator consists of wound 'poles' that carry the supply current to induce a magnetic field that penetrates the rotor. The number of 'poles' can vary between motor types but the poles are always in pairs (i.e. 2, 4, 6, etc.). Induction motors are most commonly built to run on single-phase or three-phase power, but twophase motors also exist. In theory, two-phase and more than three phase induction motors are possible; many single-phase motors having two windings and requiring a capacitor can actually be viewed as two-phase motors, since the capacitor generates a second power phase 90 degrees from the single-phase supply and feeds it to a separate motor winding. Single-phase power is more widely available in residential buildings, but cannot produce a rotating field in the motor (the field merely oscillates back and forth), so single-phase induction motors must incorporate some kind of starting mechanism to produce a rotating field. They would, using the simplified analogy of salient poles, have one salient pole per pole number; a four-pole motor would have four salient poles. Three-phase motors have three salient poles per pole number, so a four-pole motor would have twelve salient poles. This allows the motor to produce a rotating field, allowing the motor to start with no extra equipment and run more efficiently than a similar single-phase motor. Starting of three phase induction motors Direct-on-line starting The simplest way to start a three-phase squirrel cage induction motor is to connect its terminals to the line. This method is often called "direct on line" and abbreviated DOL. When an induction motor starts in DOL, a very high current is drawn by the stator, in the order of 5 to 9 times the full load current. This high current can, in some motors, damage the windings; in addition, because it causes heavy line voltage drop, other appliances connected to the same line may be affected by the voltage fluctuation. Star-delta starters (For squirrel cage induction motors) A three phase induction motor's windings can be connected to a 3-phase AC line in two different ways: wye (star) & delta (mesh) A delta connection results in a higher voltage to the windings than a wye connection. A star-delta starter initially connects the motor in wye, which produces a lower starting current than delta, then switches to delta when the motor has reached a set speed. Disadvantages of this method over DOL starting are:
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Lower starting torque, which may be a serious issue with pumps or any devices with significant breakaway torque Increased complexity, as more contactors and some sort of speed switch or timers are needed Two shocks to the motor (one for the initial start and another when the motor switches from wye to delta)

Autotransformer starters (For squirrel cage induction motors) Such starters are called as auto starters or compensators, consists of an auto-transformer, which reduces the applied voltage to stator during starting. Variable Voltage Variable frequency drives (VVVFD) (For squirrel cage induction motors) VVVFD can be of considerable use in starting as well as running motors. It can easily start a motor at a lower frequency than the AC line, as well as a lower voltage, so that the motor starts with full rated torque and with no inrush of current. The rotor circuit's impedance increases with slip frequency, which is equal to supply frequency for a stationary rotor, so running at a lower frequency actually increases torque. Resistance starters This method is used with slip ring motors where variable power resistors are connected in series with the rotor winding. During start-up the resistance is large and then reduced to zero at full speed. As a result, the inrush current is reduced. Another important advantage is higher start-up torque. Series Reactor starters/ Series Liquid Resistance Starters (For squirrel cage induction motors) In these starter technology, an impedance in the form of a reactor or resistor is introduced in series with the motor terminals, which as a result reduces the motor terminal voltage resulting in a reduction of the starting current; the impedance of the reactor, a function of the current passing through it, gradually reduces as the motor accelerates, and at 95 % speed the reactors are bypassed by a suitable bypass method which enables the motor to run at full voltage and full speed. Air core series reactor starters or a series reactor soft starter is the most common and recommended method for fixed speed motor starting. For series liquid resistance starters, the resistance is lowered continuously as the rotor speeds up & finally at 90% of speed the resistances are bypassed by a suitable bypass method which enables the motor to run at full voltage and full speed. Synchronous electric motor A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor spinning with coils passing magnets at the same rate as the alternating current and resulting magnetic field which drives it. Another way of saying this is that it has zero slip under usual operating conditions.
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Contrast this with an induction motor, which must slip to produce torque. The basic difference between an induction motor and a synchronous AC motor is that in the latter a current is supplied onto the rotor. This then creates a magnetic field which, through magnetic interaction, links to the rotating magnetic field in the stator which in turn causes the rotor to turn. It is called synchronous because at steady state the speed of the rotor is the same as the speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator. These machines find numerous applications where constant speed is necessary. The speed of a synchronous motor is given by the expression below: Speed ( in rpm ) = 120 * Supply frequency in Hz / Number of poles. Parts A synchronous motor is composed of the following parts:

