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9/ Gravity
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8/ Weak nuclear force
15
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odkY avsmhusomG ;onf/ x&pfwD,rf ESihf ',lwm&D,rf EsLuvd,wkYd zGJUwnfvmMu
onf/ EsLx&Gef 14% ESihf ykw
d Gef 86% jzpfvmonf/ 34 rdepf 40 pueYt
f MumwGif
u,fvAf if'D*&D oef; 100 txdavsmhusoGm;\/ EsLuvd, zGJUwnfrI&yfqkid ;f oGm;NyD;
4
[DvD,rf EsLuvd,ESihf [ku
d 'f k*d siEf sLuvd, (vGwv
f yfykw
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ckid Nf rJonfh tufwrf rzGJUEkid af o;ay/
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f pfaomif;
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f sqif;onfESihftrQ
zkw
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ckepfodef; tMum ckdifNrJonfhtufwrfrsm; zGJUwnfvmNyDjzpfonf/ j'yfom;ESifh
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f ku
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oD;jcm;pDjzpfomG ;Muonf/ odkY oD;jcm;pDjzpfomG ;aom r[m0J*,ufBuD;rsm;onf
1/ Big Band
2/ Tritium
3/ Deuterium
4/ Helium
18
vnf; t[kejf yif;pGm vnfywfae&mrS ,if;wkYdtxJ 0J*,ufBuD;rsm;jzpfvmMujyef

onf/ ESpfaxmifaygif;rsm;pGm Mumonfhtcg tqkdyg0Ju,ufBuD;rsm;onfvnf;
oD;jcm;pD jywfxGuo
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vGecf Jhaom ESpaf ygif;uka# 450 cefYwGif xdk0J*,ufBuD;ESihf ,if;ukv
d nfywfaeonfh
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f kYd aepMu0Vm\ aeESihf *d[Bf uD; udk;vHk;jzpfvm\/
f ku
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t&nfvHk;BuD;jzpfvm tylcsed u
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jyifwjznf;jznf;wif;vmum tay:cGHjzpfay:vm\/ ESpaf ygif;rsm;pGm MumvmonfESihf
trQ pOD;urmvnf; at;at;vm rmrmvmpOf tay:cGrH w
S ufomG ;onfh a&ck;d a&aiGU
rsm;onf pOD;urmwpfckvHk;udk 0dki;f ywfxm;aom r[mwdrw
f ku
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ausmufawmif ausmufaqmif? ausmufwHk;? ausmufcJrsm;jzpfvmMu\/
tylcsed af vsmu
h s aumif;uif,aH t;vmonft
h cg a&ck;d a&aiGrY sm;onf rk;d tjzpf
&Gmusawmh\/ odkYaomf pOD;urm\ yljyif;rIt&Sed af Mumifh ajrjyifra&mufrD a&ck;d a&aiGU
jyefjzpfNyD; txufokdYjyefwufoGm; wdrw
f ku
d Bf uD;tjzpfokYd jyefa&muf&jyef\/ odkY
tBudrBf udrjf zpfysuNf yD; urmajrjyiftylcsed af &qlrw
S af tmufavsmu
h somG ;csed f &Gmusvm
aom rk;d a&rsm;onf a&ck;d a&aiGUjyefrjzpfawmhbJ ajrjyiftxdusa&mufvmawmh\/
1/ Galaxy
2/ The universe
3/ The Milky Way
19
ESpaf ygif;axmifcsDNyD; rk;d wdrt

f jzpfomaecJh&aom a&ck;d a&aiGUrsm;onfvnf; rk;d tjzpf
ESpw
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xdkokt
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rsm; aygif;pyf avxkjzpfay:vm&m rNidrrf oufqlyGuaf eNyD; wdrv
f Tmtopfrsm;
ay:aygufvmMu\/
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vm&mrS rD;awmifrsm;jzpfay:vmNyD; acsmf ryrf sm;? jymylrIeYfrsm;udk aumif;uiftwGi;f
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f av;rsm;udk
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1
2
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hf wl yifv,fork'& mtxJoakYd &mufomG ;Mu\/
3
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f kdY
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4
wku
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5
'DatmufqDkid b
f kd EsLuvpftufppf rsm;jzpfvmMuonf/ xdkYtwl ysL&if;? ykid &f DrD'if;
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ESihf azmhpzdww
f kYdonfvnf; kid b
f kdY oMum;ESihfaygif;rd&mrS tmtifatac: kid b
f kdEsL
7
uvpftufppf jzpfvmonf/
1/ Purine
2/ Pyrimidine
3/ Deoxyribose
4/ Nucleotide
5/ Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

6/ Ribose
7/Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
20
1
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d ufppf tajrmuf
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1/ Genetic code
2/ Bacteria
21
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f nf txuf
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om vufcH&&So
d nf/ tylcsed jf rifhrm;rIaMumifh t&nf? tcJtjzpf wnfraeEkid af y/
a&taejzifh t&nf? tcJ tjzpfyg wnfaeEkid o
f nfh tylcsed Zf keef ,fukd yHk (2-1)
wGif azmfjyxm;onf/
1/Venus
22
1
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f kYd vt&G,f
omomrQ t&G,o
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&v'ftaejzifh yljyif;vGe;f onfh tjcrf;wGif a&[l wnfraeEkid o
f vdk? at;vGe;f onfh
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hf rQ tylcsed af vsmah vsmo
h mG ;ojzifh a&cJtjzpf
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r[kwb
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f nf/ a&cJrQom
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f nf/
1/ Mercury
2/ Mars
23
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oD;jcm;wnf0ef;usit
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a&onf tajcoHk;rsK;d jzifh MoumoavmutwGi;f rdru
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24
1
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f nf/ urf;OD;a&wdryf kdi;f
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3
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ta&SUbufu rm&D,memacsmufBuD;\ cs,fvif*smacsmufeufBuD;rSm ckepfrkdifcefY
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f ydki;f yJhxGuo
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1/ Continental shelf
2/ Continental slope
3/ Abyssal
4/ Trenches
yHk (2-1) a&udk tajcoHk;rsK;d pvHk;jzpfay:apEkid o

f nhf tylcsed Zf keef ,fjyyHk
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25000
300
2016000
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3100
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100
yHk (2-1) urmha&xk ysHUESHUyHkjyZ,m;

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0-600
600-3000
3000-6000
6000-12000
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yHk (2-2) a&teuftvdkuf yifv,fork'&m

atmufcif;jyif{&d,mESihf &mckid Ef Ie;f jyZ,m;
1/ Ice caps
2/ Glaciers
27
1
yifv,fork'&ma& tav;csed f *&rf 1000 wGif qk'd D,rfuvdkkd'f (tdro

f Hk;qm;)
u 27 *&rf yg0ifNyD; wjcm;"mwfqm;rsm;u 8 *&rfyg0ifonf/ yifv,fa&ief&jcif;rSm
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f m;rsm;aMumifh jzpfonf/
0ifk;d pGe;f eD;a'oyifv,fork'&mrsm;wGif yifv,frsuEf Smjyifa&rsm;onf
2
tpOftNrJ odkYr[kwf tpOftNrJeD;eD; at;cJum yifv,fa&cJ rsm;jzpfay:ae\/
3
tvTmvdkuf ESprf sK;d ESppf m;jzpfay:avh&S&d m? wpfrsK;d rSm urf;pyfa&cJvTm jzpf aemuf
4
wpfrsK;d rSm urf;vGeaf &cJvTm jzpfonf/ urf;pyfa&cJvTmonf urf;ajc&Sd yifv,fa&
rsm; at;cJNyD;jzpfay: urf;ajcESihf wpfqufwpfpyfwnf;jzpfaeum a&GUvsm;jcif;
r&Sad y/ urf;vGeaf &cJvTmrSmrl urf;ajcESihfqufpyfrIr&Sb
d J urf;vGeyf kdi;f jzpfay:&m?
a&ay:wGif aygavmay:NyD; a&GUarsmaewwfonf/ tus,rf Dwm 50 rS 1000
5
ausmt
f xd&SEd kdio
f nf/ BuD;rm;us,jf yefYonfh urf;vGeaf &cJvTmudk a&cJjyifus,f [k
vnf;ac:Muonf/
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d ork'&m\tpdwt
f ydki;f rsm;
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f rf;k;d wef;onf 443 rkid ?f jrpf0uRef;ay:urf;k;d wef;onf 272 rkid ?f rGe-f
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1385 rdkif &Snv
f sm;onf/ uke;f wGi;f e,ferdwf (3800 rdki)f \ oHk;yHkwpfyHkausmf
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rkid t
f uGmtxdjzpf\/ tajccHrsO;f rSm urf;k;d wef;ESihf jrefrmydkiu
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orQ a&xkBuD;\ 2 'or 15 &mcdkiEf Ie;f jzpf&m xkxnftm;jzifh ukArkid f ckepfoef;
1/ Sodium chloride
2/ Sea ice
3/ Fast ice
4/ Ice floe
5/ Ice field
28
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f Qif oHk;qru rsm;aeao;onf/ tu,f
tm;vHk; t&nfaysmo
f Gm;ygu urmhyifv,fork'&ma&jyifonf 60 rDwm (197
ay) jrifhwufvmNyD; urmhqyd u
f rf;rdUBuD;wkid ;f vdkvkd epfryfoGm;ayrnf/
a&cJjyifonf ajray:odkY qD;ESi;f rsm; ESpaf ygif;axmifaygif;rsm;pGm xlxyfpGm
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jzpfonf/ urmha&cJxk\ 90 &mckid Ef Ie;f wnf&Sad om tEmwduwku
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f Ref;wGif &mpkESpaf ygif; 10000 rQ qD;ESi;f rsm; txyfxyf
pkpnf;rdNyD; ay 11000 rQjrifhrm;onfh a&cJjyifBuD;wpfckjzpfay:ae&m ,if;\atmuf
d nf/
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d m;'PfaMumifh atmufajc&Sd a&cJrsm;onf ydjym;um wjznf;jznf;
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f mMu\/ odkY a&cJrsm; pD;xGuv
f m&mwpfavQmufukd
a&cJjrpf[kac:onf/ a&cJjrpfjzpfay:vmyHkrSm atmufygtwkid ;f jzpfonf/
jrifrh m;aom uke;f ajrxufoYkd qD;ESi;f rsm;? qD;ESi;f zwfrsm; &mpkEpS af ygif;rsm;pGm
xyfwvJvJ xlxyfpmG us&mrS yxr ueOD;usxm;aom qD;ESi;f rsm;? qD;ESi;f zwfrsm;udk
zdtm;jzifh twGi;f ckad tmif;aeaom avrsm;udk xGuo
f Gm;apNyD; ajcmufaxmifhyHk
a&cJyHkaqmifcJrsm; jzpfoGm;ap\/ xdka&cJyHkaqmifcJuav;wpfckpDwGif a&armfvDusL;
60 pDyg&So
d nf/ tay:bufokdY qD;ESi;f rsm; txyfxyf xyfrHusonfhtcg xdk
ajcmufaxmifhyHk a&cJyHkaqmifcJrsm;onf tay:rS qD;ESi;f rsm;tav;csed af Mumifh zdoyd f
ouJhokdY jzpfomG ;NyD; ydkrkdoyd o
f nf;vm tcsyjf ym;uav;rsm;ozG,jf zpfomG ;\/ zdtm;
rsm;oxufrsm;vmonfhtcg atmufokdYa&GUqif;vmNyD; atmufqHk;a&mufvQif urmh
j'yfqGJtm;aMumifh yifra&cJjyifBuD;rS pD;qif;vmawmhonf/ yHk (2-2) pD;qif;rIonf
tvGew
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f Qif aytenf;i,fompD;xGuaf vh&So
d nf/ odkYaomf
tylavsmyh ikd ;f a'orsm;&Sd jrifrh m;vSaom awmifxw
G rf sm;ay:wGif jzpfay:aom a&cJjrpf
rsm;\ pD;qif;rIonf jrefqefwwfovdk jyefvnfqkwcf GmrI (a&cJjrpf0rS pwif
jrpfnmqDokdY t&nfaysmo
f Gm;rI) vnf;&Sw
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29
yHk (2-2) a&cJjrpfjzpfay:aeaom a&cJjyifwpfck\uefYvefYjzwfyHk

ayaxmifcsDjrifhrm;aom a&cJjyifBuD;rS a&cJjrpftjzpf pD;xGufvmonfh
a&cJxkonfvnf; ay&mESifhcsDNyD; xlxJjrifhrm;onf/ xdkodkY xkxnfBuD;rm;aom
a&cJjrpftqHk;ykdif; (jrpf0ydkif;) odkYr[kwf ab;bufydkif;onf yifv,fwGif;odkY
a&mufaomfvnf; qufvufpD;xGufNrJpD;xGufvsuf&Sd&m a&xJa&muftydkif;onf
a&ay:wGif ay:aomaMumifh vSefcsKd;vkdufouJhodkYjzpf jywfxGufoGm;wwf\/
jywfxGuo
f Gm;aoma&cJxkBuD;\ ig;yHkwpfyHkoma&ay:wGif ay:NyD; useif g;yHkav;yHkrSm
a&jyifatmufa&mufaeavh &So
d nf/ xdkokYdaom a&cJxkBuD;udk a&arsma&cJawmif
1
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tenf;qHk; ay 20 cefYay:aewwfNyD; tvGeBf uD;rm;ygu 200 ru ay:aewwf\/
yHkyef;rusjzpfaeum ay &mESihfcsDNyD; &Snv
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a&cJjrpf\ tqHk;ykid ;f odkrY [kwf ab;bufykid ;f rS a&arsma&cJawmif jywfxu
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a&wdrf [kac:onf/ xdktydki;f onf yifv,ftwGi;f ay 150 rQ txdaigxGuNf yD;
a&ay: trsm;qHk;ay:aeavh&Sdonf/ a&cJurf;OD;a&wdrfonf xyfrH&SnfxGufNyD;
1/ Iceberg
2/ Ice shelf
30
xyfrHud;jywf jzpfay:vmaom a&arsma&cJawmifonf a&cJjrpfujzpfvmaom

