Unit 15

Electrostatics and Gausss Law

15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8

Electric charge Coulombs law Shell theorems for electrostatics Electric field Electric field lines Shielding and charging by induction Electric flux Gausss law

15.1 Electric charge

There are two kinds of charges, namely, positive (+) charge and negative () charge. Like charges repel + Unlike charges attract + +

Objects with zero net change are said to be electrically neutral. Electric charges are generated after rubbing between materials.

Example After rubbing plastic rod (or amber rod) with fur, the plastic rod (or amber rod) becomes negatively charged and the fur is positively charged.

After rubbing glass rod with silk, the glass rod becomes positively charged and the silk is negatively charged. A familiar example of an electrically neutral object is the atom. Atoms have a small, dense nucleus with a positive charge surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. All electrons have exactly the same electric charge. This charge is very small, and is defined to have a magnitude, e = 1.60 1019 C. S.I. unit of charge is coulomb, C. Clearly, the charge on an electron, which is negative, is e. This is one of the defining, or intrinsic, properties of the electron. Another intrinsic property of the electron is its mass, me: me = 9.11 1031 kg In contrast, the charge on a proton one of the main constituents of nuclei is exactly +e. As a result, since atoms have equal numbers of electrons and protons, their net charge is precisely zero. The mass of the proton is mp = 1.673 1027 kg. Note that this is about 2000 times larger than the mass of the electron. The other main constituent of the nucleus is the neutron, which, as its name implies, has zero charge. Its mass is slightly larger than that of the proton: mn = 1.675 1027 kg.

Example How is it that rubbing a piece of amber with fur gives the amber a charge?

Answer: Rubbing the fur across the amber simply results in a transfer of charge from the fur to the amber with the total amount of charge remaining unchanged. Before charging, the fur and the amber are both neutral. During the rubbing process some electrons are transferred from the fur to the amber, giving the amber a net negative charge, and leaving the fur with a net positive charge. At no time during this process is charge ever created or destroyed.

This, in fact, is an example of one of the fundamental conservation laws of physics: Conservation of electric charge. When charge is transferred from one object to another it is generally due to the movement of electrons. In a typical solid, the nuclei of the atoms are fixed in position. The outer electrons of these atoms, however, are often weakly bound and fairly easily separated. The atom that loses an electron is a positive ion, and the atom that receives an extra electron becomes a negative ions. This is charging by separation. Example Find the amount of positive electric charge in one mole of helium atoms.

Answer: Note that the nucleus of a helium atom consists of two protons and two neutrons. The total positive charge in a mole is

N A (2e) = (6.02 10 23 )(2)(1.60 10 19 C ) = 1.93 10 5 C .

15.1.1 Polarization

We know that charges of opposite sign attract, but it is also possible for a charged rod to attract small objects that have zero net charge. The mechanism responsible for this attraction is called polarization. When a charged rod is far from a neutral object the atoms in the object are undistorted. As the rod is brought closer, however, the atoms distort, producing an excess of one type of charge on the surface of the object (in this case a negative charge). This induced charge is referred to as a polarization charge. Since the sign of the polarization charge is the opposite of the sign of the charge on the rod, there is an attractive force between the rod and the object.

15.1.2 Conductor and insulator

Conductors: materials that allow electric charges to move more or less freely, e.g. metals Insulators: materials in which charges are not free to move, e.g. nonmetallic substances, say, amber.

On a microscopic level, the difference between conductors and insulators is that the atoms in conductors allow one or more of their outermost electrons to become detached. These detached electrons, often referred to as conduction electrons, can move freely throughout the conductor. The right figures show the charging of a conductor by touching it with charged rod.

15.2 Coulombs law

Electric force Coulombs law
Fe = k q1 q 2 , where k (electrostatic constant > 0) is a constant. r2
1 4 0 = 8.99 10 9 N m 2 / C 2 , where 0 is called permittivity

The electrostatic constant k =

constant of free space, and 0 = 8.85 10 12 C 2 / N m 2 .

Gravitational force Newtons gravitational law
Fg = G m1 m2 , where G = 6.67 10 11 N m 2 / kg 2 . 2 r

The negative sign is inserted to represent an attractive force.

Remarks:
1. Fundamental laws cannot be derived!

Coulombs law, Newtons law, # etc. 2.

are concluded according to results in experiments and have survived in every experimental test.

Objects are considered as point particle or point charge, if d1 , d 2 << r .

+ d1 3. is also for the point charge.

d2

Newtons gravitational law is concluded for point particles. Similarly, Coulombs law

4.

