9. MANOEUVRABILITY 9.

1 Directional stability
A ship is said to be directionally stable if, when deflected from its straight-line path, by say wind or waves, it returns to a new straight-line path, although this will not necessarily be in the same direction as the original path. A high measure of directional stability will result in good coursekeeping but low ability to manoeuvre, whilst a measure of directional instability will result in poor course keeping but good ability to manoeuvre. A compromise will normally have to be accepted, depending on the duties of the vessel under consideration. For example, a service vessel working in a port will need good stopping and manoeuvring ability whilst a large sea-going ship that covers large distances without manoeuvring will primarily require good course keeping. Directional instability is not a desirable property, as repeated rudder corrections generally have to be applied to maintain a course. Also, a vessel with low directional stability will readily enter a turn but may be slow to respond to reversed rudder angle in order to leave the turn. The directional stability of a vessel will depend on several features including the fineness or fullness of the form, fine forms having higher directional stability, the operating draught and trim with an increase in trim by the stern increasing directional stability, and the amount of deadwood or fixed skeg area aft, increases in such area leading to an increase in directional stability. Increases in directional stability lead to a decrease in manoeuvring performance and, if increases are needed, the best compromise is reached if directional stability is increased by increasing movable rudder area, if this is possible, rather than increasing fixed skeg or deadwood area.

9.2 Control surfaces and applications

The purpose of a control surface is to produce a force, which is used to control the motion of the vehicle. Control surfaces may be fixed or movable but, in the marine field, they are mainly movable with the prime example being the ship redder. Movable control surfaces are used on most marine vessels including boats, ships of all sizes, submarines and other underwater vehicles. Typical applications may be summarized as Rudders: used to control horizontal motion of all types of marine vehicle. Fin stabilizers: used to reduce roll motion. Hydroplanes (or diving planes): used to control the vertical motion of submarines and other underwater vehicles. Fins for pitch damping: used to control pitch motion in high-speed vessels. Transom flaps: used to control running trim and/or to provide ride control. Interceptors: used to control running trim and/or to provide ride control. Examples of fixed control surfaces include anti-pitching fins on fast vessels and keels on sailing yachts. In general, lift or side force on a control surface may be developed by applying incidence, introducing asymmetry by means of fixed camber, or introducing variable camber by means say of a flap. Since movable control surfaces generally have to act in both directions, applications in the marine field tend to be symmetrical. The cambered shape is of course used extensively for aircraft lifting surfaces as well as marine applications such as sections for propeller blades and lifting foils on hydrofoil craft.

Other control surfaces

Fin stabilizers

Fin stabilizers are used to provide roll damping which leads to increased crew and passenger comfort and safety and reduced cargo damage. Excessive rolling tends to create more discomfort and danger than say pitching or other motions. As the energy involved in roll is much less than pitch, roll can be reduced more readily. Passive resistance to rolling is provided by bilge keels, fitted to many ships, but a more effective roll reduction can be achieved with fin stabilizers. The stabilizer fins are fitted at about the turn of bilge, and one or more pairs of fins may be fitted, depending on ship size and operational requirements. Aerofoil sections, flapped foils and foils with wedges at the trailing edge have been employed for fin stabilizers. The fins may be folding or retractable, or non retractable on some smaller installations. The roll motion is sensed by a gyroscope, which feeds a controller whereby suitable incidence of the fins provides a restoring moment about the roll axis. Up to 70-80% roll reduction can be achieved depending on design and operational conditions. As they depend on forward speed to provide lift, and hence a restoring moment, fin stabilizers are most effective at higher speeds.

Hydroplanes Hydroplanes are control surfaces that are used to control the vertical motion of underwater vehicles and behave in the manner of a horizontal rudder. Aerofoil sections tend to be used for hydroplanes which will be all-movable or with a fixed skeg of 20-30% of chord from the leading edge.

Pitch damping fins Fins are used to control the pitch motion of some higher speed commercial passenger ferries. These vessels are generally of semi-displacement form in monohull or multihull configuration. The fins tend to be of aerofoil section, allmovable and may be retractable. The design procedure is similar to that of a control surface in a free stream, taking into account the effective angle of attack due to the pitch motion.