a&arsma&cJawmifwx
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f Ref;a&cJ
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d rf Smrl uke;f ajrjzpfaomf
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a&cJjyif? a&cJjrpfrsm;onf tat;ydki;f a'orsm;rSom jzpfay:onfr[kw?f
orydki;f a'o&Sd tvGejf rifhrm;onhaf wmifxGwrf sm;ay:vnf;jzpfay:onf/ tvGef
jrifrh m;onfh awmifxw
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pkyHkvmcJhaomqD;ESif;rsm;onf ,if;wkYdtxufokdY aemufxyfESppf Oftopfusa&muf
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jzpfay:vmaom tenfrsm;udk jrpftqHk;ydki;f xdyb
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1
a&cJjrpfausmufyHk tjzpf ydkYcsay;onf/ odkYaom a&cJjrpfwcsKUd onf rdrpd wif
pD;xGu&f m csKid hf0Sr;f qDokdY aEG&moDtwGi;f jyefvnfqkwo
f Gm;wwf\/ jyefvnfqkwf
1/ Moraine
31
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oGm;jcif;aMumifh a&cJjrpf wjznf;jznf;wkw
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jrifrh m;aom awmifxw
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ay/ qD;ESi;f jyifrsm;udk qD;ESi;f aysmt
f jrift
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f m awGU&onf/ qD;ESi;f aysmt
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onf tylykdi;f a'orsm; rDwm 4500 (ay 14715) cefY? orykid ;f a'orsm;
rDwm 2800 (ay 9156) cefYESihf tmwdw?f tEmwdu ponfh0ifk;d pGe;f a'orsm;wGif
yifv,fa&jyifnt
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k&Sm;Ekid if H qdkuaf b;&D;,m;ESihf uae'gEdkiif H xif;I;awma'owkYdjzpfMuonf/
a&cJzHk;awmifxGwrf sm;udk tm&Swku
d &f Sd [dr0Emawmifwef;wpfavQmufESihf
1
awmiftar&duwkduf&Sd tif'D;H awmifwef;wkdYwGif trsm;qHk;awGU&onf/ urmh
tjrifhqHk;awmifxGwfjzpfaom {0&uf (29028 ay) ESifh tjcm; ay 20000
txufjrifhonfh awmifxGwftrsm;tjym; [dr0Emawmifwef;wGif wnf&Sdonf/
tif'D;awmifwef; ay 20000 txufawmifxGwf 15 ck&S&d m tm*siw
f D;em;rS
2
tufuGeu
f m*Gg (22834 ay) utjrifhqHk;jzpfonf/ Oa&mywku
d w
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3
t,fhb&yfpf (18510 ay) awmifxw
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G f
tcsKUd ukd t,fvyf af wmifwef; awGU&\/ ajrmuftar&duwku
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rufuifav (20320 ay) awmifxw
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tcsKUd ukd a&mhuD;awmifwef; awGU&onf/ tmz&du&Sd tDauGwmESihf ra0;uGmvSaom
5
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a'oyif uvDref;*s;kd (19565 ay) ESihf uifnm (17041 ay) a&cJzk;H awmifxw
rsm;&Sdonf/
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rSm a&cJrsm;zHk;ae\/ cgumbdk&mZD (19296 ay)? *gvef&mZD (19142 ay)?
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bGef (12306 ay)? qefusefbGef (12137 ay)? zGef*ef (ay 11500) ESifh
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1/ Andes
3/ Elbrus
2/ Aconcagua
4/ Mckinley
5/ Kilimanjaro
32
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33
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onf/ xkxnftm;jzifh ukArkid af ygif; 30000 onf a&csKt
d ikd af &? uefa&rsm;jzpfMuNyD;
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f svmaom acsmpf D;
1/ Glacial lake
3/ Caldera lake
2/ Great Ice Age
4/ Crater lake
34
1
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1/ Lava-dammed lake
2/ Lagoon
3/ Rift valley
4/ Desert depression lake
35
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1/ Titicaca
2/ The Dead Sea
3/ Lake Baikal
36
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t&nfaysmaf eaom a&cJjrpf? a&cJjyifwkYdrS tpyjrpfzsm;cHavh&\
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ac:\/
1/ Owen Falls
2/ Kariba
3/ Channel
4/ River bed
38
jrpfa&pD;qif;&mwGif a&pD;twkdif; rsufESmrl vuf,mbuf&Sdurf;udk

vuf,murf;? vuf0Jbuf&u
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1/ Aquifer
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d pfqifhNyD;wpfqifh jzpfay:avh&o
Sd nf/
cEmwGi;f a&pkpkaygif;yrmPudk xde;f csKyfrt
I jyif xdka&xJwiG f aysm0f ifaeaom
j'yfrsm;udv
k nf; cEmud,
k u
f *kwpdu
k w
f idk ;f ,lrw
S o
f m;ay;&onf/ tvGet
f rif;acR;xGuf
jcif;vdu
k pd r sK;d aMumifh cEmud,
k rf S qm;"mwftrsm;tjym;,kwaf vsmjh cif;u <uufwufru
I kd
jzpfay:apwwfonf/ <uufom;uvmyfpnf;rsm;u cEmwGi;f qm;"mwf,kwaf vsmrh u
I kd
usKUH0ifjcif;jzifh wefjyefavh&&Sd m jyif;jyif;xefxefemusio
f nfh taMumxHk;rIa0'emudk
cHpm;&wwfonf/ yifv,fqm;iHa&aomuf&ouJhodkY qm;"mwfrsm;jym;vGef;ygu
uvmyfpnf;rsm;IHUwGum ajcmufuyfoGm; a0'emtvGet
f rif;cHpm;&NyD; aoqHk;
wwfonf/
ae&mwGif cEmtwGi;f rS a&,kwaf vsmrh u
I kd rxde;f odr;f wwf aoab;ESihf
uHawGUoGm;cJhMu&olrsm;taMumif; azmfjyvdkygonf/
oJuEm&onf vlwt
Ykd wGuf 'kua y;Ekid af om ywf0ef;usit
f jzpf &yfwnfaeqJ
f kd {nf0h wfausyeG rf rI &So
d nfh
jzpfonf/ tmumo[if;vif;jyifv?kd ork't
f P0gjyifus,v
1/ Lachrymal gland
2/ Hypothalamus
3/ Nerves
52
a'ovnf;jzpfonf/ rdrcd Emudk,u

f a&oHk;pGJaeonfukd uefYowfrIESihf a&qHk;IH;onfh
yrmPudk avsmch srw
I ku
Yd kd rvkyaf qmifEkid b
f J a&udk yHkreS t
f wkid ;f aomufokH;rnfqykd gu
oJuEm&twGi;f ajccsrjd cif;onf tqk;d 0g;qHk;ab;'kuu
kd zdwaf c:rdonfEiS hf twlwyl if
jzpfonf/
1965 ckEpS u
f tD*spo
f u
J Em& uif;vSnyhf vdyrf sm;wm0eftwkid ;f vSnv
hf nfpOf
cspcf spaf wmufyal vmifaeaom aea&mifatmuf0,fc&D;oGm;ig;a,muf\ kyt
f avmif;
rsm;udk awGUcJhMu&onf/ aoqHk;aeolwkYd cse&f pfcJhaom tao;pdwrf Sww
f rf;rsm;u
aMuuGpJ &mtaumif;qH;k tjzpfoepfukd twdtusazmfjyxm;onf/ raoqH;k MurD em&Dyikd ;f
twGi;f a&;om;ku
d u
f ;l xm;onfh rSwpf kpmtkyrf sm;? "mwfykrH sm;udk zwfjI rifawGU&jcif;jzifh
f efpGm odjrifEkid o
f nf/
olwkYt
d b,fyHkjzpfysucf Jhonfukd tawmftwefrSeu
olwkYw
d pfawGonf tD*spf aexdkio
f nfh*smrefrsm;jzpfMuonf/ ZGev
f yxr
paeaeYwiG f abmufp0f uf*ifum;ESppf ;D ? qD'ifum;wpfp;D ESihf paw&Si0f uf*eG u
f m; wpfp;D
wkYjd zifh udkif krd S xGuv
f mcJhMuonf/ vpfAsm;oJuEm&twGi;f rkid f 300 a0;onfh
oD0tkad tppf&Sad om a&S;a[mif;a&mrbk&m;ausmif;ysuq
f DokdY tvnftywfc&D;wkd
xGucf jhJ cif;jzpfonf/ t,fvt
f mvrde;f odkY rGe;f vGyJ kid ;f wGif a&mufonftxd urf;dk;wef;
vrf;twkid ;f vmcJMh uonf/ ,if;rSawmifbufockYd sK;d um;vrf;rJh oJuEm&twGi;f ydki;f
odkY jzwfarmif;vmcJh&m we*FaEGaeYwpfcsed cf sed f yxrqD'ifum;upysuo
f nf/ aemuf
awmh paw&Si0f uf*Ge;f ysujf yefonf/ xdktcsed f olwkdYwGif a&ESp*f gvefESihf o&uf&nf
tyspo
f Hbl;BuD;ig;vHk;useaf o;onf/
tu,fom olwkdYonf acR;xGuef nf;atmif jzpfEkdio
f rQenf;ukev
f rf;ukef
vkyMf urnfqv
kd Qif olwku
Yd kd &SmawGUonftxd touf&iS af eEkid v
f mayvdrrhf nf/ trSeu
f
olwcYkd Emudk,u
f kd olwkv
Yd kHcHatmif t0wftxnfqufvuf0wfqifxm;&rnf/ t&dy&f
&ef jzpfovdkpDrHzefwD;ypf&rnf/ um;rsm;eab;rSm Nidro
f ufpGm aeae&rnf/ odkY&mwGif
olwkYw
d pfawGonf 60 'D*&DpifwD*&dwt
f xd yljyif;aeonfh tcsed rf Sm *emrNidrjf zpfum
l;rku
d pf Gm a&ul;0wfpHkrsm;vJ0wfMuonf/ NyD;vQif tultnD&vdk&jim; xGu&f SmMu&m
ESp&f ufrQ rjynfrh D olwt
Ydk m;vH;k aoqH;k ukecf o
hJ nf/ olwcYkd Emud,
k w
f iG ;f 0,f tpd"k mwfv;kH 0
ukecf ef;oGm;cJhMuonf/ toufZD0tm;vHk;udk tm;jznfhay;onfha&\twdr;f tapmif;
rcHaom tusK;d qufukd vspv
f sLIro
d jzifh olwkdYonf ajrBuD;vufcwfrvGJjzpfay:vm
rnfh ab;'kuukd zefwD;rdouJhokdYjzpfoGm;cJhMuonf/
53
uREkyf w
f Ykd cEmudk,rf S rvdktyfonft
h npftaMu;rsm;udk z,f&mS ;oefpY if&mwGif
a&onf t"duvkyaf qmifay;&oljzpf\/ ud,
k cf EmwGi;f u a&rsm;udk ausmufuyfrsm;u
ppfaMumoefYpifay;&onf/ aoG;xJ&Sd tnpftaMu;rsm;udkvnf; ausmufuyfrsm;u
oefYpifay; rvdktyfonfht&mrsm;udk usiif ,ftjzpfa&muf&o
Sd Gm;apNyD; qD;oGm;onfh
tcg jyifyokYpd GeYx
f kwyf pfvku
d o
f nf/ cEmtwGi;f &Sad eoifhonfh a&yrmPudkvnf;
ausmufuyfuyif xde;f csKyfay;onf/
udk,cf EmtwGi;f a&vGepf Gmenf;yg;vmjcif;onf vlukd aoapEdkio
f nftxd
tE&m,fjzpfay:Ekid af Mumif; txufygoJuEm&twGi;f u jzpf&yfujyaeonf/ 0rf;oGm;
jcif;aMumifh jzpfay:aom cEmwGi;f a&ukecf ef;rIonf zGUH zd;qJEikd if rH sm;rS uav;oli,f
aygif; 5 oef;rQudk ESppf OfaoqHk;ap\/ acR;xGujf cif;onfvnf; uREfkyw
f Ykd cEmudk,rf S
1
a&"mwfrsm;avsmhyg;ap\/ acR;usw
d f rsm;u acR;rsm;udk acR;aygufrsm;rSwpfqifh
ta&jym;ay:odkY xkwv
f Twaf y;onf/ 99 &mckid Ef Ie;f a&jzpfonfh xdkacR;rsm;onf
taiGUjyefNyD; cEmudk,t
f ylcsed u
f kd usqif;ap\/
aoG;onft"duyg0ifypn;f av;rsK;d jzifh jzpfwnfae\/ wpfrsK;d rSm yvm
2
prm ac: aoG;&nfMunfjzpf aoG;wGif 55% yg0ifonf/ usef 45% wGif
3
4
uvmyfpnf;oHk;rsK;d yg0if&m tJ&pfokq
d u
kd f ac: aoG;eDO? vsLudkqu
kd f ac: aoG;jzLOESihf
5
oHk;bkq
d ku
d f ac:aoG;cJaponfh uvmyfpnf;wkYjd zpfonf/ 0gusihu
f siht
f a&mif&o
Sd nfh
aoG;&nfMunfxw
J iG f tqdkyg uvmyfpnf;oHk;rsK;d u arsmygaeonf/ aoG;&nfMunf\
92% onfa&jzpf usef 80% rSm toufZ0D twGuf r&Srd jzpfvkt
d yfaom j'yfypn;f rsK;d
pHkjzpfonf/ a&onf aoG;&nfMunfomru aoG;xJ&Sd uvmyfpnf;rsm;yg yg0ifae
ojzifh aoG;\ 80 &mckid Ef eI ;f onf a&jzpfae\/ aoG; yg0ifaeaom a&rsm;\tav;csed f
onf cEmudk,t
f av;csed \
f 4% &So
d nf/
t&nfjzpfaeaom aoG;rsm;oma&jzifhzGJUpnf;jzpfwnfaeonfr[kw/f use&f Sd
onfh vlcEmudk,\
f tpdkit
f cJjzpfaeaom t*Fgtpdwt
f ydki;f rsm;wGif a&yg0ifEIe;f rSm
aoG;wGif yg0ifEeI ;f xufravsmeh nf;ay/ tndKa&mifwpf;I rsm;\ 85% ESihf ausmufuyf
\ 80% onfa&rsm;yifjzpfMuonf/ xdkYtwlyif <uufom;rsm;\ 75%? tjzLa&mif
tmHkaMumwpfI;rsm;\ 70%? ta&jym;\ 70%? tonf;\ 70% ESihf wG,q
f uf
1/ Sweat gland
2/ Plasma
3/ Erythocytes
4/ Leucocytes
5/ Thrombocytes or platelets
54
wpfI;rsm;\ 60% wkYo