The magnitude of the force of interaction between two point changes is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
F1 = F2

Obey Newtons third law

K F1

+ q1

+ q2

K F2

5.

Unit: International System of Units or Metric System (SI) Charge q: measured in Coulomb or C.

Remark:

Electrostatic constant is related to the speed of light c:

c= 1

0 0

where c = 2.998 10 8 m / s , and 0 = 4 10-7 N/A2, the permeability of free space.

Example

Compare the electric and gravitational forces between a proton and an electron in a hydrogen atom.

Answer:

Taking the distance between the two particles to be the radius of hydrogen, r = 5.29 10 11 m , we find that the electric force has a magnitude

Fe = k

qe q p r2

(1.60 10 19 C )(1.60 10 19 C ) = 8.22 10 8 N . = (8.99 10 N m / C ) 2 11 (5.29 10 m)

9 2 2

Similarly, the magnitude of the gravitational force between the electron and the proton is

Fg = G

me m p r2

= (6.67 10 11 N m 2 / kg 2 )

(9.11 10 31 kg )(1.673 10 27 kg ) = 3.63 10 47 N . 11 2 (5.29 10 m)

Hence, we obtain the ratio of the two forces

Fe 8.22 10 8 N = = 2.26 10 39 = 2,260,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 47 Fg 3.63 10 N

Example
We study the classical model for Hydrogen atom. The electron undergoes a circular motion with a radius a 0 called Bohr radius. Find the speed of electron. The constants are given as below.
D

electron

a 0 = 5.29 10

11

m = 0.529 A
Proton

a0

me = 9.11 1031 kg

Answer:

The force acting on the electron is obtained in the last example, where F = Fe + Fg Fe . But, F =

me v 2 Fa 0 (the centripetal force). Hence, v 2 = me a0

Fa 0 8.22 10 8 5.29 10 11 = 2.18 10 6 m / s . = me 9.11 10 31

v=

15.2.1 Superposition of Coulombs force

The force exerted on charge 1 by charge 2:

G F12 =

4 0 r12 2

q1 q 2

12 r
y Point charge

G 12 : unit vector along r12 . where r

sign repulsion same q1 and q 2 opposite sign attraction Similarly, The force exerted on charge 2 by charge 1:

q1

K r1

K K K r12 = r1 r2
q2
x

G F21 =

q1 q 2
2

4 0 r21

21 r
O

K r2

G 21 : unit vector along r21 . where r

The total force acting on charge q due to coulombs forces F1, F2 and F3.
F = F1 + F2 + F3

q2 q1 K F1

(Principle of superposition)

K F2

q3
K F3

The direction of forces shown in the right figure, representing that the charge q is of opposite charge of q1, q2 and q3.

Example

Three charges, each equal to +2.90 C, are placed at three corners of a square 0.500 m on a side. Find the magnitude and direction of the net force on charge number 3.
Answer:
y

G F31
2 r=0.500 m 3

G F
G F32
r=0.500 m x

2r

The magnitude of force exerted on charge 3 by charge 1:

F31 = k

q2 ( 2r ) 2

= (8.99 10 9 N m 2 / C 2 )

(2.90 10 6 C ) 2 = 0.151 N 2(0.500 m) 2

The magnitude of force exerted on charge 3 by charge 2: F32 = k

6 C)2 q2 9 2 2 ( 2.90 10 = = 0.302 N N m C ( 8 . 99 10 / ) r2 (0.500 m) 2

G G The components of F31 and F32 : F31, x = F31 cos 45.0 o = (0.151 N )(0.707) = 0.107 N F31, y = F31 sin 45.0 o = (0.151 N )(0.707) = 0.107 N F32, x = F32 cos 0 o = (0.302 N )(1) = 0.151 N

F32, y = F32 sin 0 o = (0.151 N )(0) = 0 N The components of the resultant force: Fx = F31, x + F32, x = 0.107 N + 0.302 N = 0.409 N Fy = F31, y + F32, y = 0.107 N + 0 N = 0.107 N
The resultant force acting on charge 3:
F = Fx + Fy = 0.423 N
2 2

The direction of the resultant force on charge 3:

= tan 1

F3, y = 14.7 o . F3, x

15.3 Shell theorems for electrostatics

Theorem 1:

A uniform spherical shell of charge behaves, for external points, as if all its charge were concentrated at its center.

F=

q1 q 4 0 r 2
1
Total charge q on spherical shell

q1

Theorem 2:

A uniform spherical shell of charge exerts no force on a charged particle placed inside the shell.
F=0 Remarks: The theorems are similar to the gravitational case.