The stator is the outer shell of the motor, which carries the armature winding. This winding is spatially distributed for poly-phase AC current. This armature creates a rotating magnetic field inside the motor like an poly phase induction motor. The rotor is the rotating portion of the motor. it carries field winding, which is supplied by a DC source. On excitation, this field winding behaves as a permanent magnet. The slip rings in the rotor, to supply the DC to the field winding.

Operation The operation of a synchronous motor is simple to imagine. The armature winding, when excited by a poly-phase (usually 3-phase) winding, creates a rotating magnetic field inside the motor. The field winding, which acts as a permanent magnet, simply locks in with the rotating magnetic field and rotates along with it. During operation, as the field locks in with the rotating magnetic field, the motor is said to be in synchronization. Once the motor is in operation, the speed of the motor is dependent only on the supply frequency. When the motor load is increased beyond the break down load, the motor falls out of synchronization i.e., the applied load is large enough to pull out the field winding from following the rotating magnetic field. The motor immediately stalls after it falls out of synchronization. Starting methods Synchronous motors are not self-starting motors. This property is due to the inertia of the rotor. When the power supply is switched on, the armature winding and field windings are excited. Instantaneously, the armature winding creates a rotating magnetic field, which revolves at the designated motor speed. The rotor, due to inertia, will not follow the revolving magnetic field. In practice, the rotor should be rotated by some other means near to the motor's synchronous speed to overcome the inertia. Once the rotor nears the synchronous speed, the field winding is excited, and the motor pulls into synchronization.

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The following techniques are employed to start a synchronous motor:

A separate motor (called pony motor) is used to drive the rotor before it locks in into synchronization. The field winding is shunted or induction motor like arrangements are made so that the synchronous motor starts as an induction motor and locks in to synchronization once it reaches speeds near its synchronous speed.

Special Properties Synchronous motors show some interesting properties, which finds applications in power factor correction. The synchronous motor can be run at lagging, unity or leading power factor. The control is with the field excitation, as described below:

When the field excitation voltage is decreased, the motor runs in lagging power factor. The power factor by which the motor lags varies directly with the drop in excitation voltage. This condition is called under-excitation When the field excitation voltage is made equal to the rated voltage, the motor runs at unity power factor. When the field excitation voltage is increased above the rated voltage, the motor runs at leading power factor. And the power factor by which the motor leads varies directly with the increase in field excitation voltage. This condition is called over-excitation.

The leading power factor operation of synchronous motor finds application in power factor correction. Normally, all the loads connected to the power supply grid run in lagging power factor, which increases reactive power consumption in the grid, thus contributing to additional losses. In such cases, a synchronous motor with no load is connected to the grid and is run overexcited, so that the leading power factor created by synchronous motor compensates the existing lagging power factor in the grid and the overall power factor is brought close to 1 ( unity power factor ). If unity power factor is maintained in a grid, reactive power losses diminish to zero, increasing the efficiency of the grid. This operation of synchronous motor in over-excited mode to correct the power factor is sometimes called as Synchronous condenser. Uses (a) Synchronous motors find applications in all industrial applications where constant speed is necessary (b) Improving the power factor as Synchronous condensers. (c) Electrical power plants almost always use synchronous generators because it is important to keep the frequency constant at which the generator is connected. Advantages Synchronous motors have the following advantages over asynchronous motors:

Speed is independent of the load, provided an adequate field current is applied.

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Accurate control in speed Their power factor can be adjusted to unity by using a proper field current relative to the load. Also, a "capacitive" power factor, (current phase leads voltage phase), can be obtained by increasing this current slightly, which can help achieve a better power factor correction for the whole installation. Their construction allows for increased electrical efficiency when a low speed is required.