Transom flaps Adjustable flaps, or trim tabs, at the bottom of the transom, are employed on high speed semi-displacement and planning crafts to adjust the running trim and minimize the resistance to forward motion. They may also be used to provide pitch or ride control and may be used in conjunction with pitch-damping fins forward. Flap angle is typically changed using hydraulic actuators. Optimum flap angle will change with speed. Dissimilar flap angles port and starboard can be used to create a horizontal turning or steering moment on the hull.

Interceptors These are adjustable vertical plates at the bottom of the transom, normally one port and one starboard or one in each hull in the case of a catamaran. Vertical movement is usually carried out using hydraulic actuators. Vertical adjustment can have an effect similar to a stern flap, providing adjustment to the running trim. They are also used on faster semi-displacement craft to provide pitch or ride control and may be used in conjunction with pitch-damping fins forward. Dissimilar vertical adjustment port and starboard leads to dissimilar horizontal forces on the interceptors and a horizontal turning or steering moment on the hull. Interceptors may be used as well as, or instead of, flaps. A typical application of interceptors has been to supplement the steering of vessels propelled by waterjets.

9.4.1 Concept of rudder

A rudder is a device used to steer a ship, boat, submarine, hovercraft, aircraft, or other conveyance that moves through a medium (generally air or water). On an aircraft the rudder is used primarily to counter adverse yaw and p-factor and is not the primary control used to turn the airplane. A rudder operates by redirecting the fluid past the hull or fuselage, thus imparting a turning or yawing motion to the craft. In basic form, a rudder is a flat plane or sheet of material attached with hinges to the craft's stern, tail, or after end. Often rudders are shaped so as to minimize hydrodynamic or aerodynamic drag. On simple watercraft, a tilleressentially, a stick or pole acting as a lever armmay be attached to the top of the rudder to allow it to be turned by a helmsman. In larger vessels, cables, pushrods, or hydraulics may be used to link rudders to steering wheels. In typical aircraft, the rudder is operated by pedals via mechanical linkages or hydraulics. A rudder works on Bernoullis principle. When a rudder is placed normal, the force acting on the both sides of the rudder is cancelled. So the vessel moves in a straight line. When the rudder is tilted right the water pushed by the propeller has to travel a more distance at left side compared to right side. As a result the water flowing through the left side of the rudder travels with a high velocity compared to right side. By Bernoullis principle as velocity increases pressure decreases. That is the pressure of the left side is decreased. By the principle that every bodies moves from a high pressure region to low pressure region, the ship is turned. The maximum angle that a rudder can be tilted is 35 degrees for maximum manoeuvring ability.

9.4.2 Types of rudder

The choice of the rudder type will depend on factors such as ship or boat type and size, the shape of the stern, size of rudder required and whether there is a propeller upstream of the rudder. The principal rudder types, or concepts, and some comments on each are as follows: (a) Balanced rudder: Open stern frame with a bottom pintle, which is a support bolt or pin with a bearing. The upper bearing is inside the hull. It has been applied to vessels such as tugs and trawlers and extensively to single-screw merchant ships. Tends to have been superseded by the use of the semi-balanced skeg rudder.

(b) Spade rudder: A balanced rudder. Both bearings are inside the hull. Bending moments as well as torque are carried by the stock, leading to larger stock diameters and rudder thickness. Applied extensively to single and twin-screw vessels, including small power craft, yachts, ferries, warships and some large merchant ships. Also employed as control surfaces on submarines and other underwater vehicles.

(c) Full skeg rudder: An unbalanced rudder. The rudder is supported by a fixed skeg with a pintle at the bottom. Applied mainly to large sailing yachts, but also applied as hydroplanes on underwater vehicles.

(d) Semi-balanced skeg rudder: Also known as a horn rudder or a Mariner rudder, following its early application to a ship of that type. The movable part of the rudder is supported by a fixed skeg with a pintle at the bottom of the skeg.

(e) Semi-balanced rudder, aft of skeg or deadwood: Typically applied to twin-screw ships with a single rudder. Tends to have been superseded by the use of twin rudders.

(f) Unbalanced, aft of keel or deadwood: Typically applied to some older sailing craft.

(g) Transom hung, surface piercing: An unbalanced rudder. Typically applied to small sailing craft.