d nf a&rsm;yifjzpfMu\/ ,kwpf t
G qHk;rmaMumvSonfhtdk;rsm;
yif a&u 25 rS 30% txdyg0ifvu
kd af o;onf/ cEmwGi;f rStqDrsm;wGirf l a&yg0if
EIe;f rSm tenf;qHk;jzpf&m tk;d rsm;xufyifavsmhenf; 20% om&S\
d /
vlYcEmudk,t
f pdwt
f ydki;f rsm;wGif rQa&yg0ifvsu&f &Sd m udk,t
f av;csed f
aygif 160 &So
d nfh vlwpfa,muf\cEmudk,rf S &S&d o
dS rQ a&rsm;cef;ajcmufomG ;ukev
f Qif
xko
d l\ cEmudk,o
f nf 66 aygifcefYomav;awmhrnfjzpfonf/
vlcEmudk,o
f nf ,if;twGuf aeYpOfvt
kd yfaom a&udk t&if;tjrpfrsm;pGmu
&&So
d nf/ xdkokdYvkt
d yfonfh a&\ 47% udkom wku
d f kdut
f usqHk;enf;vrf;jzpfonfh
a&aomufjcif;jzifh &&So
d nf/ 14% udk cEmudk,u
f yif uvmyfpnf;rsm;qkid &f m touf
SLrI"mwkjzpfpOf\ ab;xGuyf pn;f tjzpf xkwv
f kyaf y;onf/ usef 39% rSmrl uREkyf w
f Ykd
u twHk;tcJ[kxifxm;onfh tpm;tpmrsm;rS &&So
d nf/
vlwpYdk m;aomufMuonft
h pm;tpmrsm;rSm toD;t&GuEf iS hf ow0gwd\
Yk ouf&dS
uvmyfpnf;rsm;yifjzpfMu\/ vlw\
Ykd uvmyfpnf;rsm;wGif yg0ifaom a&yrmPavmuf
yif xku
d vmyfpnf;rsm;vnf; a&yg0ifonf/ axmywfuJhokdYaom tqDrsm;wGio
f m
rsm;aomtm;jzifh a&yg0ifrIr&Sad y/ c&rf;csOo
f D;wpfvHk;onf yifv,fcluJhokdYyif a&u
95% jzpfae\/ tom;rsm;wGifvnf; a&onf 50 rS 70% txd yg0if\/
aygifrkeYf yifvQif a&u 35% yg0ifvku
d af o;onf/
vlYcEmudk,t
f wGi;f odkY a&0if&efrSm yg;pyfaygufwnf;[laom vrf;wpfck
wnf;om&So
d nf/ wpfukd,v
f Hk;a&xJprd af eapumrl ta&jym;u a&udk cEmudk,x
f JokdY
pky,
f ljcif;r&S/d avxkxJrSvnf; tenf;i,frQpkyrf ,lay/ touf&SLwdki;f tqkwu
f
avESit
hf wl a&aiGu
Y kyd g SLoGi;f onf/ odakY omf &SLoGi;f NyD;onfEiS hf wpfzef &SLxkwjf yef&m
&SLoGi;f onfha&xuf ydkrkdxGuo
f Gm;onf/ avudk &SLoGi;f ae& ESmacgif;udk vnf;
cEmudk,w
f iG ;f odkY a&oGi;f a&;twGuf tm;udk;r&acs/ odt
kY wGuf wpfcgwpf&H taMumif;
wpfckckaMumifh yg;pyfrS a&roGi;f Ekid o
f nfhtcg toufquf&ef a&udk cEmuk,
d f
twGi;f odkY ESmacgif;rSyku
d jf zifjh zpfap? aoG;aMumrStpufcsyku
d jf zifjh zpfap "mwfqm;tenf;
i,fygaoma&udk oGi;f ay;&onf/
a&aomufvu
kd
f tpmtdrrf w
S pfqifh uREkyf w
f cYkd Emudk,t
f ESUH a&muf&o
dS mG ;aom
a&onf a&oefYoufoufr[kwaf wmh? qm;dk;k;d &mckid Ef Ie;f tenf;i,frQESihf tjcm;
"mwfqm;tcsKUd yg0ifonf/ vlcY Emud,
k \
f wpfLS ;twGi;f odjYk zpfap? aoG;jyefaMumtwGi;f odYk
55
jzpfap a&oefYoufoufudk roGif;&ay/ qm;&nftenf;i,frQygaoma&udkom

oGi;f &onf/ a&oefYoufoufoGi;f ygu emusi
f aerxdxkdirf omjzpfwwfonf/
(c) wd&pmefwkYd cEmtwGi;f ua&
ow0grsm;onf tyifrsm;ESihfrwlbJ olwkdY&Sio
f efaeap&eftvdkYiSm vHk;0
ajymif;vJr&aom &mckid Ef eI ;f jzifh a&udk olwckYd Emudk,t
f wGi;f xde;f odr;f ay;&\/ odw
kY ap
trsm;pkrSm olwkdY\ZD0urtajctaeudk ywf0ef;usiaf &tajctaeESihfo[Zmwjzpf
atmif vkdufavsmnDaxGyjyifwwfMuonf/
yJaphykd;wGif a&yg0ifrIenf;yg;&m cEmudk,w
f pfckvHk;tav;csed \
f 45%
omyg0ifonf/ odkYaomf yifv,fcltzdkY a&xJ epfryfNrJepfryfNrJepfryfae&rnfjzpf&m
olYcEmudk,t
f av;csed w
f pfckvHk;\ 95% onfa&csn;f omjzpfae\/ txufyg tenf;
qH;k ESihf trsm;qH;k tMum;wGif tHtm;oifph &m wcsKUd awGU&onf/ a&aeyifv,fig;oavmuf
wpfaumifwiG f a&yg0ifEeI ;f onf 67% om&S&d m uke;f aeEkw
Yd u
kd o
f w0grsm;\ cEmudk,f
wGi;f a&yg0ifEIe;f jzpfonfh 65% ESihfrsm;pGmuGmjcm;jcif;r&Sad y/ a&a&muke;f ygaeonfh
zm;wpfaumif\cEmwGi;f a&yg0ifEeI ;f rSm 78% jzpf&m ,if;xufajrBuD;xJae wDaumif
\a&yg0ifEeI ;f 80% uydkrsm;aeao;onf/ uke;f ay:aeMuufwpfaumif\ a&yg0ifEeI ;f
rSm 74% &S&d m zm;wpfaumifwGif yg0ifEIe;f xufrsm;pGm ,kwaf vsmhjcif;r&Sad y/
tm;vHk;aom ouf&w
dS o
Ykd nf olwk\
Yd cEmtwGi;f &Sq
d m;yrmPudk vdktyfonf
xuf ykv
d QHaomqm;rsm;udk cEmudk,u
f z,f&Sm;pGeYyf pfwwfMuonf/ rnfonfhouf&Sd
ow0grQ rdrcd Emudk,t
f av;csed \
f 0 'or 9 &mckid Ef Ie;f xufykrd sm;aomqm;udk
cEmtwGi;f vufoifhrcHEkid Mf uay/
a&&Sm;yg;onfah 'oae ukvm;tkwo
f nf cEmud,
k t
f wGi;f rS ydv
k QaH om qm;rsm;
udk pGex
Yf kwyf pf&ef a&rsm;rsm;toHk;ryEkid af cs/ odt
kY wGuf olcY Emudk,u
f a&enf;enf;jzifh
qm;aMumHkrQESifh qm;rsm;rsm;xGufoGm;Ekdif&ef vkyfaqmifay;&onf/ odkYtwGuf
ukvm;tkw\
f usiif ,fwGif qm;u 6% txdyg0ifae\/ a&aygrsm;aom a'oae
jrif;wpfaumiftzdrYk mS rl cEmud,
k t
f wGi;f rSyv
dk QaH om qm;rsm;udk pGex
Yf w
k yf pf&ef a&rsm;rsm;
oHk;Ekid o
f jzifh ol\usiif ,fwGif qm;u 1 'or 5 &mcdkiEf Ie;f omyg0ifonf/
tcsKUd aomwd&pmefrsm;rSmrl cEmudk,t
f wGi;f a&yg0ifEIe;f udk tvGew
f u
d spGm
uefo
Y wfxm;jcif;r&Sad y/ olwo
Ykd nf a&vH;k 0&S[
d efrwlonft
h &yfa'oyif &Sio
f efEidk Mf u
onf/ olwkdYtaejzifh a&udk trSew
f u,fvkdtyfaomfvnf; orm;k;d usr[kwb
f J
56
vku
d af vsmnDaxGjzpfatmif yjyifwwfrIu olwkdYukd a&yrmPtenf;i,frQjzifhyif
toufquf&Sio
f efaeEkid af ponf/ &&efrvG,u
f lonfh t&if;tjrpfrsm;rSa&udk &&Sad p
onf/ umv&SnMf umpGm rk;d acgifonft
h csed t
f awmtwGi;f qufvuf&yfwnfaeEkid af p
onf/
uEm&wd&pmefrsm;onf tpmvSnhv
f nf&SmazGjcif;udk ntcsed f yvkyjf cif;jzifh
cEmwGi;f a&udk xde;f odr;f cd;NcHMuonf/ nbuf tylcsed rf sm;pGm avsmhenf;rIu
qHk;IH;onfha&yrmPudk aeYbufqHk;IH;onfh yrmPxufrsm;pGm avsmhenf;aponf/
olwkdYonf wwfEkdio
f rQaea&mifjcnfESihu
f if;atmifaeavh&&Sd m rMumrMum ajratmuf
1
wGio
f m atmif;aewwfonfukd awGU&onf/ tmrm'Dvkd oif;acGcsyrf sK;d ESihf uEm&zGwf
ykwwfuo
hJ kaYd om wd&pmeftrsm;tjym;onf a&pdrx
hf u
G &f ef rvG,u
f o
l nfh ta&jym;rsK;d
jzpfxGe;f &&SNd yD;jzpf ,if;u olwkYu
d kd a&qHk;IH;rIr&Sad tmifumuG,af y;xm;onf/
uEm&ae Ekw
Yd u
kd o
f w0grsm;teuf tjywftowf,OS rf &atmif taygrsm;qHk;
2
rSm ajrjyif&OS Ehf iS hf <uuf ponfah &SUomG ;jzifu
h ku
d jf zwfpm;aom ow0g trsK;d rsK;d jzpfonf/
,if;wko
Yd nf urmo
h u
J Em&tm;vHk; aygufzmG ;aexdkiMf uaomfvnf; tmz&dutaemuf
urf;ajcqm[m&rS tma&AD;,m;udk jzwfum tm&Swkwjf ynftxdBuD;rm;us,jf yefYvS
aom oJuEm&a'o taumifOD;a&trsm;qHk; &Sio
f efaygufzGm;aexdkiv
f su&f o
Sd nf/
xko
d kdYaom ow0gtrsm;tjym;onf a&oufouftenf;i,frQomyg&So
d nfh opfaph
ajcmufESihf tyifi,fwkYu
d kd trSDyNyD; touf&Si&f yfwnfaeEkid Mf uonf/ vkt
d yfaom
useaf &yrmPudk avxJraS tmufq*D siEf iS hf opfaphajcmufrw
S pfqif&h aom [du
k 'f k*d siw
f Y dk
,if;wkY\
d cEmtwGi;f aygif;pyfjcif;jzifh &&SMd uonf/
Ekw
Yd u
dk o
f w0gi,frsm;u uEm&twGi;f &Sio
f ef&yfwnfaeEkid af &;twGuf a&udk
odkYacRwmNyD; ajcmufcef;onfhtpm;tpmrsm;tay:trDyaepOf wjcm;uEm&ae
ow0grsm;jzpfMuonfh om;&Jw&d pmefBuD;rsm;u xkEd kYw
d ku
d o
f w0gi,fuav;rsm;udk
zrf;,lpm;aomufjcif;jzifh uEm&twGi;f &Sio
f ef&yfwnfaexdkiEf kdiMf uonf/ t"du
uEm&ae om;&Jow0gBuD;rsm;rSm pyg;BuD;? pyg;tHk;ponfha>rBuD;rsm;yifjzpfonf/
,if;wkYo
d nf udkujf zwfow0guav;rsm;ESihf ,kerf sm;utp awmqdwif ,frsm;ESihf
d kd zrf;,lpm;aomufwwfMuonf/ tjcm;
om;yku
d af umifrsm;tqHk; taumifwikd ;f vdkvku
1/Armadillo
2/ Rodent
3/ Kangaroo
57
om;&Jw&d pmeftyk pf jk zpfonfh ajracG;ESihf aMumifrsK;d EG,0f if om;pm;wd&pmefrsm;onfvnf;

oJuEm&twGi;f odkYyif &Sio
f efaexkid Mf uonf/
uEm&ae wd&pmefrsm;jzpfMuonfh ukvm;tkwEf Sihf rnfonfhtcgrQ a&
1
raomufaom nrSusupf m;onfh om;ydku<f uuf wdkYonf opfaphajcmufrS&onfh
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k kd
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d nf/ odkt
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d J aomufo;kH Ekid o
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2
ow0grsm;rSom trsm;qHk;&&So
d nf/ Avif;a0vig; \ qD;wGipf GeYyf pfqm;onf 4%
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d enf;/
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d tpmudk a&ESihaf vwdkYrS
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f kd
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1
pwkrd mwm [kac:aom taygufi,fuav;rsm;rSwpfqifh yifaiGUjyef jyefvnfa&muf
&So
d Gm;onf/
1/ Baleen whale
2/ Stomata
58
pwdkrmwmonf tpmcsufrI? BuD;xGm;rIwdkYtwGuf r&Sdrjzpfvdktyfaom

umAGe'f kid af tmufqk'd Ef Sihf atmufqD*siw
f kYd t0iftxGuf yonfhtayguftjzpfvnf;
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rjrif&ay/ opf&u
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yifpnf ponfh tpdwt
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d
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d nf/
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1
wGif aygufavh&o
Sd nfh bkZywfyiff wpfyifonf ylaEG;onfh aeYwpfaeY a&*gvef
50 rS 80 txdyifaiGUjyef avxJxkwyf pfavh&\
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f ,
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h pfyifrsm;wGif a&\a&GUvsm;rIonf ZD0aA'
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2
rsm;twGi;f odkY pdrh0f ifysHUESHUenf; jzifh0ifa&mufonf/ xdkenf;onf ouf&Sd uvmyf
3
pnf;wkid ;f vdkvkw
d iG f oufa&mufvsu&f o
dS nf/ tyif\tay:,Htajr;yg; onf nDnm
1/Birch
2/ Osmosis
3/ Membrance
59
jyefYjyL;NyD; tqufrjywfwpfqufwpfom;wnf; jzpf[efwlaomfvnf; trSepf ifppf