Synchronous Generator/ Alternator & Asynchronous Generator/Induction Generator A synchronous generator is called synchronous because the waveform of the generated voltage is synchronized with the rotation of the generator. Each peak of the sinusoidal waveform corresponds to a physical position of the rotor. The frequency is exactly determined by the formula f = RPM x p / 120 where f is the frequency (Hz), RPM is the rotor speed (revolutions per minute) and p is the number of poles formed by the stator windings. A synchronous generator is essentially the same machine as a synchronous motor. The magnetic field of the rotor is supplied by direct current or permanent magnets. An asynchronous generator is essentially the same machine as an asynchronous or induction motor. The magnetic field of the rotor is supplied by the stator through electromagnetic induction. The output frequency of a synchronous generator can be more easily regulated to remain at a constant value. Synchronous generators (large ones at least) are more efficient than asynchronous generators. Synchronous generators can more easily accommodate load power factor variations. Synchronous generators can be started by supplying the rotor field excitation from a battery. Permanent magnet synchronous generators require no rotor field excitation. The construction of asynchronous generators is less complicated than the construction of synchronous generators. Asynchronous generators require no brushes and thus no brush maintenance. Asynchronous generators require relatively complicated electronic controllers. They are usually not started without an energized connection to an electric power grid. With an asynchronous generator and an electronic controller, the speed of the generator can be allowed to vary with the speed of the mechanical prime mover. The cost and performance of such a system is generally more attractive than the alternative systems using a synchronous generator. DC Motors A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. The internal configuration of a DC motor is designed to harness the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an external magnetic field to generate rotational motion. DC motors can meet demand of loads requiring high starting torques, high accelerating & decelerating torques, loads requiring wide range speed control and quick reversal.

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Brushed DC motors The classic DC motor design involves generation of an oscillating current in a wound rotor, or armature, with a split ring commutator, and either a wound or permanent magnet stator. A rotor consists of one or more coils of wire wound around a core on a shaft; an electrical power source is connected to the rotor coil through the commutator and its brushes, causing current to flow in it, producing electromagnetism. The commutator causes the current in the coils to be switched as the rotor turns, keeping the magnetic poles of the rotor from ever fully aligning with the magnetic poles of the stator field, so that the rotor never stops (like a compass needle does) but rather keeps rotating indefinitely (as long as power is applied and is sufficient for the motor to overcome the shaft torque load and internal losses due to friction, etc.) The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such that when power is applied, the polarities of the energized rotor winding and the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the stator's field magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next commutator contacts, and energize the next winding. Given our example two-pole motor, the rotation reverses the direction of current through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's magnetic field, driving it to continue rotating. Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial cost, high reliability, and simple control of motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance and low life-span for high intensity uses. Maintenance involves regularly replacing the brushes and springs which carry the electric current, as well as cleaning or replacing the commutator. These components are necessary for transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the spinning wire windings of the rotor inside the motor. Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for brushes to press against the commutator. This creates friction. At higher speeds, brushes have increasing difficulty in maintaining contact. Brushes may bounce off the irregularities in the commutator surface, creating sparks. (Sparks are also created inevitably by the brushes making and breaking circuits through the rotor coils as the brushes cross the insulating gaps between commutator sections. Depending on the commutator design, this may include the brushes shorting together adjacent sectionsand hence coil endsmomentarily while crossing the gaps. Furthermore, the inductance of the rotor coils causes the voltage across each to rise when its circuit is opened, increasing the sparking of the brushes.) This sparking limits the maximum speed of the machine, as too-rapid sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the commutator. The current density per unit area of the brushes, in combination with their resistivity, limits the output of the motor. The making and breaking of electric contact also causes electrical noise, and the sparks additionally cause RFI (Radio Frequency Interference). Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance (on larger motors) or replacement (on small motors). The commutator assembly on a large machine is a costly element, requiring precision assembly of many parts. On small motors, the commutator is usually permanently integrated into the rotor, so replacing it usually requires replacing the whole rotor. There are five types of brushed DC motor: A. DC shunt wound motor: The field winding is connected in parallel with the armature

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B. DC series wound motor: The field winding is connected in series with the armature C. DC compound motor (two configurations): It has both series & shunt field winding.

