Biology Comparison Document

Introduction We have produced this series of documents to help you prepare for our new AQA Level 1 / 2 Certificates. Each document is broken into sections showing the following: topics transferred from our GCSE specifications (and which Unit each topic comes from) topics that are in our GCSEs but not the Certificates topics that are new to our Certificates

Please note that this document is not intended to replace the specification, which is the definitive source of information for our qualifications.

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Topics transferred from GCSE Biology Unit 1: B1.1.2 How our bodies defend themselves against infectious diseases Except: f) Semmelweiss recognised the importance of hand-washing in the prevention of spreading some infectious diseases. By insisting that doctors washed their hands before examining patients, he greatly reduced the number of deaths from infectious diseases in his hospital. B1.2.1 The nervous system B1.2.2 Control in the human body Except: c) Hormones regulate the functions of many organs and cells. For example, the monthly release of an egg from a womans ovaries and the changes in the thickness of the lining of her womb are controlled by hormones secreted by the pituitary gland and by the ovaries. d) Several hormones are involved in the menstrual cycle of a woman. Hormones are involved in promoting the release of an egg: follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted by the pituitary gland and causes eggs to mature in the ovaries. It also stimulates the ovaries to produce hormones including oestrogen luteinising hormone (LH) stimulates the release of eggs from the ovary oestrogen is secreted by the ovaries and inhibits the further production of FSH. Topics transferred from GCSE Biology Unit 2: B2.1.1 Cells and cell structure B2.1.2 Dissolved substances B2.2.1 Animal organs B2.2.2 Plant organs B2.3.1 Photosynthesis B2.4.1 Distribution of organisms B2.5.1 Proteins B2.5.2 Enzymes Except: j) In industry, enzymes are used to bring about reactions at normal temperatures and pressures that would otherwise require expensive, energydemanding equipment. However, most enzymes are denatured at high temperatures and many are costly to produce. B2.6.1 Aerobic respiration B2.6.2 Anaerobic respiration B2.7.1 Cell division B2.7.2 Genetic variation Except: i) Each person (apart from identical twins) has unique DNA. This can be used to identify individuals in a process known as DNA fingerprinting. B2.7.3 Genetic disorders B2.8.1 Old and new species Topics transferred from GCSE Biology Unit 3: B3.1.1 Dissolved substances Except: d) Most soft drinks contain water, sugar and ions. e) Sports drinks contain sugars to replace the sugar used in energy release during the activity. They also contain water and ions to replace the water and ions lost during sweating. f) If water and ions are not replaced, the ion/water balance of the body is disturbed and the cells do not work as efficiently. B3.1.3 Exchange systems in plants B3.2.1 The blood system B3.2.2 The blood B3.2.3 Transport systems in plants B3.3.1 Removal of waste and water control Except: a) Waste products that have to be removed from the body include: carbon dioxide, produced by respiration and removed via the lungs when we breathe out urea, produced in the liver by the breakdown of amino acids and removed by the kidneys in the urine, which is temporarily stored in the bladder. b) If the water or ion content of the body is wrong, too much water may move into or out of the cells and damage them. Water and ions enter the body when we eat and drink. B3.3.2 Temperature control B3.3.3 Sugar control B3.4.1 Waste from human activity B3.4.2 Deforestation and the destruction of areas of peat Version 1.0

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Topics transferred from GCSE Biology Unit 1: e) The uses of hormones in controlling fertility include: giving oral contraceptives that contain hormones to inhibit FSH production so that no eggs mature - oral contraceptives may contain oestrogen and progesterone to inhibit egg maturation - the first birth-control pills contained large amounts of oestrogen. These resulted in women suffering significant side effects - birth-control pills now contain a much lower dose of oestrogen, or are progesterone only - progesterone-only pills lead to fewer side effects. giving FSH and LH in a fertility drug to a woman whose own level of FSH is too low to stimulate eggs to mature, for example in In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF) treatment - IVF involves giving a mother FSH and LH to stimulate the maturation of several eggs. The eggs are collected from the mother and fertilised by sperm from the father. The fertilised eggs develop into embryos. At the stage when they are tiny balls of cells, one or two embryos are inserted into the mothers uterus (womb). B1.2.3 Control in plants B1.4.1 Adaptations B1.4.2 Environmental change B1.5.1 Energy in biomass Topics transferred from GCSE Biology Unit 2: Topics transferred from GCSE Biology Unit 3: B3.4.3 Biofuels Except: c) Biofuels can be made from natural products by fermentation. Biogas, mainly methane, can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide range of plant products or waste material containing carbohydrates. B3.4.4 Food production Except: d) The fungus Fusarium is useful for producing mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians. The fungus is grown on glucose syrup, in aerobic conditions, and the biomass is harvested and purified.