tajr;yg;wGif pdrahf ygufuav;rsm;pGm yg&S
d pdr0hf ifEikd jf cif;jzpfonf/ odakY omf pdrahf yguf
uav;rsm;rSm tvGew
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a&armfvDusL;ydkrsm;avh&w
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pkpnf;aeonfh tyifjyifyrSpkpnf;rI enf;yg;aomtyiftwGi;f odkY tifEiS t
hf m;ESihf pdr0hf if
1
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t&Gurf sm;qDtxd a&udw
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k m;
2
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a&armfvDusL;ESifh tjcm;j'yfaygif;armfvDusL;wkdYtMum; qGJiifrIyifjzpfonf/
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f ifay;Ekid o
f nf/ av
zdtm;uvnf; tyiftwGi;f zdtm;enf;onfah e&mrsm;tm; jznfah y;&efa&udkweG ;f ydakY umif;
ydkYEkid \
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urQ opfyiftwGi;f a&udk tvGejf rifrh m;onft
h jrifo
h aYkd &mufatmif ydkaY qmifray;Ekid af cs/
Oyrm tar&duwku
d af jrmufyikd ;f &Sd ay 400 eD;yg;jrifrh m;onfh &uf'0f 'k o
f pfeyD ifBuD;rsm;\
tjrpfrSm ajrBuD;xJokdY ay 50 rQa&muf&aSd e&m a&udk opfyifxyd zf sm;a&mufatmif
ay 450 rQ yifw
h ifay;&ayrnf/ rQjrifw
h ufatmif a&udkyifw
h if&eftwGuf yifv,f
rsuEf Smjyifavzdtm;xuf 12 qrQ BuD;rm;onfhzt
d m;&Srd Som jzpfEkid af yrnf/
1/ Osmotic pressure
2/ Capillarity
60
odkY tHhMozG,faumif;onfh a&ydkYaqmifa&;vkyfaqmifcsufudk rnfokdY

atmifjrifpmG taumiftxnfazmfonfukd ,aeYtxd rnforl Q wduspmG rodMuao;ay/
,ckvuf&t
Sd jzpfEkid q
f Hk;[k ,lq&onfh oDtkd&Du a&\aemufxyfxl;jcm;csuw
f pfckESihf
1
qufpyf&iS ;f jyxm;onf/ xkx
d ;l jcm;csurf mS a&\qeft
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wpfcsuq
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Sd nfhtm;yifjzpfonf/
"mwfccJG ef;twGi;f prf;oyfMunh&f mwGif ao;oG,Nf yD; avvHkonfh >yeftwGi;f
xnfhxm;onfh a&oefYonf wpfpwk&ef;vufray:wGif aygif 5000 tm;jzifh qGJqefY
onfukd cHEkid &f nf&aSd Mumif; awGU&onf/ tyifwiG ;f rS a&rSmrl xkrd QqefYtm;raumif;vS
aomfvnf; aygif 3000 tm;udkawmh cHEkdi&f nf&\
Sd / xdktm;onf opfyifwpfyif\
odraf rGUvSonfh trQifrsm;jzifh >yrf;aeaom >yefuav;rsm;twGi;f rS a&udk wpfpHkwpf&m
aomtm;wpfckckoufa&mufrIr&Syd gu a&\BuD;rm;onfh qefYtm;onfvnf; tyif
twGi;f a&jrifw
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d kt
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f kd yifaiGUjyef
rIu jznfhqnf;ay;onf/
a&onf t&Gurf sm;rSwpfqifh yifaiGUjyef&m uvmyfpnf;eH&Hrsm;twGi;f
a&\pkpnf;rIukd ,kwaf vsmhoGm;ap\/ xkt
d cg uvmyfpnf;eH&Hrsm;u avsmhoGm;onfh
a&rsm;ae&mwGif tyifwiG ;f t&nfrsm;rS a&armfvu
D sL;rsm;udk qG,
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D sL;ajymif;a&TUro
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udk qGJ,lum tay:odkYqGJwifvku
d o
f nfhtvm; wif;tm;2 oufa&mufoGm;ap\/ xdk
a&aMumuav;rsm;onf tjrpfrS t&Guq
f Dtxd wpfqufwnf;jzpfae tay:rS
qGJwifjcif;onf atmufrSa&udk wpfBudrv
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ap\/
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f csKUd &adS eonf/ a&aMum
uav;rsm;jywfawmufoGm;vQif a&jrifwifa&;enf;pOfwpfckvHk; &yfoGm;ayrnf/
avjyif;rsm;twGi;f opfyifrsm; ,dr;f xd;k vsuf &Sw
d wf&m xkt
d cgrsK;d a&aMumuav;rsm;
rjywfatmif rnfoaYkd &Smifz,fEikd o
f enf;/ opfukid ;f BuD;rsm; ckwjf zwfc&H onft
h cgwGirf l
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Y ap avjyif;onfvnf;aumif;?
ckwjf zwfc&H jcif;onfvnf;aumif; tyifwiG ;f a&yifw
h ifay;rIvyk if ef;pOfukd BuD;BuD;rm;rm;
xdcku
d [
f efr&Sad y/ xdkokdYaom pOf;pm;p&mtcsurf sm;aMumifh tyifwGi;f a&jrifhwufrI
enf;pOfrSm ya[VdozG,jf zpfaeao;onf/
1/ Tensile strength
2/ Tension
61
1
uvyfpnf;wpfckwnf;yg0ifaom cgvrfrkid 'f kid rf kad e ac:tpdr;f a&mift>ywf

vku
d f tpkvu
kd t
f jrKyfrsm;ESiw
hf o
l nfh a&ay:ay:avh&adS om arSmyf ifrsK;d wGif tjrpfrvdkay/
2
a&onfuvmyfpnf;eH&Hrsm;rS wku
d f ku
d pf rd h0f ifonf/ rmcsew
f D,m ac:a&ndwiG v
f nf;
tjrpf? t&Gu?f yifpnf[l r&Sb
d J a&jzifhjynfh0aeonfh ajrqDvTmay:wGif ayguf
a&mufwwfonf/ xdka&nd\pdrhaf ygufuav;rsm;onf avudkao;i,faom tuefY
3
uav;rsm;xJokYad &mufaponf/ xdktuefYuav;rsm;xJ tjrpfa,mif upky,
f lxm;
aoma&rsm;jzift
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f o
l nf/
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yGihcf sycf Ref;aom tvSpku

d yf ef;yifwpfrsK;d jzpfonfh ukv
d HAkid f yifwGif jrpfrTm
uav;rsm; tqifq
h ifyh g0ifaomtjrpfrsm;u ay;ydko
Y nfah &udk Iyaf xG;aeonfh yifpnf
yGm;rsm;u tay:&St
d &Gurf sm;qDokYd wjznf;jznf;ydakY y;onf/ tay:ra&mufrw
D pfavQmuf
vHk;wGiv
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tpm&nftjzpfcsuv
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5
a&a&mufaomtcg uvmyfpnf;rsm;&Sd uvdkzkd ;D vf rsm;u oMum;xkwv
f ky&f ef a&udk
umAGe'f kid af tmufq'kd Ef iS hf "mwfyaponf/ oMum;onf tyif\tpmyifjzpf ydkvQaH om
a&udk pwkrd mwmrSwpfqifh yifaiGUjyefapum avxJjyefykdYay;\/
vlw\
Ykd a&vkt
d yfcsuu
f kd trsm;tjym;jznfq
h nf;ay;onfh opfo;D ESihf [if;oD;
[if;&Gurf sm;onf &ifrh n
S v
hf monfEiS t
hf rQ ,if;wkw
Yd iG f a&yg0ifEeI ;f wk;d vmavh&o
dS nf/
odkYtwGuf a&yg0ifEIe;f 10% om&So
d nfh yef;oD;taphonf a&yg0ifEIe;f 80% &Sd
onfh yef;oD;wpfvHk;udk aemufqHk; xkwaf y;Ekid o
f nf/ c&rf;csOo
f D;wpfvHk;ESihf EGm;EkYd
wpfcu
G u
f kd ,SOjf yNyD; b,ftxJrmS a&ydkygrvJ[kar;vQif EGm;Ed[
kY komajzMuygvdrrhf nf/
trSepf ifppf EGm;EkYd a& 87% omygNyD; c&rf;csOo
f D;rSm 95% onf a&csn;f jzpfonf/
xkYt
d wl a*:zDxkyf 92% ? emewfoD;wpfvHk; 87% ESihf ajymif;zl;aphwGif 70%
a&yg0ifvsu&f o
dS nf/ iSuaf ysmoD;onf tjyifyef;tm;jzifh t&nf&rT ;f onf[k rxifrw
S f
&aomfvnf; 75% txdyg0ifae\/ vlwpYdk m;aomufonft
h pmrsm;wGif taoGUajcmufq;kH
jzpfonfh aeMumaphavSmf yif a&onf 5% yg0ifvku
d af o;\/
1/ Chlamydomonas
2/ Marchantia
3/ Columbine
4/ Rhizoid
5/ Chlorophyll
62
tcef; (4)
xl;uJ*kP&f nfESihf EIid ;f r&tm;tef

trd0rf;wGi;f rSm&Spd Ofuyif uREkyf w
f o
Ykd nf a&ESix
hf ad wGUvmcJMh u&\/ onfa&
udkaomufok;H NyD; uREkyf w
f t
Ykd oufukd qufvuf&iS o
f efaeap&onf/ onfrQ ta&;ygvS
onfh a&onf NyD;cJah om tcef;wGiaf zmfjycJo
h nft
h wkid ;f uREfkyw
f 0Ykd ef;usiw
f iG f rnforYkd Q
oHk;rukeEf kid o
f nfha&t&if;tjrpftjzpf tvQHy,f&Sad eonf/ onfa&wGif rnfokdYaom
*kPo
f wad wG&Sad eoenf;/ rnfokdYaom tiftm;awG&Sad eoenf;/
a&onfrnfonfht&mrQ a&mraeygu ta&mifr&S?d teHUr&S?d t&omvnf;
r&Sad y/ "mwkypn;f wpfcktaejzifh a&onfydib
f ufuif;avmufatmif xl;jcm;onf/
tvGecf kid Nf rJaom j'yfaygif;wpfckjzpfNyD; "mwkpGr;f tif&Ekid o
f nfh tiftm;aumif;aom
t&if;tjrpfvnf;jzpfonf/
a&armfvu
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D sL;wdkx
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tcsi;f csi;f csw
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*kP&f nfrsm;ESihf pGr;f yum;wkYdukd ,ckxyfrHazmfjyoGm;ygrnf/
xl;jcm;onfh*kPo
f wEd Sihf t&nftaoG;rsm;
a&onf tHhMozG,af umif;avmufatmif aysm0f ifrIukd tm;ay;vufcH\/
ypn;f wkid ;f udk raysm0f ifapEkid af omfvnf; ypn;f trsK;d aygif;tajrmuftjrm;udkrl aysm0f if
apEkid o
f nf/ xdkYaMumifh ajrrsuEf SmjyifwiG f a&pD;oGm;aomtcgjzpfap? ajrBuD;twGi;f
odkY a&pdrhf0ifoGm;aomtcgjzpfap a&onfypn;f tcsKUd ukd aysm0f ifapNyD; o,faqmif
oGm;wwfonf/ aemufqk;H xkad &rsm;onf yifv,fork'& mESihf uke;f wGi;f a&tkid rf skm;odkY
63
a&mufukeMf uonf/ xkad e&mrsm; aeyl&Sed u

f a&udk taiGUjyefapaomtcg ,cifu
aysm0f ifvsu&f MdS uaom ypn;f rsm; use&f pfcMhJ uonf/ *kPo
f wad Mumifyh if uREfkyw
f Ykd
yifv,fa&ESihf uke;f wGi;f tkid w
f csKUd rS qm;rsm;&&Sjd cif;jzpfonf/
1
xkt
Yd wl wGi;f xGuyf pn;f rsm; onfvnf; pD;qif;oGm;aoma&? pdr0hf ifomG ;aom
a&wkYw
d Gif aysm0f ifum o,faqmif&modkY ygoGm;wwf\/ aysm0f ifoGm;aom wGi;f xGuf
ypn;f onf u,fvq
f ,
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dk Ef iS hf Akid u
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2
3
Ekid af y/ xdka&rsK;d udk a≈ [kac:onf/ a≈udk tjrKyfxu
G af oma&oGuf jzpfvm
ap&ef t0wfavQmq
f 'dk gxnfah y;jcif;jzifv
h nf;aumif;? qlvmonftxd tylwu
dk af y;jcif;
jzifhvnf;aumif; vky,
f lEkid \
f /
a&wGif tylukpd ky,
f lxm;NyD; wjznf;jznf;jyefvnfxkwaf y;Ekid o
f nfh pGr;f &nf
vnf;&So
d nf/ okaYd omf a&ukd tylwu
kd af y;&m tjcm;ypn;f rsm;xuf tylvko
d nft
h jyif
tat;wku
d af y;&mwGiv
f nf; tat;ykv
d \
kd / xdkaY Mumifyh if a&aEG;tdwf odkrY [kwf a&aEG;
ykvif;onf tylukd tjcm;ypn;f rsm;xuf ykrd kMd umjrifhpGm ay;Ekid \
f /
wpfenf;tm;jzifh azmfjy&vQif a&ESihf t&G,w
f yl pn;f wpfrsK;d rsK;d udk wlnaD om
tylcsed w
f ufvmap&ef tylay;ygu xdkypn;f udk ay;&onfhtylyrmPxufykdaom
tylyrmPudk a&tm;ay;&avonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh a&wpfaygifEiS hf ajrajcmufwpfaygif
udk tylcsed w
f pf'*D &Dwufvmap&ef tylwu
kd af y;ygu a&udkay;&onfh tylyrmPonf
ajrajcmufukd ay;&onfh tylyrmPxuf ig;qydkrsm;onf/ a&\xl;jcm;aom
*kPo
f wu
d yifv,furf;k;d wef;a'orsm;wGif rQwaom &moDOwkukdjzpfay:aponf
omru urmhtylcsed u
f kdvnf; xde;f ay;xm;onf/
xk*d kPo
f wdaMumifh aeonf uke;f ajrESihf a&jyifukd twlwyl if tylay;aeaomf
vnf; wlnDonfh tylcsed w
f pfckokYad &mufap&ef a&udk tylwku
d af y;&onfhtcsed o
f nf
uke;f ajrudk tylay;&onft
h csed x
f uf ig;qrQyMkd umonf/ xdaYk Mumifh yifv,furf;d;k wef;
a'orsm;wGif uke;f ajray:ylaeonfh aeYtcsed w
f Gif yifv,fxuf at;aeqJjzpfum
avzdtm;ydkrkBd uD;rm;ae uke;f ajrbufqo
D kYd yifv,favnif;wku
d cf wfonf/ nbuf
wGif uke;f ajrutylukd ydkrkv
d sijf refpmG xkwyf pf at;oGm;aomfvnf; yifv,f a&jyifu
tylukd xde;f xm;Ekid q
f Jjzpfjcif;aMumifh a&jyifxuf&aSd vxkonf zdtm;enf; uke;f ajr
1/ Minerals
2/ Hard water
3/ Soft water
64
bufqrD S uke;f avnif;u yifv,fbufqo