Cumulative compound: Series field aids shunt field Differentially compounded : Series field opposes shunt field

D. Permanent Magnet DC Motor : No field winding E. Separately-excited (sepex) : Field winding excited from separate DC source than that for armature supply. Brushless DC motors Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushless design. In this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brushgear assembly is replaced by an external electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position. Brushless DC motors use a rotating permanent magnet in the rotor, and stationary electrical magnets on the motor housing. A motor controller converts DC to AC. This design is simpler than that of brushed motors because it eliminates the complication of transferring power from outside the motor to the spinning rotor. Advantages of brushless motors include long life span, little or no maintenance, and high efficiency. Brushless motors are typically 85-90% efficient or more whereas DC motors with brush gear are typically 75-80% efficient. Disadvantages include high initial cost, and more complicated motor speed controllers. Universal motors: A series-wound motor is referred to as a universal motor when it has been designed to operate on either AC or DC power. The ability to operate on AC is because the current in both the field and the armature (and hence the resultant magnetic fields) will alternate (reverse polarity) in synchronism, and hence the resulting mechanical force will occur in a constant direction. An advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors which have some characteristics more common in DC motors, specifically high starting torque and very compact design if high running speeds are used. The negative aspect is the maintenance and short life problems caused by the commutator. As a result, such motors are usually used in AC devices such as food mixers and power tools which are used only intermittently and often have high starting-torque demands. Parts Every DC motor has six basic parts - axle, rotor (armature), stator, commutator, field magnet(s), and brushes. Speed control

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The speed of a DC motor is proportional to Terminal Voltage applied to armature Armature Voltage Drop and inversely proportional to Field flux per pole. Hence speed control can be achieved by varying applied voltage (armature terminal voltage), varying field flux, Varying resistance in armature circuit or by an electronically controlled switching device made of thyristors, transistors, or, formerly, mercury arc rectifiers.. The direction of a DC motor can be changed by reversing either the field or armature connections but not both. This is commonly done with a special set of contactors (direction contactors). In a circuit known as a chopper, the average voltage applied to the motor is varied by switching the supply voltage very rapidly. As the "on" to "off" ratio is varied to alter the average applied voltage, the speed of the motor varies. The percentage "on" time multiplied by the supply voltage gives the average voltage applied to the motor. Therefore, with a 100 V supply and a 25% "on" time, the average voltage at the motor will be 25 V. During the "off" time, the armature's inductance causes the current to continue through a diode called a "flyback diode", in parallel with the motor. At this point in the cycle, the supply current will be zero, and therefore the average motor current will always be higher than the supply current unless the percentage "on" time is 100%. At 100% "on" time, the supply and motor current are equal. The rapid switching wastes less energy than series resistors. This method is also called pulse-width modulation (PWM) and is often controlled by a microprocessor. An output filter is sometimes installed to smooth the average voltage applied to the motor and reduce motor noise. Since the series-wound DC motor develops its highest torque at low speed, it is often used in traction applications such as electric locomotives, and trams. Series motors must never be used in applications where the drive can fail (such as belt drives). As the motor accelerates, the armature (and hence field) current reduces. The reduction in field causes the motor to speed up until it destroys itself. DC motor starters The counter-emf aids the armature resistance to limit the current through the armature. When power is first applied to a motor, the armature does not rotate. At that instant the counter-emf is zero and the only factor limiting the armature current is the armature resistance. Usually the armature resistance of a motor is less than 1 ; therefore the current through the armature would be very large when the power is applied. This current can make an excessive voltage drop affecting other equipment in the circuit and even trip overload protective devices. Therefore the need arises for an additional resistance in series with the armature to limit the current until the motor rotation can build up the counter-emf. As the motor rotation builds up, the resistance is gradually cut out.

CIRCUIT BREAKER
What is a Circuit Breaker: A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. This can isolate a circuit in load & in off
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load situation (unlike an isolator, which can isolate the circuit in off load only). Its basic function is to isolate a fault condition and by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits. Principle of Operation: All circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although details vary substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in low-voltage circuit breakers this is usually done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with pilot devices like over current & earth fault relay, to sense a fault current and to operate the trip opening mechanism. The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually energized by a separate DC source, i.e. battery, although some high-voltage circuit breakers are selfcontained with current transformers, protection relays, and an internal control power source. Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the circuit; some mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or compressed air) contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts. Small circuit breakers may be manually operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors/compressed air to restore energy to the springs. The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must also withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting the circuit. Contacts are made of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys, and other materials. Service life of the contacts is limited by the erosion due to interrupting the arc. Miniature and molded case circuit breakers are usually discarded when the contacts are worn, but power circuit breakers and high-voltage circuit breakers have replaceable contacts. When a current is interrupted, an arc is generated. This arc must be contained, cooled, and extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand the voltage in the circuit. Different circuit breakers use vacuum, air, insulating gas, or oil as the medium in which the arc forms. Different techniques are used to extinguish the arc including:

Lengthening of the arc Intensive cooling (in jet chambers) Division into partial arcs Zero point quenching Connecting capacitors in parallel with contacts in DC circuits

Finally, once the fault condition has been cleared, the contacts must again be closed to restore power to the interrupted circuit.

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Arc interruption Miniature low-voltage circuit breakers use air alone to extinguish the arc. Larger ratings will have metal plates or non-metallic arc chutes to divide and cool the arc. Magnetic blowout coils deflect the arc into the arc chute. In larger ratings, oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil through the arc. Gas (usually sulfur hexafluoride) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and then rely upon the dielectric strength of the sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) to quench the stretched arc. Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other than the contact material), so the arc quenches when it is stretched a very small amount (<23 mm). Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern medium-voltage switchgear to 36,000 volts. Air circuit breakers may use compressed air to blow out the arc, or alternatively, the contacts are rapidly swung into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the displaced air thus blowing out the arc. Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current very quickly: typically the arc is extinguished between 30 ms and 150 ms after the mechanism has been tripped, depending upon age and construction of the device. Short circuit current Circuit breakers are rated both by the normal current that are expected to carry, and the maximum short-circuit current that they can safely interrupt. The breaker breaking current capacity must be greater than the fault current of the circuit. A prospective short-circuit current higher than the breaker's interrupting capacity rating may result in failure of the breaker (may explode) to safely interrupt a fault. Under short-circuit conditions, a current many times greater than normal can exist. When electrical contacts open to interrupt a large current, there is a tendency for an arc to form between the opened contacts, which would allow the current to continue. Therefore, circuit breakers must incorporate various features to divide and extinguish the arc. In air-insulated and miniature breakers an arc chute structure consisting (often) of metal plates or ceramic ridges cools the arc, and magnetic blowout coils deflect the arc into the arc chute. Larger circuit breakers such as those used in electrical power distribution may use vacuum, an inert gas such as sulphur hexafluoride or have contacts immersed in oil to suppress the arc. Miniature circuit breakers used to protect control circuits or small appliances may not have sufficient interrupting capacity to use at a panelboard; these circuit breakers are called "supplemental circuit protectors" to distinguish them from distribution-type circuit breakers.
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Front panel of a 1250 A air circuit breaker manufactured by ABB. This low voltage power circuit breaker can be withdrawn from its housing for servicing. Types of circuit breaker Many different classifications of circuit breakers can be made, based on their features such as voltage class, construction type, interrupting type, and structural features. Low voltage circuit breakers Low voltage (less than 1000 VAC) types are common in domestic, commercial and industrial application, include:

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)rated current not more than 100 A. Trip characteristics normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)rated current up to 1000 A. Thermal or thermalmagnetic operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings.

The LV circuit breakers are often installed in draw-out enclosures that allow removal and interchange without dismantling the switchgear. Large low-voltage molded case and power circuit breakers may have electrical motor operators, allowing them to be tripped (opened) and closed under remote control. These may form part of an automatic transfer switch system for standby power.