Other variants, such as twisted, flapped and high lift rudders may be considered as special cases of these principal rudder types.

9.5 Manoeuverability
9.5.1 Turning circle As the rudder is put over there is a force which pushes the ship sideways in the opposite direction to which it wishes to turn. As the hydrodynamic forces build up on the hull the ship slows down and starts to turn in a steadily tightening circle until a steady state speed and radius of turn is reached. A number of parameters are used to define the turning performance.

They are: (1) The drift angle, which at any point is the angle between the ships head and its direction of motion. This varies along the length, increasing the further aft it is measured. Unless otherwise specified the drift angle at the ships centre of gravity is to be understood. (2) The advance, which is the distance travelled by the ships centre of gravity, in the original direction of motion, from the instant the rudder is put over. Usually the advance quoted is that for a 90 change of heading although this is not the maximum value. (3) The transfer which is the lateral displacement of the ships centre of gravity from the original path. Usually transfer is quoted for 90 change of heading.

(4) The tactical diameter which is the value of the transfer for 180 change of heading although this is not the maximum transfer. It is usual to quote a tactical diameter to length ratio, TD/L. Modern frigates at high speed and full rudder turn with a TD/L of about 3. For smaller turning circles such as may be required of a mine countermeasures vessel lateral thrust units or azimuthing propellers would be used. A value of 4.5 would be regarded as good for most merchant ships but a value greater than 7 as very poor. (5) The diameter of the steady turning circle . The steady state is typically reached at some point between 90 and 180 change of heading. (6) The steady speed on turn. Due to the fore and aft component of the hydrodynamic forces the ship slows down during the turn. Unless engine power is increased it may be only 60 per cent of the approach speed. The steady speed is reached as the diameter steadies. If a ship does need to reverse direction, as might be the case of a frigate hunting a submarine, the time to turn through 180 is likely to be more important than a really small diameter of turn. Because of the loss of speed on turn such ships would choose a lesser rudder angle to get round quickly and to avoid the need to accelerate so much after the turn. (7) The turning rate. The quickest turn might not be the tightest. A frigate would turn at about 3 per second. Half this rate would be good for merchant ships and values of 0.51 would be more typical. (8) The pivoting point. This is the foot of the perpendicular from the centre of the turning circle to the middle line of the ship, extended if necessary. This is the point at which the drift angle will be zero and it is typically about 1 of the length from the bow. (9) The angle of heel during the turn. A ship typically heels in to the turn as the rudder is initially applied. On the steady turn it heels outwards, the heeling moment being due to the couple produced by the athwart ships components of the net rudder and hull hydrodynamic forces and the acceleration force acting at the centre of gravity which is caused by the turning of the ship. It is countered by the ships stability righting moment. 9.5.2 The zig-zag manoeuvre

A ship does not often turn through large angles and seldom through even a half circle. Thus the turning circle is not realistic in terms of movements of a ship in service. It is also difficult to measure the initial reaction to the rudder accurately in this manoeuvre. On the other hand a ship does often need to turn through angles of 10 to 30. It is the initial response of the ship to the rudder being put over that can be vital in trying to avoid a collision. This initial response is studied in the zig-zag manoeuvre. In it the ship proceeds on a straight course at a steady speed, a rudder angle of 20 is applied and held until the ships head has changed by 20 and then the rudder is reversed to 20 the other way and held until the ships head has changed 20 in the opposite direction. The manoeuvre is repeated for different speeds, rudder angles and heading changes.

The important measurements from the manoeuvre are: (1) The overshoot angle. This is the amount the heading increases by after the rudder is reversed. Large angles would represent a ship in which the helmsman would have difficulty in deciding when to take rudder off to check a turn. Values of 5.5 and 8.5 would be reasonable aims for ships at 8 and 16 knots respectively, varying roughly with speed. The angle does not depend upon ship length. (2) The times to the first rudder reversal and the first maximum heading change. It has been suggested (Burcher, 1991) that for reasonable designs, times to change heading by 20 would be of the order of 80 to 30 seconds for a 150 meter ship over the range 6 to 20 knots. The time would be roughly proportional to length. (3) The steady overshoot angle and the period of the cycle once a steady condition is reached.