D Ykd wku
d cf wfav\/ xdt
Yk wl BuD;rm;us,jf yefY
onfh uke;f ajrESihf yifv,fork'&mjyifus,Bf uD;wkYd vwDw'G rf sO;f ESihf tydiq
f ufpyfae
onfh ae&ma'orsm;wGif txufyg*kPo
f wad Mumifh tjyifaea&mifjcnf&&Srd I tcsed t
f cg
yg uGmjcm;oGm;ojzifh rkwo
f kHavac: &moDavrsm;wku
d cf wfwwfonf/
yifv,fem;eD;a'orsm;wGif avxkxJ a&aiGUyg0ifeeI ;f onf uke;f acgifacgif
a'orsm;rSmxuf ydkrkrd sm;onf/ a&aiGUrsm;onf aeYtcg ukeaf jrrSvidI ;f &Snaf &mifjcnfjzifh
jyefxkwaf y;aom tylukd pky,
f lxm;um tmumookYd csucf si;f rydkYvTwaf o;ojzifh
ntcg ajrjyifxuf&dS avxktm; tat;ayghap\/ odt
kY wGuf yifv,fem;eD;a'orsm;
uke;f acgifacgifa'orsm;rSmuJo
h kYd aeYEiS hf n tylcsed rf sm;pGm ruGmjcm;bJ &moDOwkrQwjcif;
jzpfonf/
f iG ahf y;&m
okYd urmah jrjyifa&jyifu aerS &&Sad om tylukd jyefvnfxkwv
avxkxJ&Sd a&aiGUrsm;ESiht
f wl tjcm;"mwfaiGUwcsKUd u pky,
f lNyD; ajrjyifem;eD; avxkukd
1
ylaEG;aponfh tmedoifukd rSev
f Hktrd t
f medoif odkYr[kwf pdr;f vef;tdrt
f medoif [kac:
onf/ tmedoifomr&Syd gu uREfkyw
f kYdurmBuD;\ysr;f rQtylcsed o
f nf okn'D*&D
zm&if[ku
d o
f m&SNd yD; wpfurmvHk;a&cJacwfokdYjyefa&mufoGm;rnf/
,ckrl tqkyd gtmedoifu uREfkyw
f kYu
d rmBuD;wpfckvHk;\ ysr;f rQtylcsed u
f kd
59 'D*&Dzm&if[u
kd jf zpfaeapum vlow0g? opfyifyef;refwkYd &Sio
f efaexdkiaf &;twGuf
vkt
d yfaom ylaEG;rIukd ay;ae\/ (odkYaomf ausmufrD;aoG;ESihf a&eHxGuf pufoHk;qD
oHk;pGrJ I rsm;jym;vmjcif;ESihf vlzefw;D aomrSev
f kt
H rd t
f medoif&o
dS nfh "mwfaiGUrsm;oHk;pGrJ w
I Ykd
aMumifh avxk\rSev
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H rd t
f medoifw;kd vmNyD; urmyh sr;f rQtylcsed o
f nf 20 &mpkaemufyikd ;f
twGi;f wpf'D*&Dzm&if[ku
d jf rifhwufvmcJhonf/)
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2
wifjycJholrSm paumhvlrsK;d "mwkaA'ynm&Sif *sK;d Zufbvuf jzpfonf/ 18 &mpkESpf
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f wEd pS rf sK;d udk
3
azmfxkwjf ycJhonf/ yxrwpfrsK;d rSm a&wGif tylvufcHEkid pf Gr;f tvGeBf uD;rm;pGm
&Sad Mumif;jzpfonf/ tylvufcEH ikd pf rG ;f rSm tylukd pkky,
f El ikd o
f nfph rG ;f &nfyifjzpf ,if;udk
1/ Green house effect 2/ Joseph Black
3/ Heat capacity
65
owfrSwx
f m;aom yrmP&Sd ypn;f wpfckukd owfrSwx
f m;onfh tylcsed 'f D*&Djrifhwuf
vmap&ef vkt
d yfaomtylyrmPjzifh azmfjyavh&o
Sd nf/
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d yfaMumif;
udk tdr&f Sirf wkid ;f odMuonf/ a&aEG;tdk;wnf&m tdk;xJrS a&at;aeqJrSmyif tk;d
vufukid u
f kd vufESD;rygbJukdirf
d vufyloGm;onfukd uHzl;Muayrnf/ okYd jzpf&
onfrSm a&aEG;tk;d vkyx
f m;aom owKonf a&ukyd lvmap&ef ay;&rnfhtylyrmP
\ q,fyHkwpfyHkrQjzifh ylvmEdki
f a&xufq,fqrQykjd refqefpGm ylvmaomaMumifh
jzpfonf/
1
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d xkwaf zmfcsurf mS atmif;yl [kac:aeMuonfh tvGef
xl;jcm;aom *kPo
f wyd ifjzpfonf/ atmif;yl okrYd [kwf ikyaf eaomtyl[kac:&jcif;rSm
xkt
d ylu j'yf0wKwpfck\ tylcsed u
f kd ajymif;vJjcif;r&Sad pbJ xkjd 'yf0wK\ toGiu
f ko
d m
ajymif;vJomG ;apjcif;aMumifjh zpfonf/ Oyrmtm;jzifh tpdik t
f cJwpfck t&nfaysmaf omtcg
xkt
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f Gm;onftxd rlvtylcsed u
f kd wk;d rvmapbJ
j'yf0wKtrsK;d tpm;tvku
d w
f u
d saom tylyrmPudk pky,
f lvku
d \
f / okYt
d wGuf xkt
d yl
onf aysmo
f mG ;NyDjzpfaom t&nftwGi;f omatmif;aeawmhojzifh atmif;yl[k ac:jcif;
jzpfonf/ atmif;yltjyif tylukd qufNyD; xyfay;ygu xkt
d &nfonf tylcsed w
f k;d vm
ayvdrfhrnf/
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f ufwHkYjyefrIjzpfay:onf/ aysmf
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d &nfonf ,if;wpfckvkH;cJomG ;ap
onftxd rlvtylcsed u
f kd avsmhroGm;apbJ atmif;aeonfhtylukd t&nfaysmpf Ofu
pky,
f lcJhonfh yrmPtwkid ;f jyefvnfxkwyf pfonf/
a&\atmif;ylyrmPonf xl;xl;jcm;jcm;rsm;vS\/ a&cJukd tylcsed rf ajymif;
apbJ vH;k 0t&nfaysmNf yD; a&jzpfomG ;ap&ef ay;&rnft
h ylyrmPonf Muufo;D aEG;rQaEG;Hk
d af y;&onfh
om&So
d nfh yrmPwla&udk a&qlrSwaf &mufonftxd ylvmatmiftylwku
tylyrmPESihf twlwlyifjzpfonf/ xdktyl yrmPonf tjcm;awGUjrifaeus j'yf0wK
trsm;pku t&nfaysm&f ef vdktyfonfhtylyrmPxuf rsm;pGmydkrsm;ae\/ yrmtm;jzifh
oHonf 1517 'D*&Dpifw*D &dww
f iG f t&nfaysm&f m oHtpdkit
f cJwpfck xdktylcsed o
f akYd &muf
onfESihf a&cJwpfaygifukd t&nfaysmaf pEkid af om tylyrmPudk xdkoHtpdkit
f cJtm;
ay;vku
d yf gu oH&Spaf ygift&nfaysmo
f Gm;ayvdrhrf nf/
1/ Latent heat
66
a&udk wpfzefa&cJtjzpf at;cJapaomtcg t&nfaysmpf Ofu pky,

f lcJhaom
tylyrmPtwkid ;f tyljyefvnfxw
k yf pfonf/ odYk a&cJaepOf a&rS xkwyf pfvu
dk af om
tylonf ywf0ef;usit
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f / a&cJavmufatmif at;onfh nwpfn
rSev
f Hktrd w
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rSev
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h nf;ay;ayvdrrhf nf/ eHeufcif;ta&muf a&pnftwGi;f rS
a&wcsKUd co
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f kHtrd t
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yd
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f t
kH rd t
f wGi;f tyljznfq
h nf;ay;
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h kYd
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f lavonf/
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f / a&cJrkeYv
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aoma&cJrkeYu
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ab;rS a&cJrsm;odyx
f nfah y;&onf/ odkaY &cJrkeYf pnfywfvnf a&cJrsm;&Sad eHkrQjzifh
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arTay;jcif;jzifh a&cJrsm; t&nfaysmu
f m a&cJrkeYt
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a&cJrkeYo
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d m;&Syd k?H rnfonfh
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d m;enf;onfhae&mwGif a&qlvG,yf HkwkYu
d kd tcef; (2)
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1
67
2
w,fvl u
dk f (H2 Te) ? [ku
d 'f k*d sif q,fvefEu
dl 'f f (H2 Se) ESihf [ku
d 'f k*d sif qmvfzu
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3
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f Hk;
jzpfoifhonf/ tqkyd g j'yfaygif;oHk;ckvku
d ef monhf "mwkoDtkd&D? "mwkyHkpHtwkid ;f
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'D*&DpifwD*&dww
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f o
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hf srnfqv
kd Qif urmajrjyif
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d nfjzpfap tylcsed af vsmo
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wdwu
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Y siyf pfvu
dk af y
awmhonf/
1/ Hydrogen telluride 2/ Hydrogen seleride
3/ Hydrogen sulfide
68
a&onf qufNyD; tylcsdefavsmhvm (at;vm) onfESifhtrQ jyefvnf

azmif;yGvmNyD; ydkydk ayghayghvmonfrSm okn'D*&DpifwD*&dwaf &muf tcJ (a&cJ)
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1
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1/ Hydrogen bonds
69
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4
5
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1/ Capillarity
2/ Capillary action
3/ Surface tension
4/ Heavy water
5/ Deuterium oxide
71
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1/ Henry Stanley
72
1
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4/ Littoral current
5/ Wave-cut platform
73
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1
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2
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1/ Gulf Stream
2/ Labrador
3/ EL Nino
74
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75
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jzpfay:ap\/ a&cJjrpfonf awmifMum;wpfckukd pD;qif;&mwGif ausmufawmifrsm;rS
uGJaMuaeaom ausmufwHk;rsm;udk vG,fvifhwulo,faqmifoGm;um pD;qif;&m
wpfavQmuf csKid Bhf uD;rsm;udk jzpfay:ap\/ xkcd sKid Bhf uD;rsm;onf aemufykid ;f wGif a&jynfh
oGm; twef;vku
d jf zpfaeonfh a&tkid Bf uD;rsm;jzpfvmMu\/
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ajrjyifukd acsmrGwo
f mG ;atmif ESp&f n
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d pf m;ypfcMhJ uonf/ okaYd omf wcsKUd ae&m
rsm;wGirf l ruRr;f usiaf om yef;ykq&muJo
h kYd jcpf&myGe;f yJ&h mrsm;udk jzpfay:ap\/ xdkuo
hJ kYd
aom jcpf&mrsm;onf atmufcaH usmufom; ajrmif;rsm;ozG,jf zpfomG ;&m ESpaf ycefeY uf
1
d kid ;f k;d jynfe,f? qif'yfuD ajrmufbuf
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2
at&Dtikd t
f wGi;f rS u,fvu
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f nfhajrmif;rsm;yifawGU&\/
uae'gEdkiif HwGif ae&muGuu
f sm;awGU&aom tkid Bf uD;tdkiif ,frsm;rSmvnf;
a&cJjrpfrsm;aMumifh ay:aygufc&hJ onf/ xdktikd rf sm;onf a&cJjrpfrsm; t&nfaysmjf yefqkwf
oGm;aomfvnf; ESpaf ygif;rsm;pGm qufvufuse&f cdS o
hJ nfh a&cJbavmufw;kH BuD;rsm;aMumifh
jzpfay:vmMu&onf/
,cktcsed w
f iG f awmifay:a&cJjrpfrsm;rSty a&cJjrpfrsm;urmah jrjyifukd tusK;d
roufa&mufEkdiaf wmhbJ jyefvnfqkwcf GmoGm;onfrSm ESpu
f mvaomif;csDMumanmif;
cJNh yDjzpfonf/ a&cJacwfwpfcx
k yfraH &mufvmOD;rvm; [laomar;cGe;f udk ,aeYwidk af tmif
uGJuGJjym;jym;rajzEkid Mf uao;ay/ rnfokYyd ifjzpfapumrl tcJtoGiEf Sihf a&vkyaf qmif
cJhaom urmajr yHkazmfa&;wm0efukd t&nftoGijf zifh a&uqufvufxrf;aqmif
aeqJjzpfonf/
1/ Sandusky
2/ Mackenzie Velley
76
(*) jrpfa&acsmif;a&rsm;\pGr;f aqmifrI

jrpfrsm;wGif pOfqufrjywfZJaG umif;aumif;jzifh vkyaf qmifay;&onfh wm0ef
oHk;&yf&o
dS nf/ xdkwm0efrsm;rSm ausmufEiS hf ajrqDvmT wku
Yd kd wku
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h &mrsm;udk o,faqmifjcif;ESihf o,faqmifvmonft
h &mrsm;udk ydckY say;jcif;wkjYd zpf
onf/ okYv
d kyaf qmifrIaMumifh ESpaf ygif;rsm;pGm Mumjrifhaomtcg uke;f jrifhrsm;onf
vGijf yifjzpfvkeD;yg;tajcodkY ajymif;vJoGm;&\/
jrpfa&u o,faqmifvmaom ausmufwHk;ausmufcJrsm;udk 0ef[kac:\/
jrpf\0efonf jrpfaMumif;\atmufcif;ESihf eHab;ESpb
f ufukd wku
d pf m;avh&So
d nf/
odkYwku
d pf m;jcif;jzifh o,faqmifvmaom ausmufwHk;rsm;onfvnf; ausmuftydki;f
tptjzpf yduGJ jrpfwpfavQmufwGif ykd ydk ao;i,fvm\/ jrpfa&onf
BuD;aomausmufwk;H rsm;udk jrpfatmufcif;wpfavQmufvrd o
hf mG ;apNyD; ao;i,faomtrIef
rsm;udk ,if;ESit
hf wl arsmygaponf/ jrpfa&pD;EIe;f ydkrsm;av 0efykrd ko
d ,faqmifEkid af v
jzpfonf/
jrpfzsm;ydki;f onf jrpfwpfckwGif tjrifhqHk;tydki;f jzpf jrpfa&pD;EIe;f trsm;qHk;
tydkif;vnf;jzpfonf/ odkYtwGuf xdktydkif;wGif jrpfa&onf a'gifvkdufwdkufpm;
tm;aumif;ojzifh jrpfcsKid haf Mumif;udk eufNyD; usO;f ajrmif;oGm;apum csKid haf Mumif;ab;
ESpb
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t*FvdyfpmvHk;ADGyHkoPmefqefqefjzpfoGm;avh&Sdonf/ jrpfnmykdif;wGif jrpfonf
jrpfaMumif;tvkduf qifajcavsmapmufwwfonfhtjyif acsmufrsm;? a&arSmfrsm;?
a&wHcGerf sm; jzpfay:wwfonf/
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enf;oGm;aomfvnf; ab;wku
d w
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vm\/ jrpfauGUrsm; wGif wku
xuf ydkrsm;onf/ tcHk;auGUurf;k;d bufwGif tenfrsm;usqif;NyD; aomifrsm;yif
xGe;f vmwwfonf/ jrpfauGUwpfckyHkukd yHk (4-2) azmfjyxm;onf/
1/ Meanders
77
jrpfauGUrsm;ydkauG;vmaomtcg jrpfauGU\t&if;ykid ;f ESpcf konf wpfckESihf