15.4 Electric field

Gravitational field (a vector field)
Test body m

G G M em r M G F r2 g= = = G 2e r m m r Gravitational field: Gravitational force per unit mass G Electric field E G G Fe 1 q E = r q 0 4 0 r 2 Electric field: Electrostatic force per unit charge SI unit of electric field: Newton/Coulomb or N/C
Charged particle q Earth

q0

K Fe

A test charge with positive charge

Remark:

1. as:

Why do we need to introduce the concept of Electric field?

charge charge

Introducing the field as an intermediary between the charges, we can represent the interaction
field

Our problem of determining the interaction between the charges is therefore reduced to two separate problems: (1) determine, by measuring or calculation, the electric field established by the first charge at every point in space, and (2) calculate the force that the field exerts on the second charge placed at a particular point in space. 2. Principle of superposition in electric field:

The resultant electric field E at a point is given by E = E1 + E2 + E3 , where E1, E2, and E3 are the electric fields experienced at that point due to charge 1, 2 and 3 respectively.

15.4.1 Discrete and continuous charge distribution

a)

Discrete case
E = E1 + E2 + E3 +

b) i)

Continuous case When charge is uniformly distributed along a line. Linear charge density
q l dq ) dl

l
Total q

charge per unit length

( =

Total charge q

ii)

Charge on a surface (uniformly distributed) Surface charge density

q S dq ( = ) dS
Surface area S

charge per unit area

iii)

On a volume Volume charge density

q V dq dV

Total charge q

charge per unit volume

Volume V

Example (Challenging)

Find the electric field at a point P, which is at the top of the center of a charged ring. The total charge on the ring is q.

G dE '
P

G E
G G dE ' dE '
Total charge q P

ds

Answer:

 direction can be calculated as Due to the symmetry of the ring, the electric field along z
follows.
E = dE ' cos , where cos = z ds 1 dq 1 and dE ' = . = 2 2 r 4 0 r 4 0 z + R 2

The linear charge density of the ring =

q dq , where R is the radius of ring. = 2R ds

E=

ds N 4 0 ( z + R 2 )3/ 2
2 2R

z(2R ) 4 0 ( z 2 + R 2 ) 3/ 2 1

Plug in the expression, 2R = q , hence, the electric field at any point P, a perpendicular distance z from the plane and center of ring, E =
Remark:

z . 4 0 ( z + R 2 ) 3 / 2
2

When z >> R, that is the distance is much larger than the dimension of the ring,
1 1 1 2 = 3 2 3/ 2 3/ 2 (z + R ) ( z + 0) z
2

q 4 0 z 2

This is as if the case where R 0 , the ring seems to be a point charge!

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Example (Challenging)

Find the electric field at a point P, which is at the top of the center of a uniformly charged disk. The total charge on the disk is q.
Answer:

The surface charge density

q R 2

G E
Disk of Radius R

The differential area of the ring

dA = 2rdr

dq = dA = (2rdr ) The electric field experienced at a perpendicular distance z from the center of disk due to the differential ring. Remember that we have an expression for the ring in the previous section. dE =
dA

q
dr

z 2r dr zdq = 2 2 3/ 2 2 4 0 ( z + r 2 ) 3 / 2 4 0 ( z + r ) z 4 0

E = dE =

2r dr (z + r 2 )3/ 2
2

Now, we let y = r 2 and we have dy = 2rdr . The integral

R2
z dy 2 2 E = ( 2 )( z + y ) , which gives 4 0 ( z 2 + y) 3 / 2
2 1 R

2r dr becomes (z + r 2 )3/ 2
2

. Hence, we have
0

E=

z (1 ). 2 2 0 z + R2

Remark:

When R >> z (infinite sheet of charge), we have E = When z >> R, we have

z z2 + R2 = 1 1+ R2 z2 1

. 2 0

R2 2z 2

That is E =

q R 2 q , we have E = . By using = 2 2 4 0 z 2 4 0 z R

(Result of point charge!)

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15.5 Electric field lines

Rules for drawing electric field lines Electric field lines: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Point in the direction of electric field vector E at every point; Start at positive (+) charges or at infinity; End at negative () charges or at infinity; Are more dense where E has a greater magnitude. In particular, the number of lines entering or leaving a charge is proportional to the magnitude of the charge.

Example
Which of the following statements is correct: Electric field lines (a) can or (b) cannot intersect?

Answer:
By definition, electric field lines are always tangent to the electric field. Since the electric force, and hence the electric field, can point in only one direction at any given location, it

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follows that field lines cannot intersect. If they did, the field at the intersection point would have two conflicting directions.