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Photo of inside of a circuit breaker The 10 ampere DIN rail-mounted thermal-magnetic miniature circuit breaker is the most common style in modern domestic consumer units and commercial electrical distribution boards. The design includes the following components: 1. Actuator lever - used to manually trip and reset the circuit breaker. Also indicates the status of the circuit breaker (On or Off/tripped). Most breakers are designed so they can still trip even if the lever is held or locked in the "on" position. This is sometimes referred to as "free trip" or "positive trip" operation. 2. Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts together or apart. 3. Contacts - Allow current when touching and break the current when moved apart. 4. Terminals 5. Bimetallic strip 6. Calibration screw - allows the manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip current of the device after assembly. 7. Solenoid 8. Arc divider/extinguisher Magnetic circuit breaker Magnetic circuit breakers use a solenoid (electromagnet) whose pulling force increases with the current. Certain designs utilize electromagnetic forces in addition to those of the solenoid. The circuit breaker contacts are held closed by a latch. As the current in the solenoid increases beyond the rating of the circuit breaker, the solenoid's pull releases the latch which then allows the contacts to open by spring action. Some types of magnetic breakers incorporate a hydraulic time delay feature using a viscous fluid. The core is restrained by a spring until the current exceeds the breaker rating. During an overload, the speed of the solenoid motion is restricted by the fluid. The delay permits brief current surges beyond normal running current for motor starting, energizing equipment, etc. Short circuit currents provide sufficient solenoid force to release the latch regardless of core position thus bypassing the delay feature. Ambient temperature affects the time delay but does not affect the current rating of a magnetic breaker. Thermal magnetic circuit breaker
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Thermal magnetic circuit breakers, which are the type found in most distribution boards, incorporate both techniques with the electromagnet responding instantaneously to large surges in current (short circuits) and the bimetallic strip responding to less extreme but longer-term overcurrent conditions. Common trip breakers When supplying a branch circuit with more than one live conductor, each live conductor must be protected by a breaker pole. To ensure that all live conductors are interrupted when any pole trips, a "common trip" breaker must be used. These may either contain two or three tripping mechanisms within one case, or for small breakers, may externally tie the poles together via their operating handles. Two pole common trip breakers are common on 120/240 volt systems where 240 volt loads (including major appliances or further distribution boards) span the two live wires. Three-pole common trip breakers are typically used to supply three-phase electric power to large motors or further distribution boards. Two and four pole breakers are used when there is a need to disconnect the neutral wire, to be sure that no current can flow back through the neutral wire from other loads connected to the same network when people need to touch the wires for maintenance. Separate circuit breakers must never be used for disconnecting live and neutral, because if the neutral gets disconnected while the live conductor stays connected, a dangerous condition arises: the circuit will appear deenergized (appliances will not work), but wires will stay live. This is why only common trip breakers must be used when switching of the neutral wire is needed. Medium-voltage circuit breakers Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 36 kV may be assembled into metalenclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may be individual components installed outdoors in a substation. Air-break circuit breakers replaced oil-filled units for indoor applications, but are now themselves being replaced by vacuum circuit breakers (up to about 36 kV). Like the high voltage circuit breakers described below, these are also operated by current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. Medium-voltage circuit breakers can be classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc:

Vacuum circuit breaker With rated current up to 3200 A, these breakers interrupt the current by creating and extinguishing the arc in a vacuum container. These are generally applied for voltages up to about 36,000 V, which corresponds roughly to the mediumvoltage range of power systems. Vacuum circuit breakers tend to have longer life expectancies between overhaul than do air circuit breakers. Air circuit breakerRated current up to 10,000 A. Trip characteristics are often fully adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and delays. Usually electronically controlled, though some models are microprocessor controlled via an integral electronic trip unit. Often used for main power distribution in large industrial plant, where the breakers are arranged in draw-out enclosures for ease of maintenance. SF6 circuit breakers extinguish the arc in a chamber filled with sulfur hexafluoride gas.

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High-voltage circuit breakers Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high-voltage breakers. The definition of high voltage varies but in power transmission work is usually thought to be higher than normal system voltage of 33KV. High-voltage breakers are nearly always solenoidoperated, with current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. In substations the protection relay scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and busses from various types of overload or ground/earth fault. High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc.

Minimum oil SF6

Some of the manufacturers are ABB, GE (General Electric) , AREVA, Mitsubishi Electric, Pennsylvania Breaker, Siemens, Toshiba, Konar HVS, BHEL and others. Due to environmental and cost concerns over insulating oil spills, most new breakers use SF6 gas to quench the arc. High-voltage AC circuit breakers are routinely available with ratings up to 765 kV. High-voltage circuit breakers used on transmission systems may be arranged to allow a single pole of a three-phase line to trip, instead of tripping all three poles; for some classes of faults this improves the system stability and availability.

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SIEMENS INDOOR VCB

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