wpfckydkrdkeD;uyfvmwwf\/ jrpfa&tvGefwufcsdefwGif jrpfa&onfjrpfauGUtwkdif;
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f mv
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J mG ; jrpfusK;d tif; tjzpfoYkd ajymif;vJ
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oGm;wwf&m jrpfcsKid 0hf rS ;f onfvnf; wjznf;jznf;us,v
f mavh&o
dS nf/ jrpfv,fuRe;f rsm;
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jrpfaMumif;tv,fykdi;f ESihf atmufykdi;f wkYw
d Gif jrpfatmufcif;ESihf jrpftem;
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rsm;xuf jrifah ewwfNyD; jrpfa&jyifonfvnf; a&rsm;csed f ywf0ef;usix
f ufjrifah ewwf
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d wGuf jrpfa&pD;EIe;f enf;NyD; a'gifvku
d w
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&Si;f vif;ay;Ekid af om yifv,fa&pD;aMumif;r&Syd gu jrpfcjJG zmxGurf EI iS hf jrpfcrJG sm; jyefvnf
yl;aygif;rIrsm; jzpfay:aeonfh jrpf0uRef;ay:jzpfay:vmcJhonf/ yHk (4-4)
uREfkyw
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xdkae&mwGio
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f u
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hf rQ wk;d csUJ EeI ;f onfvnf;
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f mvaxmifaygif;rsm;pGm Mumvmaomtcg ,aeYjrpf0uRef;ay:tp
jzpfaeonfh [oFmwrdUywf0ef;usiu
f ke;f ajronf jrpf0uRef;ay:tpr[kwaf wmhbJ
1/ Oxbow lake
78
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hJ Ykd uke;f wGi;f ususa'ojzpfomG ;vdrrfh nf/ &efuek ?f rtlyif? ykord w
f pf0u
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f m uGmvSr;f awmhrnfr[kwb
f J rkid f 100 ausmrf u uGm
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aeaom jrpfa&\ jrpf0uRef;ay:wk;d csJUa&;vkyif ef;onf jrpf0 tenfykYcd svmonfukd
zdzsuaf y;rnfh yifv,fa&pD;aMumif;ESihf awGUrSom &yfwefYoGm;ayawmhrnf/
(C) ajratmufa&\pGr;f aqmifrI
jrpfa&u a&tvHk;t&if;jzifh t&Sed t
f [keo
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wjznf;jznf;wa&GUa&GUjzifh tEkpdwfjc,frIef;rIrsm;udk yef;ykq&mwpfa,mufyrm
pOfqufrjywfxkqpfvsufaeonf/
ajratmufa&onf acszsuw
f ku
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d *f rl sm;? csKid 0hf rS ;f BuD;rsm;? ajratmuf
1
2
acsmif;rsm;? obm0wHwm;rsm;? ausmufpufyef;qGJ rsm;ESihf ausmufpufrk;d arQmfrsm;
xHk;ausmufwkid rf sm;? Murf;wrf;aom ajrrsuEf Smjyifrsm;? usO;f ajrmif;rwfapmufaom
csKid 0hf rS ;f rsm;? urf;yg;apmufrsm;ponfx
h ;l jcm;aom uke;f ajrtoGio
f Pmefrsm;ukd yjyif
ajymif;vJjzpfay:aponf/
urmah jrrsuEf mS jyifwiG f xl;jcm;qef;Mu,fonfh *lBuD;rsm;? OrifvP
dk af cgif;BuD;
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d af cgif;
tm;vHk;onf yifv,fa&vIdif;ujzpfap? ajratmufa&ujzpfap ESpf&Snfvrsm;
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aom *lrsm;? vdkPrf sm;rSmyifvQif uke;f ajrwk;d csUJ vm uke;f wGi;f usus jzpfomG ;onft
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f saomae&mwpfae&m&mwGif
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d
f pm;\/ xdkokdY wjznf;jznf;
1/ Stalactite
2/ Stalagmites
79
pm;&mrS rmrpm;Edik af om ausmufvmT ausmufom; ausmufpidk af usmufcrJ sm;ESihf awGUaom

tcg ajrrmajrcJrsm;udkcsev
f yS Nf yD; ajraysmu
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d nfhajray:odkY rk;d &Gmusaomtcg
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tyifrsm;\tjrpfrsm;rS umAGe'f kid af tmufq'kd w
f csKUd xyfraH ysm0f ifjyef&m umAGeef pftufppf
taysmhpm;jzpfomG ;onf/ xdkokYd tufppftaysmhpm;jzpfomG ;onfh a&rsm;ESihf xHk;ausmuf
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1/ Limestone (Calcium carbonate)
2/ Calcium bicarbonate
80
txufyg *ltwGi;f tEkpw

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f pf&mrQ vkyaf qmifay;
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f matmif ESpw
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f pfaomif;Mumonftxd ZGJ
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wkid rf sm;jzifh wefqmqif,ifxm;rIrsm;udk urmx
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ZvoHo&mESihf urm
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ygu a&oHo&mvnfywfrIukd yHk (5-4) twdki;f awGU&rnf/ xkd (100) ,lepfteuf
(77) ,lepfonf ork'&mtxuf&Gmus usef (23) ,lepfrSmrl uke;f ajray:odkY
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95
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taemufbufawmifwef;a'oajrmufydkif;ESifh ta&SUbufukef;jrifha'o
ajrmufykid ;f wdykY g0ifaom jrefrmEdkiif aH jrmufykid ;f a'owGirf l rdk;OwktwGi;f ajrmufykid ;f pGe;f
rk;d a&csed f 137 vufr? tv,fykdi;f 70 rS 75 vufrtxd? awmifykdi;f 45
vufrrS 65 vufrtxd&mG oGe;f onf/ ta&SUbufuke;f jrifah 'o\ tv,fykid ;f jzpfaom
&Srf;ukef;jyifjrifhESifhu,m;ukef;jrifha'owdkYwGif ZGefvrSatmufwdkbmvtwGif;
awmifay:uke;f jrifha'orsm; rk;d a&csed f 45 rS 55 vufrtxdESihf ajredrhfcsKid hf0Sr;f
vGijf yifrsm; 35 vufrcefY&&So
d nf/ odkYaomf xkad 'oajrmufykdi;f &Sd rk;d ukwf rdUESihf
awmifykdi;f &Sd zmyGeEf Sihf oHawmifrdUrsm;wGif rkwo
f kHavudk awmifwef;uuefYvefYjzwf
umqD;ay;rIaMumifh a'otwGi;f &Sd tjcm;rdUrsm;xuf rk;d ydkrkd&&So
d nf/
tv,fykdi;f rk;d enf;a'owGirf l wpfESpv
f Hk;rk;d a&csed o
f nf wpfEkdiif HvHk;ESppf Of
&&Sdonfh yQrf;rQrdk;a&csdef\wpf0ufrQyifr&Sd rdk;enf;a'o[kac:jcif;jzpfonf/
wpfESpv
f Qif rk;d a&csed v
f ufr 30 atmufom &&So
d nfh rk;d tenf;qHk;rdYe,f 11 ckESihf
vufr 200 ausm&f &dSonfh rk;d trsm;qHk;rdUe,f 11 ckukd Z,m; (5-1) azmfjyxm;
onf/ xkYdtwl rk;d &Gm&uftrsm;qHk;rdUe,f 18 ckESihf tenf;qHk;rdUe,f 19 ckukd
Z,m; (5-2) azmfjyxm;\/
taemufawmifrkwfoHkOwk (rdk;Owk) jyifyumvrsm;wGifvnf; jzpfpOf
ajcmuf&yfaMumifh wpfcgwpf&Hrkd;&GmNyD; a&&wwfonf/ yxrjzpfpOfrSm rdk;udESihf
rk;d vGeu
f mvrsm;wGif b*Fvm;yifv,fatmftwGi;f rkew
f kid ;f jzpfay:rIaMumifh tcsed t
f cg
rwdkirf kd;ESihf csed cf grJhrk;d rsm; jrefrmhurf;dk;wef;udk rkew
f kdi;f jzwfausmyf gu wpfjynfvHk;
98
tESHYtjym; rk;d &Gm a&t&if;tjrpftajrmuftrsm; &&So

d nf/
'kw,
d jzpfpOfrSm ajrmufvwDwG'f 15 'D*&D\awmifbuf&Sd ta&SUavpD;
aMumif;rsm;wGif zdtm;enf;&yf0ef;odkrY [kwf avayGvidI ;f rsm;ygvmNyD; ajrmuf odkrY [kwf
taemufajrmufqDodkY a&GUvsm;jcif;yifjzpfonf/ xkdodkYjzpfygu weoFm&Dwdkif;?
rGejf ynfe,f? u&ifjynfe,f? &Sr;f jynfe,fawmifykdi;f ? u,m;jynfe,f? &efukew
f kid ;f ESihf
yJcl;wdki;f awmifykdi;f wdkYwGif tcsed t
f cgrwdkirf kd;&Gmonf/
wwd,jzpfpOfrSm tdE,
d Edkiif HbufrS taemufykdi;f 0J*,uf odkYr[kwf ajrjyif
tm;aysmhrkew
f kdi;f i,f1 rsm; jrefrmEdkiif Hajrmufykdi;f udk jzwfausm0f ifa&mufjcif;yifjzpf
onf/ xkdjzpfpOfaMumifhcsif;jynfe,f? &ckdifjynfe,fajrmufydkif;? ucsifjynfe,f?
ppfukdi;f wdki;f ? rEav;wdki;f ESihf rauG;wdki;f wdkYwGif aEGumvtcsed rf wdkirf kd;ESihf aqmif;
umvtcsed t
f cgrJhrkd; &GmoGe;f avh&So
d nf/
pwkwjzpfpOfrSm tdEd,Edkiif Hajrmufykdi;f ? ajrjyifrS tjrifhay 30000 rS
40000 twGi;f jzpfay:wwfaom zdtm;enf;&yf0ef;2rsm; Edk0ifbmvrS {NyDvqef;txd
umvtwGi;f jrefrmEdkiif aH jrmufykid ;f odkY a&GUvsm;a&muf&v
dS mjcif;yifjzpfonf/ xkjd zpfpOf
aMumifh jrefrmEdkiif Hajrmufykdi;f omru tv,fykdi;f txd wdrrf sm;xlxyfNyD; ae&mtESH
tjym; rdk;tenf;i,f&Gmwwfonf/ tu,f xk&d yf0ef;rsm;awmifbufyJcl;wdki;f txd
edrhfqif;vQif jrefrmEdkiif Htv,fykdi;f rk;d onf;xefNyD; tcsKUd ae&mrsm; rk;d oD;rsm;yg
a<u\/
yOrjzpfpOfrmS wkwEf kid if aH wmifykid ;f wGif jzpfay:aom at;Edkiaf vpdkiq
f kH3rsm;
taemufrSta&SUodkYa&GUvsm;&mwGif jrefrmEdkifiHajrmufydkif;txd tusKd;oufa&muf
apjcif;yifjzpfonf/ xkjd zpfpOfaMumifh ucsijf ynfe,f? ppfukdi;f wdki;f txufykdi;f ESihf
&Sr;f jynfe,fajrmufykdi;f wdkYwGif aEGOwktwGi;f tcsed t
f cgrwdkirf kd;&Gmonf/
1/ Western disturbance or weak surface depression
2/ Low pressure area
3/ cold front
99
Z,m; (5-1)/ jrefrmEdkiif HwGif ESppf Ofrkd;tenf;qHk;ESihf trsm;qHk;&aomrdUe,frsm;

rdk;tenf;qHk;&aomrdUe,frsm;
rk;d trsm;qHk;&aomrdUe,frsm;
1? acsmuf (pav) rauG;
rdk;a&csed f
pOf rdUe,f
(vufr)
21.80 1? avmif;vHk
2? qdyjf zL
24.13
3? yckuL
weoFm&D
rdk;a&csed f
(vufr)
228.84
2? oHawmif
u&ifjynfe,f
223.91
24.30
3? a&jzL
weoFm&D
217.44
4? anmifOD; (yk*H) rEav;
24.60
4? oxHk
rGejf ynfe,f
217.01
5? a&eHacsmif;
rauG;
25.36
5? o&ufacsmif; weoFm&D
216.63
6? a&pud
25.88
6? xm;0,f
214.85
7? acsmif;OD;
ppfukid ;f
27.01
7? oHwGJ
8? ajrmif
27.06
8? ppfawG
202.89
9? jrif;jcH
rEav;
27.42
9? aygufawm
202.61
28.91
10? bD;vif;
rGejf ynfe,f
201.27
ppfukid ;f
29.49
11? ajryHk
&ckid jf ynfe,f
200.03
pOf
rdUe,f
10? awmifom
11? jrif;rl
jynfe,f^wdki;f
jynfe,f^wdki;f
/
&ckid jf ynfe,f
214.05
rSwcf su/f usef rdUe,frsm;rSm ESppf Ofrkd;a&csed v

f ufr 30 rS 200 twGi;f &Gmavh&So
d nf/
100
Z,m; (5-2)/ jrefrmEdkiif HwGif ESppf Ofrkd;&Gm&uftenf;qHk;ESihf trsm;qHk;&So

d nfh
rdUe,frsm;
rdk;&Gm&uftenf;qHk;rdUe,frsm;
rk;d &Gm&uftrsm;qHk;rdUe,frsm;
jynfe,f^wdki;f rdk;&Gm&uf pOf rdUe,f