15.6 Shielding and charging by induction

In a perfect conductor there are enormous numbers f electrons completely free to move about. This simple fact has some rather interesting consequences. Consider, for example, a solid metal sphere attached to an insulating base as shown in figure. Suppose a positive charge Q is placed on the sphere. The question is: How does this charge distribute itself on the sphere when it is in equilibrium? In particular, does the charge spread itself uniformly throughout the volume of the sphere, or does it concentrate on the surface? The answer is that the charge concentrates on the surface. Why should this be the case? First, assume the opposite that the charge is spread uniformly throughout the spheres volume. If this were the case, a charge at location A would experience an outward force due to the spherical distribution of charge between it and the center of the sphere. Since charges are free to move, the charge at A would respond to this force by moving toward the surface. Clearly, then, a uniform distribution of charge within the spheres volume is not in equilibrium. In fact, the argument that a charge at point A will move toward the surface can be applied to any charge within the sphere. The preceding result holds no matter what the shape of the conductor. In general, excess charge placed on a conductor, whether positive or negative, moves to the exterior surface of the conductor.

15.6.1 Shielding
When electric charges are in equilibrium, the electric field within a conductor is zero; E = 0. A straightforward extension of this idea explains the phenomenon of shielding, in which a conductor shields its interior from external electric fields.

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We also noted that the electric field lines contact conductor surfaces at right angles. If an electric field contacted a conducting surface at an angle other than 90o, the result would be a component of force parallel to the surface. This would result in a movement of electrons and hence would not correspond to equilibrium.

15.6.2 Charging by induction

One way to charge an object is to touch it with a charged rod; but since electric forces can act at a distance, it is also possible to charge an object without making direct physical contact. This type of charging is referred to as charging by induction.

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15.7 Electric flux

The electric flux is defined as , which is the product of the electric field and the area of surface = E A .

Example
Consider a surface with area A and a uniform electric field penetrating the surface perpendicularly. The electric flux is given by = EA .

Example
Consider a surface with area A and a uniform electric field penetrating the surface with an angle with the normal of surface. The electric flux is given by = E A . Or in scalar form: EA cos .
Surface area A

G E

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Remarks:

1.

For a plane surface, the area vector A is defined as

e
Normal of the surface

 is the normal vector.  , where e A = Ae

2.

. For a curved surface, we have dA = dA e

plane, then = E Ai or in the integral form E dA .
i

Area A

When the electric field E is not uniform, i.e., E = E (x, y, z), or if the surface is not a

3.

If the surface through which the flux is calculated is closed, the sign of the flux is as follows:

The flux is positive for field lines that leave the enclosed volume of the surface. The flux is negative for field lines that enter the enclosed volume of the surface.

15.8 Gausss law

In order to understand Gausss law, we first look at the following. Consider a point charge q and a spherical surface of radius r and centered on the charge. The electric field on the surface of the sphere has the constant magnitude E=k q . r2
G E
+q

Since the electric field is everywhere perpendicular to the spherical surface, it follows that the electric flux is simply E times the area A = 4r2 of the sphere:
q = EA = k 2 r 2 4r = 4kq

Plug in k = 1/(40), we obtain the Gausss law

=

Gaussian surface with area 4r2

Thus we find the very simple result that the electric flux through a sphere that encloses a charge q is the charge divided by the permittivity of free space, 0. This is a very nice result!! As the electric field of many symmetrical system can be found readily with Gausss law. Gausss law states that the flux of the electric field over the Gaussian surface equals to the net charge enclosed by that surface.

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Remarks:

1. 2.

Symmetrical situations arise in all fields of physics and, when possible, it makes sense to cast the laws of physics in forms that take full advantage of this fact. Gausss law is a new formulation of Coulombs law that can take advantage of symmetry. The integral form of Gausss law: 0 E dA = q , where 0 is the permittivity constant.

3.

Example

Consider the surface S shown in the figure. Is the electric flux through this surface (a) negative, (b) positive, or (c) zero?

Answer:

Since the surface S encloses no charge, the net electric flux through it must be zero, by Gausss law. That a charge +q is nearby is irrelevant, because it is outside the volume enclosed by the surface. We can explain why the flux vanishes in another way. Notice that the flux on portions of S near the charge is negative, since field lines enter the enclosed volume there. On the other hand, the flux is positive on the outer portions of S where field lines exit the volume. The combination of these positive and negative contributions is a net flux of zero. That is, the answer is (c).