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Topics transferred from GCSE Biology Unit 1: B1.6.1 Decay processes B1.6.2 The carbon cycle B1.7.1 Why organisms are different B1.7.2 Reproduction Except: b) New plants can be produced quickly and cheaply by taking cuttings from older plants. These new plants are genetically identical to the parent plant. B1.8.1 Evolution Except: f) Where new forms of a gene result from mutation there may be relatively rapid change in a species if the environment changes. Topics transferred from GCSE Biology Unit 2: Topics transferred from GCSE Biology Unit 3:

Topics not transferred from GCSE to IGCSE: B1.1.1 Diet and Exercise B1.3 The use and abuse of drugs

New Topics for IGCSE: 6.4 Sexual reproduction in plants

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Development of existing GCSE Topics in IGCSE: 1.1 Cell structure c) some of the genes are located in circular structures called plasmids. 1.2 The movement of substances into and out of cells e) Candidates should be familiar with experiments related to diffusion and osmosis. g) Similarly, sugar may be absorbed from low concentrations in the intestine and from low concentrations in the kidney tubules. h) A single-celled organism has a relatively large surface area to volume ratio. All the necessary exchanges occur via its surface membrane. i) Candidates should be able to explain how the small intestine and lungs in mammals, and the roots and leaves in plants, are adapted for exchanging materials. j) Candidates should be able, when provided with appropriate information, to explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces are adapted to maximise effectiveness. 1.3 Cell division l) In therapeutic cloning an embryo is produced with the same genes as the patient. Stem cells from the embryo will not be rejected by the patients body so they may be used for medical treatment. n) Tumours result from the abnormal, uncontrolled growth of cells. Benign tumours do not invade other tissues. Cells from malignant tumours invade healthy tissue. Some malignant cells may enter the bloodstream and circulate to other parts of the body, forming secondary tumours. Tumours can be caused by chemical carcinogens, eg those found in tobacco smoke and in asbestos, and by ionising radiation, eg UV and X-rays. 2.3 Plant tissue, organs and systems a) [Examples of plant tissues include:] spongy mesophyll, which has air spaces to facilitate diffusion of gases. b) [Details of the internal structure of these organs are limited to the leaf] and to the position of the xylem and phloem in a dicotyledonous primary root and primary stem. 3.1 Carbohydrates, lipids and proteins a) All carbohydrates are made up of units of sugar. Carbohydrates that contain only one sugar unit, eg glucose, or two sugar units, eg sucrose, are referred to as simple sugars. Complex carbohydrates, eg starch and cellulose, are long chains of simple sugar units bonded together. b) Lipids are molecules consisting of three molecules of fatty acids joined to a molecule of glycerol.

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Development of existing GCSE Topics in IGCSE: 4.1 Breathing c) The alveoli provide a very large surface area, richly supplied with blood capillaries, so that gases can readily diffuse into and out of the blood. d) A healthy person breathes automatically twenty four hours each day. However, spontaneous breathing may stop due to disease or injury. If this happens the patient can be helped to breath by using a mechanical ventilator. There are two main types of mechanical ventilator: negative pressure ventilators, which cause air to be drawn into the lungs positive pressure ventilators, which force air into the lungs. 4.2 Respiration 6CO2 + 6H2O (+ energy) c) C6H12O6 + 6O2 i) glucose lactic acid (+ energy) C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 (+ energy) m) Anaerobic respiration in plant cells and in some microorganisms results in the production of ethanol and carbon dioxide. 4.3 Circulation d) The natural resting heart rate is controlled by a group of cells that act as a pacemaker, located in the right atrium. Artificial pacemakers are electrical devices used to correct irregularities in the heart rate. f) In some people heart valves may become faulty. There are two main faults the heart valve tissue might stiffen, preventing the valve from opening fully, or the heart valve might develop a leak. Faulty heart valves can be replaced using: biological valves valves from humans or other mammals mechanical valves. q) Blood clotting is a series of enzyme-controlled reactions, resulting in the change of fibrinogen to fibrin, which forms a network of fibres trapping blood cells and forming a clot. t) There are four main types of human blood: O, A, B and AB. Blood group O is the universal donor. Candidates should understand: the need for blood typing the ABO compatibility table. 4.4 Digestion a) Starch (a carbohydrate), proteins and fats are insoluble. They are broken down into soluble substances so that they can be absorbed into the bloodstream in the wall of the small intestine. In the large intestine much of the water mixed with the food is absorbed into the bloodstream. The indigestible food which remains makes up the bulk of the faeces. Faeces leave the body via the anus. Candidates should be able to recognise the following on a diagram of the digestive system: salivary glands, oesophagus, stomach, liver, gall bladder, pancreas, duodenum, small intestine, large intestine, anus. f) Bile also emulsifies fats (breaks large drops of fats into smaller droplets). This increases the surface area of fats for lipase enzymes to act upon.