1? acsmuf (pav) rauG;
32.8
1? oHawmif
jynfe,f^wdki;f rk;d &Gm&uf

u&ifjynfe,f
158.2
2? qdyjf zL
weoFm&Df
156.0
155.5
ucsif
153.4
151.2
pOf
rdUe,f
34.2
2? Nrdwf
3? anmifOD; (yk*H) rEav;
36.0
3? aumhaomif;
4? a&pud
rauG;
37.3
4? ylwmtdk
5? yckuL
38.2
5? qGryf &mbGef
6? rdif
38.4
6? o&ufacsmif; weoFm&Df
149.8
7? ajrmif
ppfukid ;f
38.9
7? ykavm
147.9
8? a&eHacsmif;
rauG;
40.6
8? aumhu&dwf
u&ifjynfe,f
146.8
9? acsmif;OD;
ppfukid ;f
40.8
9? xm;0,f
weoFm&Df
145.9
10? ewfarmuf
rauG;
41.4
10? a&jzL
144.9
11? igef;ZGef
rEav;
41.9
11? avmif;vHk
144.5
12? jrif;jcH
rauG;
42.2
12? bkwjf yif;
144.0
13? awmifom
rEav;
42.3
13? oxHk
rGejf ynfe,f
144.0
14? wHwm;OD;
43.9
14? oHjzLZ&yf
143.9
15? jrif;rl
ppfukid ;f
45.1
15? weoFm&D
weoFm&D
141.8
16? rHk&mG
45.5
16? 0dki;f armf(q'Hk;) ucsijf ynfe,f
141.6
17? ykvJ
45.5
17? rk'Hk
rGejf ynfe,f
140.8
rEav;
45.5
18? bD;vif;
140.2
45.8
18? EGm;xk;d BuD;

19? ausmufqnf
rSwcf su/f usef rdUe,frsm;wGif ESppf Ofrkd;&Gm&ufrSm 46 &ufrS 140 &uftwGi;f &So
d nf/
101
q|rjzpfpOfrSm rk;d wdraf wmifBuD;rsm; jzpfay:um rk;d xpfcsKef; onf;xefpmG

&GmonfhjzpfpOfjzpfonf/ aEG&moDyljyif;aom&ufrsm; qufwkdujf zpfNyD;aemuf rGe;f vGJ
naeydki;f tcsed w
f iG f rk;d wdraf wmifBuD;rsm;jzpfay: rk;d xpfcsKef;um onf;xefpmG &Gmwwf
onf/ rk;d Owk0ifcgeD;ESihf rdk;ukecf geD;tcsefd rf sm;vnf; jzpfwwfonf/
jrefrmha&t&if;tjrpfwGif jynfwGi;f &Gmusaom rk;d a&rsm;omru tjcm;
0ifa&rsm;vnf; &Sad o;\/ ajrmufykdi;f pGe;f wGif a&cJzHk;vTr;f aom awmifxGwf 40
ausm&f So
d nf/ rk;d ESihfaqmif;umvrsm;twGi;f avxkxJrSa&aiGUrsm;udk xdkawmifxGwf
rsm;u qD;ESi;f rsm;? a&cJrsm;tjzpfvufcHxm;Mu&m? aEGvrsm;t&nfaysmpf D;qif;
acsmif;i,frsm;rSwpfqifh {&m0wD\tp? arcESifh rvdcjrpfESpfoG,ftm; a&
jznfhwif;ay;&mXmeBuD;rsm; jzpfvmonf/ oHvGijf rpfonfvnf; wkwEf kdiif HtwGi;f
1004 rkid rf Q jzwfoef;pD;qif;cJh&m xkEd kdiif HxufwGif &GmoGe;f cJhaomrk;d a&wcsKUd ukd
jrpfa&tjzpf pkaqmif; jrefrmEdkiif HtwGi;f 796 rdkirf Q jzwfoef;um a&o,HZmw
rsm;udk ydkYaqmifjzefYa0ay;ae\/ xkYdtwl wmydeEf Sihf a&TvDjrpfwkdYonf wkwEf kid if HrS?
rPdyl&jrpfonf tdEd,EdkifiHrS jrefrmEdkifiHtwGif;odkYpD;0ifum a&t&if;tjrpfrsm;
ydkYaqmifay;onf/
oHvGijf rpf? aomif;&if;jrpfESihf ygcsejf rpfwkdYonf xkid ;f Ekid if H? rJacgifjrpfonf
vmtkdEdkifiH? ewfjrpfonf b*Fvm;a'h&SfEkdifiH? bGdKifEkjrpfonf tdEd,EdkifiHwdkYESifh
e,ferd w
d yf kdi;f jcm;ay;um ESpEf kdiif HtMum; jzwfoef;pD;qif;aeMuonf/ xkjd rpfrsm;rS
a&t&if;tjrpfukdvnf; ESpEf kdiif HSdEIdi;f rIjzifh &,loHk;pGJEkdio
f nf/
(c) jynfjrefrmrSa&txGuf
txufwiG af zmfjycJhonfh jrefrmEdkiif HtwGi;f odkY enf;trsK;d rsK;d jzifh 0ifvmaom
a&o,HZmwrsm;teuf wcsKdUonf a&aiGUyifaiGUjyefum avxJjyefa&mufoGm;\/
useaf &rsm;url b*Fvm;yifv,fatmftwGi;f odkY ajrjyifqif;a&tjzpfjyefvnfpD;0if
onf/ xdkodkYpD;0ifaepOfrSmyif yifv,fjyifrSa&aiGUjyef avxJa&mufvmaom
a&aiGUrsm;onf taemufawmifrkwo
f kHavESihftwl Ekid if HtwGi;f odkY a&muf&Sv
d mum
trsm;pku rk;d tjzpf&Gmusjyef\/ useaf &aiGUwcsKUd rSmrl ajrmufykdi;f pGe;f awmifxGwrf sm;
ay:odkY qD;ESi;f rsm; a&cJrIerf sm;tjzpf&Gmusonf/
102
ESppf OfyQr;f rQa&aiGUyifaiGUjyefEkid pf rG ;f udk wkid ;f ESijhf ynfe,ftvdku^f rdUe,ftvku

d f
Z,m; (5-3) azmfjyxm;onf/ vdka&1onf ajcmufaoGUOwk (aqmif;? aEG)
twGi;f &Gmusa&yrmPxufa&aiGUyifaiGUjyefonfh yrmPuydkrsm; jzpfay:vmjcif;
jzpfonf/ vkad &udkumrdap&ef pGwpf kOd wktwGi;f u a&rsm;jznfw
h if;xm;onfh qnfEf iS hf
uefrsm;? a&wGif;rsm;? jrpfacsmif;rsm;rSa&rsm;jzifh tpm;jznfhay;Edkifonf/ ydka&2
onfpGwpf kdumvtwGi;f ydkaoma&rsm;udk qnfrsm;uefrsm;twGi;f wwfEkdio
f rQ
jznfhwif;xm;oifhonf/ xdkokdYrjznfhwif;xm;Edkiyf gu wpfcsKUd wpf0ufom ajratmuf
a&atmufvTmodkYa&muf&Sv
d mNyD; trsm;pkrSm qif;a&tjzpf jrpfacsmif;rsm;rSwpfqifh
tv[pD;qif;a&muf&SdoGm;ayrnf/
jrefrmEdkiif HwGif a&tvdkqHk;a'orSm tv,fykdi;f rdk;enf;a'ojzpfNyD; a&vkrd I
tenf;qHk;a'orsm;rSm ucsifjynfe,fajrmufydkif;? csif;jynfe,f? &Srf;jynfe,fESifh
weoFm&Dwkdi;f awmifykdi;f wdkYjzpfMuonf/ a&tvdkqHk;a'orsm;wGif a&aiGUjyefqHk;HI;rI
avsmhenf;ap&ef pdkucf if;rsm; twwfEkid q
f Hk;tyif&if;odkY ydkujf zifha&ydkYpepfukd usiho
f Hk;
oifhonf/ qnfa&uefa&rsm;udkvnf; a&aiGUjyefrIoufomap&ef aqmif&Guo
f ifhyg
onf/ pdkucf if;rsm;udk avwdkujf cif;rS twwfEkid q
f k;H umuG,x
f m;oifo
h nf/ a&aiGUjyefrI
avsmhenf;oGm;ygu a&vkrd Ionfvnf; enf;oGm;ayrnf/
Z,m; (5-4) wGijf ynfe,fESihf wdki;f tvdkuEf Sppf Oftrsm;qHk;a&aiGUyifaiGU
jyefEkid o
f nfh a&yrmPudkazmfjyxm;onf/ xkyd rmPonf a&aiGUyifaiGUjyef&efa&tvsif
rjywf&Sad erSom jzpfay:Edkio
f nfhyrmPjzpfonf/ xkyd rmPt& jrefrmEdkiif HtwGi;f rS
a&aiGUyifaiGUjyefEkdirf Ionf &Gmusa&tm;vHk;\ 53% xufrydkEkdiaf Mumif;od&onf/
,ckvuf&Sd a&aiGUyifaiGUjyefonfhyrmPonf &Gmusa&tm;vHk;\ 45%cefYom&So
d nf/
xdk 45% wGiv
f nf; tcsKYdonf uREkyf w
f kdYoHk;pGJNyD;rS a&aiGUjyefjcif;jzpfonf/
jrefrmEdkiif HtwGi;f rS a&t&if;tjrpftrsm;pkonf uGe&f ufozG,jf zpfaeaom
jrpfacsmif;rsm;rSwpfqifh yifv,ftwGi;f odkYpD;0ifonf/ jrpf0uRef;ay:urf;dk;wef;wGif
{&m0wDjrpfBuD;onf jrpfcGJrsm;jzpfMuaom i0ef (ykodrf)? ou,faomif? a&G;?
1/ Water deficit
2/ Water surplus
103
Z,m; (5-3)/ /a&oHo&mvnfrIaMumifh rdUe,ftvdkuf ESppf Ofjzpfay:avh&Sad om

a&tajctae/
t
rSwf
pOf
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
rdUe,f
ucsijf ynfe,f
ylwmtdk
jrpfBuD;em;
Aef;armf
u,m;jynfe,f
vGKd ifaumf
u&ifjynfe,f
zmyGef
bm;tH
csi;f jynfe,f
zvrf;
ppfukdi;f wdki;f txufykdi;f
cED;
armfvu
kd f
uav;0
uom
ppfukid ;f wdki;f atmufykid ;f
a&Tbdk
rH&k mG
ppfukid ;f
weoFm&Dwkid ;f
xm;0,f
Nrdwf
yJc;l wdki;f
jynf
awmifil
a&Tusif
om,m0wD
yJc;l
&GmoGe;f NrJ
rdk;a&csed f
(vufr)
&GmoGe;f NrJ
rdk;&Gm&uf
(&uf)
156.42
84.41
73.08
153.4
104.9
100.5
46.02
94.2
113.98
176.52
135.8
136.9
66.76
108.2
149.33
72.89
66.98
59.71
119.2
84.8
86.8
76.2
35.62
31.32
33.82
52.9
45.5
48.6
214.85
162.28
145.9
156.0
47.47
83.21
141.83
87.11
129.68
82.7
114.0
134.0
111.1
130.8
a&aiGUyifaiGU vdak &

jyefEkid pf rG ;f (vufr)
(vufr)
43.37
38.66
46.38
45.08
43.86
43.86
54.31
55.71
52.91
35.04
35.04
47.72
46.42
48.78
53.23
42.44
56.48
58.46
55.90
55.08
47.64
47.72
47.56
51.60
53.82
51.57
51.14
49.29
52.20
ydak &
(vufr)
0
5.43
12.12
118.19
34.84
24.68
8.27
10.43
14.53
18.15
33.42
142.01
1.85
33.62
9.88
6.85
8.70
3.54
120.87
30.94
22.44
21.26
22.83
36.42
27.76
0
0
0
12.12
5.04
167.28
107.76
17.56
13.78
13.50
10.67
13.66
11.26
46.65
103.19
48.46
91.22
104
rauG;wdki;f
49.87
0
22 yckuL
24.30
38.2
49.45
25.16
0
23 acsmuf
21.80
32.8
53.42
29.80
0
24 rif;bl;
34.87
56.4
48.31
13.42
0
25 rauG;
31.31
52.6
48.31
13.42
rEav;wdki;f
51.99
0
26 rEav;
34.31
52.1
55.08 27.76
0
27 jrif;jcH
27.42
42.2
52.83
25.35
0
28 anmifO;D
24.60
36.0
51.30
31.61
0.79
29 rdwv
D m
35.36
53.7
52.12
24.61
1.02
30 &rnf;oif;
38.16
61.9
49.29
12.16
20.16
31 ysO;f rem;
55.13
83.6
51.34
13.07
rGejf ynfe,f
50.12
145.63
32 armfvrdif
190.90
139.1
50.12
16.14
&ckid jf ynfe,f
57.63
154.29
33 ppfawG
202.89
126.1
60.20
11.61
182.09
34 ausmufjzL
185.93
127.8
53.23
10.04
35 oHwJG
214.05
126.0
59.45
17.44 175.59
&efukew
f kid ;f
54.13
56.69
36 &efukef
103.07
124.7
54.13 21.93
&Sr;f jynfe,f
38.61
25.71
37 vm;I;d
61.86
100.8
37.99
1.89
13.42
38 oDayg
53.80
83.5
40.31
3.86
9.41
39 usKid ;f wHk
44.50
89.5
44.49
7.99
27.91
40 vGKd ifvif
59.95
105.2
36.57
4.53
36.65
41 awmifBuD;
66.62
113.2
33.70
3.74
{&m0wDwkid ;f
52.11
48.23
42 [oFmw
85.06
110.1
50.71 13.86
69.49
43 ykord f
109.01
123.7
53.23
13.74
61.14
44 zsmyHk
100.68
125.5
52.40
12.91
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105
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&efukejf rpftwGi;f odkY ta&SUbufrSpD;0if\/ ppfawmif;jrpfBuD;ESihf bD;vif;jrpfwkdYrSmrl
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weoFm&Djrpfi,fwkaYd ygif;qHk;jzpfay:NyD; Nrdwf rdUteD; yifv,ftwGi;f odkpY ;D 0if\/ a'ge
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106
bufrSae awmifbufokdYpD;qif;&m cgumbk&d mZDyif acsmif;zsm;cHMuaom &pef0rf?