15.8.1 Gaussian surface

Gaussian surface is a closed surface, e.g. sphere, cube, cylinder, etc. And, Gausss law tells how the fields at the Gaussian surface are related to the charges contained within that surface.
Charges Gaussian surface

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Example

Calculate the electric field at a external point due to a point charge.

Answer:

We form a spherical Gaussian surface, centered at the charge, to enclose the charge q. The G electric field, E, is uniform on the spherical Gaussian surface. E From Gausss law

0 = 0 E dA = q

+q

As E // dA and E is uniform on the surface, we have

0 E dA = q or
E= q

0 E (4r 2 ) = q
Gaussian surface with area 4r2

4 0 r 2

which gives the Coulombs law.

Remark 1: Gausss law Remark 2:

equivalent

Coulombs law.

Suppose we have a spherical Gaussian surface, and if the electric field vectors are of uniform magnitude and point radially outwards as shown. One can conclude that a net positive charge must lie within the surface and that it must have spherical symmetry.
Charge inside?

E Spherical Gaussian surface

Example

Use Gausss law to investigate the space under a uniform electric field.
b
G dA G E

G dA

G E

G dA

G E

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Answer:

We form a cylindrical Gaussian surface, which is immersed in a uniform field. The electric flux:
= E dA = E dA + E dA + E dA , where E dA = EdA cos .
a b c

(i) Surface a

= 180

E dA = EA
a

(ii) Surface b = 90 (iii) Surface c = 0

= EA + 0 + EA = 0

E dA = 0
b

E dA = EA
c

No charge is enclosed in the Gaussian surface.

Example

Find the electric field at a point very near to the surface of a charged conductor.

Answer:

Suppose charges q are on the right surface, the surface charge density is given by = in the language of calculus, ( r ) =
dq . dA

q , or A

Now, we form the Gaussian surface as shown in figure. Near the conductor, the surface is
 of the surface. flat, so the E-field is // to e

Apply the Gausss law, we have

0 E dA = q

e
Conductor a c b

Gaussian surface

E dA =
a

+ +
b c

G E

i) ii) iii)

For surface a, E = 0 (inside the conductor)

, hence we have E dA = 0 . For surface c, E e
Charges q on surface

For surface b,

E dA = E A .
b

So, 0 EA = q E =

q 0A

or

E=

. 0

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Example

Find the electric field radiated from an infinite long charged plastic rod with linear charge density , where charge enclosed by Gaussian surface)
Answer:

q ( q: total h
e
c

From cylindrical symmetry, E is along radial direction. By Gausss law: 0 E dA = q . Surfaces a and b do not contribute to the integral
e

+ + + r + + + + + + +

G E

Gaussian surface

0 E 2rh = q = h
So
E=

2 0 r

G E
Gaussian surface at top

Example

Find the electric field radiated from an infinite plane sheet of charge, with surface charge density
Answer:

q A

Gausss law

0 E dA = q
a

E dA =
So 2 0 EA = q

+ = 2 EA
b

E=

2 0 A

2 0

Example

Find the electric field inside and outside a spherical shell of charge q.
S2

Answer:

Due to spherical symmetry, the direction of E is along radial direction and E is uniform on the sphere. For Gaussian surface S 2 : 0 E dA = q

S1 r2

r1 Spherical shell of Charge q

Spherical Gaussian surfaces

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or

0 4r2 2 E = q E =

q , which gives the first shell theorem. 4 0 r 2

For Gaussian surface S1 : 0 E dA = q , where q = 0 .

0 4r1 2 E = 0 E = 0 ,
which gives the second shell theorem.
Insulating sphere with charge inside

Example

Find the electric field E(r), inside and outside a uniformly charged insulating sphere, with total charge Q and radius R.

Answer:

In order to find E with different r, we apply the Gausss law. The volume charge density is given by =
Q Q = . 4 V R3 3

S2

S1

G E
Radial direction

The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface S1 is Qencl = V ' = Q 4 3 R 3 4 3 r3 r =Q 3 . 3 R

From the spherical symmetry E has the same value on the surface S1.

0 E dA = Qencl
That is, E = 1

or

0 E (4r 2 ) =

Qr 3 R3

Q r , for r < R (E r). 4 0 R 3 Q . 4 0 R 2 E E= Q 4 0 R 2 1 E= 1 1

At the surface of sphere, r = R, hence, we obtain E = When r > R, the Gaussian surface S 2 encloses all the charges.

Qencl = Q

0 E 4r 2 = Q
Q , which is Hence, we obtain E = 4 0 r 2 the result of coulomb s law. 1 E=

Q r 4 0 R 3

Q 4 0 r 2

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