9.5.3 Straight line stability: This is the ships ability to resume a straight-line path without application of control surface forces. This means, if the ship takes a straight-line path after the disturbance is removed, then it is said to possess straight-line stability. 9.5.4 Directional stability: This is the ships ability to resume a straight line path having the same direction as it had before the disturbance. There can be two possible paths during the disturbance phase: either it can be oscillatory or non-oscillatory.

9.5.5 Dynamic Positioning Dynamic Positioning is generally used in research ships and drilling vessels which have to venture into the deepest parts of the ocean and sea where winds and waves tend to be perpetually altering. In situations like this, it could prove very tedious for a ships crew to lay the anchors. A ship enabled with Dynamic

Positioning can get to know about the changes in the wind and the waves and thus alter its course suitably without having to compromise on its main purpose. Ships enabled with Dynamic Positioning are independent of anchors and other support system in the sense that a Dynamic Positioning Ship enables the use of pushers and propellers to make the ship stay on course and steady rather than get carried away by the fluctuating winds and waves. This is perhaps the most advantageous feature of the system of Dynamic Positioning. In the earlier days, when ships used to enter the deeper parts of the ocean and the seas, there always used to be a threat of ships colliding with another ship because of natural movement of the wind and the waves or ships veering off course and thus getting lost and never to be found. But since the development of Dynamic Positioning which incorporates the usage of SONAR, Radar and other comprehensive detection, ships have started finding it easy to maintain their pace and steady their being in the deeper parts of the oceanic and sea waters. The working of a Dynamic Positioning Ship is quite simple. There is a control panel which notes the wind and the wave fluctuation and accordingly sends appropriate signals to the propellers so as to enable the ship to steady and maintain its course. There are, however three different levels of Dynamic Positioning that can be used and it depends on the type of the ship on which Dynamic Positioning has to be enabled. Level I Dynamic Positioning System Ships whose off-course drifting will not have any impact on the life of the crew or on any marine creature are generally enabled with a Level I Dynamic Positioning System. This is the most basic Dynamic Positioning system and it does not have any advanced tools that ships with the other two Dynamic Positioning systems require. Level II Dynamic Positioning System A Level II Dynamic Positioning system in built in a ship whose off-course veering will tend to cause serious problems. A Dynamic Positioning Ship enabled with a Level II

Dynamic Positioning system contains high-end computer applications and diving watercrafts in case the ship encounters any major problem in the deep sea. Level III Dynamic Positioning System A Dynamic Positioning Ship with a Level III Dynamic Positioning contains similar equipments like a Level II Dynamic Positioning system but with a back-up Dynamic Positioning system at some other location. The aspect of back-up is important because they will act as emergencies in case the main Dynamic Positioning system gets destroyed due to any water penetration or occurrence of fire or short circuit or any other inadvertent casualty. Generally oil tankers which drill in the deep parts of the ocean are equipped with a Level III Dynamic Positioning system. At present, only a few elite ships and naval vessels incorporate the usage of Dynamic Positioning. But since conserving and preserving the environment and the eco-system has become the need of the hour, it is only logical that Dynamic Positioning becomes the future of marine vessels in order to preserve the marine ecology with every bit of technological knowledge man has in his power and disposal.

9.6

EFFECT OF MANOEUVRING

DESIGN

PARAMETERS

ON

The following remarks are of a general nature because it is not possible to predict how changes to individual design parameters will affect precisely the manoeuvring of a ship. Speed: For surface vessels increased speed leads to increase turning diameter for a given rudder angle although the rate of turn normally increases. For submerged bodies, turning diameters are sensibly constant over the speed range. Trim: Generally stern trim improves directional stability and increases turning diameter. The effect os roughly linear over practical speed ranges. Draught: Somewhat surprisingly limited tests indicate that decrease in draught results in increased turning rate and stability. This suggests that the rudder becomes a more dominant factor both as a stabilizing sin and as a turning device. Longitudinal moment of inertia: Changes in inertia leave the steady turning rate unchanged. A larger inertia increases angular momentum and leads to larger overshoot. Metacentric height: Quite large changes in metacentric height show no significant effects on turning rate or stability. Length/beam ratio: Generally speaking the greater this ratio the more stable the ship and the larger the turning circle.