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qufvufpD;qif;vmaom ravmif0rfacsmif;udk t'Ge;f 0rf (t'Hk;0rf) acsmif;[kac:Mu
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wZGe'f rf ('ZHk'rf) &GmodkY a&mufonf/ &GmwGif t'Ge;f 0rfonf taemufbufrS
pD;qif;vmaom pdecf l;0rf (&Secf l;0rf) acsmif;ESihf aygif;qHkr\
d / pdecf l;0rfacsmif;onf
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jrefrmEdkiif HajrmufbuftpGeq
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1/ Languela
107
220 udk rvdcjrpf\ta&SUbufrS ESicf &hJ onf/ xkt

Yd wl Edkiif aH jrmufbufpeG ;f ? taemuf
ajrmuf,Ge;f ,Ge;f &Sd ay 10000 ausmjf rifhonfhf a&cJawmifwef;BuD;rS awmifusacsmif;
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jzwfoef;pD;qif;cJh&onf/
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r[kw?f awmifbufokdYpD;qif;&mwGif erfhvef? erfh,ufacsmif;wdkYu taemufbufrS
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f Bwd*HyHkjzpfae\/
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a'gif;aoacsmif;? ,if;acsmif;? bGufBuD;acsmif;ESifh e0if;acsmif;wdkYpD;0ifMuonf/
taemufbufrS rk;d aumif;acsmif;? aumufauGUacsmif;? rJZmacsmif;? rl;jrpf? csi;f wGi;f jrpf?
a,macsmif;? pvif;acsmif;? rke;f acsmif;? ref;acsmif;ESihf rif;wke;f acsmif;wdkpY ;D 0ifMuonf/
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jrpfrBuD;? bku
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anmifOD;? acsmuf? a&eHacsmif;? rauG;? qifaygif0J? atmifvH? jynf? a&Tawmif?
rkd;ndK? om&a0g? ZvmBuD;ESifh anmifwkef;rdUrsm;&SdMuonf/ taemufbufurf;
108
(vuf,mbuf urf;) wGif jrpfBuD;em;? uom? ppfukdi;f ? jrif;rl? ajrmif? yckuL?

qdyjf zL? qifjzLuRef;? rif;bl;? rif;vS? o&uf? ur? yef;awmif;? MuHcif;? jrefatmif?
[oFmw? ZvGeEf Sihf "EkjzLrdUwkdY wnf&So
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216 oef; o,faqmifykdYcsay;onf/ rEav;rdUtxdEke;f ajrwefcsed f 32 oef; ygvmNyD;
csi;f wGi;f jrpfwpfavQmufrS wefcsed f 109 oef; yl;aygif;pD;0ifonf/ tjcm;jrpfvufwuf
acsmif;vufwufrsm;uvnf; Eke;f ajrwef oef; 120 udk {&m0wDjrpftwGi;f odkY
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1/ Drainage basin
2/ Discharge
109
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hf wl 38% ausmaf usmf
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csi;f wGi;f jrpftjzpf ajrmufbufrS awmifbufokdY qufvufpD;qif;onf/
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1/ Lowest water level
2/ Highest water level
110
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1/ Photosynthesis
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jynfaxmifpkjzpf wpfESpv
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1/ Waterspout
2/ Richter scale
3/ Seismic sea wave
146
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1/ Tsunami
2/ Habour wave
3/ Tidal wave
4/ Wave length
147
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1/ Seismic gap
149
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1/ Danger level
2/ Alert level
158
onf/ umuG,w
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20% txda&ab;oifhcH&awmhrnfjzpfonf/
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jrefrmEkid if w
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rSwyf ifjzpfonf/ xkt
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jrpfurf;yg;udkausmv
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ay;ygonf/ xko
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f kd pk;d &draf &rSwu
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hJ Ukd yHkaoxm;r&ay/ (pdk;&draf &rSwo
f nfvnf;
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D mcefUerd o
hf nfah &trSwf
a&mufonfEiS hf owday;csux
f kwjf yefonf/ jrpfBuD;rsm;wGirf l vdktyfovdkxUkd xufru
edrhfusonfha&trSwu
f yif owday;csux
f kwjf yefay;onf/ tenf;qHk;oHk;&ufudwif
xkwfjyefay;avh&Sdonf/
tcsKdUaomrdUrsm; jrpfurf;yg;jrifhaomfvnf; rdUe,ftwGif;ujrpfdk;wpf
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S f
ay;xm;aom pdk;&draf &rSwo
f kUd jrpfa&a&mufcsed f rdUe,ftwGi;f tjcm;t&yfrsm;odkU a&0if
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f mru rdUe,fpkd;&draf &rSwf2
1/ Disaster level
1/ Township danger level
159
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toD;oD;udk tjrifq
h kH;wufcahJ om a&trSwrf sm;ESiw
hf uG Z,m; (8-1) azmfjyxm;\/
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I kv
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f oHk;y&onf/
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h ikd ;f wm
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4
vufaxmufcdki0f ef 'D? a*s? at urfb,f u 1888 ckESp?f Zlvkdiv
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wkdif;wmvmcJhonf/ 1966 ckESpfrSp a&BuD;rIcefUrSef;csuf owday;csufrsm;udk
xkwjf yefay;vmcJ\
h / ,cktcg a&wkid ;f pcef; 24 ckrS aeUpOfwikd ;f wm&&Sad om jrpfa&rSwf
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1/ Cross-sectional area
3/ Water discharge
2/ Current velocity
4/ D.J.A Campbell
160
jrpfa&BuD;rIowday;csu?f jrpfa&tajctaeowif;ESihf a&enf;csed o

f wday;csuw
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1
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h csed cf efUreS ;f
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f vufrsm;rSm avmavm
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f nfrh ;kd tajctae?
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qnfa&vnfywfrIpnf;rsO;f rsm;? jrpfaMumif;\toGiv
f uPmrsm;? a&qif;csKid h0f Sr;f \
toGiv
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f nfhrkd;a&csed cf efUrSe;f &efESihf
rkew
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h rd yf kHEiS hf
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tcsut
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1/ Time lepse
2/ Mathematical model
Z,m; (8-1)/
pOf
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
1
1
1
161
/ jrpfa&BuD;rnfo
h wday;csux
f kwjf yefay;&avh&adS om rdUrsm;\ pdk;&draf &
rSwEf Sihf tjrifhqHk;wufcJhonfh a&trSwEf Sihf aeU&uf
jrpf^a&wkid ;f pcef;rdU
pdk;&draf &rSwf tjrifhqHk;wufzl; wufcJhonfh&uf
onfha&trSwf
{&m0wDjrpf
jrpfBuD;em;
1200
1410
8-10-79
Aef;armf
1150
1338
22-7-04
uom
1040
1154
12-10-79
rEav;
1260
1382
27-7-04
ppfukdi;f
1150
1274
27-7-04
anmifOD;
2120
2263
29-7-04
acsmuf
1450
1532
15-8-74
rif;bl;
1700
1982
15-8-74
rauG;
1700
1894
31-7-04
atmifvH
2550
2737
15-8-74
jynf
2900
3025
15-8-74
[oFmw
1342
1461
7-10-97
'k|0wDjrpf(jrpfi,fjrpf)
oDayg
600
618
19-8-71
jrpfi,f
870
1081
16-9-04
csi;f wGi;f jrpf
cED;
1360
1771
13-7-91
[krvif;
2900
3107
12-7-68
armfvku
d f
1230
1608
20-7-76
uav;0
1550
1920
17-8-02
rHk&mG
1000
1099
19-8-02
ppfawmif;jrpf
awmifil
600
725
27-8-73
ra'guf
1070
1244
2-8-94
a&Tusijf rpf
a&Tusif
700
927
3-8-97
yJcl;jrpf
yJc;l
910
950
20-7-94
oHvGijf rpf
bm;tH
750
936
18-8-02
162
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tcsut
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jrefrmEkid if w
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rk;d a&csed Ef iS hf jrpfa&tjrifq
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{&m0wDjrpfay:&Sd Aef;armf? uom? oydwu
f si;f ? ppfukdi;f ? anmifOD;? acsmuf? rif;
bl;? jynfEiS hf [oFmwrdUrsm;\ jrpfa&tjrifch efUreS ;f rIukrd l vufawGUtajcyyHkpw
H pfrsK;d jzpf
4
onfh tajzmifhoHk;aemufaMumif;jyyHkpH rsm;oHk; cefUrSe;f csux
f kwjf yefavh&So
d nf/
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tajzmifo
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f eG o
f t
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OD;tke;f ausmu
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uGeyf sLwmwGix
f nfhoGi;f a&BuD;csed t
f jrifhqHk;a&trSwcf efUrSe;f csurf sm;tm; jynfrdU
twGuf 7 &ufrS 9 &uftxd udwifvnf;aumif;? [oFmwtwGuf 9 &ufrS
12 &uftxd udwifvnf;aumif; xkwjf yefay;Edkiyf gonf/
jynfyHkpH - HP= 0.287HB + 0.585HM + 0.191HS + 0.113HPI + 1353 wGi-f
HP onf jynfrdUwufEki
d o
f nfh a&BuD;csed t
f jrifhqHk;a&trSw?f
HB onf Aef;armfrdUwufcJhaom a&BuD;cse
dt
f jrifhqHk;a&trSw?f
HM onf armfvkduf rdUwufcJhaom a&BuD;cse
dt
f jrifhqHk;a&trSw?f
HS onf cefUf rSe;f wGuc
f sucf sed w
f Gif 'k|0wDjrpfa&Tpm&Ha&trSwEf Sihf
HPI onf cefUrSe;f wGuc
f sucf sed w
f Gi&f aSd eonfh jynfrdUd a&trSwjf zpfonf/
[oFmwyHkpH- HH= 0.67HB + 0.495HM + 0.27HHHI + 0.19HS - 412 wGif
HH onf [oFmwrdUwufEki
d o
f nfh a&BuD;csed t
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HB, HM ESifh HS wdkUonf txufygtwdki;f jzpfMu
1/ Empirical model
2/ Conceptual model
3/ Catchment area
4/ Linear regression model
HHI onf
163
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rdUrsm;twGuv
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1/ Thomson King
2/ Phillip Cane
3/ Dr. JE. Greene
4/ R.G.Barry, R.J.Chorle
5/ Harold V. Thurman
6/
7/
8/
9/
10/
11/
Leopold and Davis

Ralph E. Lapp
Alan E. Nourse
Leonard and Sogan
Robert O}Brien
Neiburger, Edinger,
Bonner
12/ Summerscale
13/ John Boslough
14/ Peter Rogers

15/ 16/ -
Water; Miracle of Nature (Collier Books, New

York 1961)
Giant of Science (Pyramid Books ,1966)
100 Great Scientists (Washington Square Press,
1964)
Atmosphere, Weather and Climate
(Third Edition, Methuen & Co.Ltd., 1976)
Introductory Oceanography (2nd Edition, Merrill,
1978)
Water (Time- Life Books, 1970)
Matter (Time- Life Books, 1969)
The body (Time- Life Books, 1969)
Planets (Time-Life Books, 1969)
Machines (Time-Life Books, 1969)
Understanding Our Atmospheric Environment
(W.H. Freeman and Co., 1973)
The Penguin Encyclopedia (Penguin Books, 1965)
Worlds Within the Atom (National Geographic,
May 85)
Ward Water Crisis (Encyclopedia Britannica,
Book of Year 2004)
The New Encyclopedia Britannica Vol 6 ,12,15th
Edn)
The New York Times Almanac 2004 (Penguin
Referena)
196
17/ Eric Bennett
18/ Steve Turner
19/ Micheal Zimmerman
20/ 21/ 22/ 23/ OD;bdk;vdIif
(a,mtwGi;f 0ef)
24/ OD;okw
25/ OD;okw
Drought and Desertification (Microsoft Encarta
Reference Library 2004)
Will There be enough water in the next century?
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Environment (Microsoft Encarta Reference
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Alaskan Earthquark (Encarta Reference Library,
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Tanner, Taylor Growth (Time-Life Books,
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MNA / Xinhua China Lacks 40b cubic meters
of water every year (New Light of Myanmar,
31-12-2004)
OwkabmZeo*F[usr;f ([Hom0wDy#d uwf

yHkESdyw
f ku
d ?f 1974)
lyaA'ordki;f ([Hom0wDyHkESyd w
f ku
d ?f 1963)
rdk;av0oynm (jynfolUvufpGJpmpOf? pmayAdrmef?
1969)
26/ wku
d pf kd;
{&m0wD (wku
d pf kd;pmay? 1981)
27/ vGiaf rmif
rSww
f rf;orkid ;f ref;aZ,smwkid ;f (wpfoufwmpmay?
1973)
28/ Adkvaf t;armif
ork't
f P0gjyif (jynfolUvufpGJpmpOf? pmayAdrmef?
1978)
29/ wuodkvfcifarmifaZmf
tE&m,f>yrf;onfv
h o
l m;0ef;usif (pmayAdrmef? 1979)
30/ OD;rif;axG;aemif(ynma&;) jrefrmhivsif (jynfolUvufpJpG mpOf? pmayAdrmef? 1978)
31/ b*Fvm;yifv,fatmfrkew
f kid ;f (vrf;pOfygwDXmecsKyf?
1974)
32/ OD;rif;acgifOD;
od*Fge'Djrefjynfajrmufzsm;odkU (vrf;pOfygwDXmecsKyf?
1983)
33/ aygif;wnfbke;f Munf
eufeJvSpGmpMum0|m (OMordipf may? 1980)
34/ jrode;f
a&ab;tE&m,fpkaygif;umuG,f (jr0wDpmpOf? 1980)
35/ prf;prf;wif
pdjk ynfom,majrurm (jynfoUl vufppJG mpOf? pmayAdrmef?
1981)
36/ a'gufwmtmavm
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38/ a'gufwmwifatmif
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f mjrifharmif
40/ Ekid af &Trk;d
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47/ 48/ 49/ 50/ 51/ 52/ -
197
uREykf w
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Adrmef? 1984)
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pmpOf? pmayAdrmef? 2001)
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f ku
d ?f
2001)
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Adrmef? 1989)
jrefrmhav? jrefrmha& (jynfoUl vufppJG mpOf? pmayAdrmef?
1989)
oaEom; (jynfolUvufpGJpmpOf? pmayAdrmef? 1992)
ajrmufzsm;jrefrmjynf cgcgbdk&mZDokdU (jynfolUvufpGJ
pmpOf? pmayAdrmef? 1998)
pMum0Vm\obm0ordki;f (rHka&G;pmtkyw
f ku
d ?f 2001)
t&m&mwkid ;f \oDtk&d DwpfckqDokdU (rHka&G;pmtkyw
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H momjyefpmay
toif;? 1957)
yx0D0if? er0wef; (ausmif;oHk;pmtkyf aumfrwD?
1984)
jrefrmEkid if Hyx0D0if? txufwef; (ausmif;oHk;pmtkyf
aumfrwD? 1978)
yx0D0if? yxrwGJ? 'orwef; (ausmif;oHk;pmtkyf
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jrefrmhpG,pf Hkusr;f ESpcf sKyf 1979 (pmayAdrmef 1980)?
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53/ 54/
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67/
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Naing Shwe Moe

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