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Development of existing GCSE Topics in IGCSE: 4.5 The nervous system c) The brain controls complex behaviour. It is made of billions of interconnected neurones and has different regions that carry out different functions: the cerebral cortex is concerned with consciousness, intelligence, memory and language the cerebellum is concerned mainly with the coordination of muscular activity the medulla is concerned with unconscious activities such as heartbeat and breathing. d) Scientists have been able to map the regions of the brain to particular functions by studying patients with brain damage, electrically stimulating different parts of the brain and using MRI scanning techniques. 4.6.1 Principles of homeostasis a) Automatic control systems in the body keep conditions inside the body relatively constant. b) Control systems include: coordination centres that receive and process information from receptors effectors, which bring about responses. c) [Receptors are found in many organs, including:] the brain sensitive to blood temperature and the concentration of water in the blood the pancreas sensitive to the concentration of glucose in the blood. d) Coordination centres include the brain and spinal cord and the pancreas. 4.6.2 Control of water and ion content of the body c) In the liver: excess amino acids are deaminated to form ammonia, which is converted into urea for excretion poisonous substances are detoxified, and the breakdown products excreted in the urine via the kidneys old blood cells are broken down and the iron is stored. e) If the water content of the blood is too low, the pituitary gland releases a hormone called ADH into the blood. This causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water and results in a more concentrated urine. f) If the water content of the blood is too high, less ADH is released into the blood. Less water is reabsorbed in the kidneys, resulting in a more dilute urine. 4.6.4 Control of blood glucose a) Much of the glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles. When these stores are full, excess glucose is stored as lipid. e) Type 2 diabetes develops when the body does not respond to its own insulin. Obesity is a significant factor in the development of Type 2 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes can be controlled by careful diet, exercise and by drugs that help the cells to respond to insulin.

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Development of existing GCSE Topics in IGCSE: 6.1 Photosynthesis a) light energy 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 f) Carnivorous plants such as the Venus Fly Trap are adapted to live in nutrient-poor soil as they obtain most of their nutrients from the animals, such as insects, that they catch. 7.1 Genetic variation i) DNA contains the coded information that determines inherited characteristics. l) A sequence of three bases is the code for a particular amino acid. The order of bases controls the order in which amino acids are assembled to produce a particular protein. 7.2 Genetic disorders d) Sickle-cell anaemia (a disorder affecting red blood cells) is caused by a recessive allele. People who are heterozygous for the sickle-cell anaemia gene are less likely to get malaria than people who are homozygous for the dominant gene. e) Some inherited conditions are caused by inheritance of abnormal numbers of chromosomes, eg Downs Syndrome is caused by the presence of an extra chromosome. f) Embryos can be screened for the alleles that cause many genetic disorders: DNA is isolated from embryo cells a gene probe that will bind onto the gene for a specific disorder is produced. The probe usually has a fluorescent chemical attached to it the probe is added to a mixture containing the DNA sample from the embryo UV light is used to detect the probe attached to the gene for the disorder. g) Concerns about embryo screening include: the risk of miscarriages the reliability of the information from the screening procedure decisions about terminating pregnancy. 8.1 Adaptation g) Parasites are adapted for living on or inside their hosts. Fleas live amongst the hair of mammals. They have sharp mouthparts to enable them to suck blood. The body is flattened so that the flea is not easily dislodged. It has a hard body that is not damaged when the mammal scratches. Its long hind legs enable the flea to jump from host to host. Tapeworms live inside the intestines of mammals and many other groups of animals. They have both suckers and hooks to fix themselves to the wall of the intestine. The body consists of flattened segments whose main function is to produce large numbers of eggs. Tapeworms have no gut; their flattened shape provides a large surface area for the absorption of soluble food from the host gut. A thick outer cuticle protects the tapeworm from the hosts digestive enzymes.

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Development of existing GCSE Topics in IGCSE: Malaria parasites are single-celled organisms that cause malaria in humans. The organism has different forms. Each form is specialised for living in a different place in the host: - gametocytes that infect mosquitoes and reproduce sexually. When the mosquito has sucked blood containing gametocytes, these pass into the salivary glands of the mosquito, where they develop into a new form, the sporozoite - sporozoites are passed on to humans when the mosquito bites, injecting its saliva into blood vessels. The sporozoites travel with the blood to the liver and enter the liver cells. In the liver some of the sporozoites divide and become thousands of merozoites - merozoites are released from the liver into the blood, where they enter the red blood cells. Some of these turn into schizonts - schizonts burst the red blood cells, releasing more merozoites. This release coincides with the fever attacks seen when a person has malaria - some merozoites in the blood cells enter a sexual phase of reproduction and produce female gametocytes, which can be transferred to the mosquito when it bites. 8.3 Humans and their effects on the environment b) Waste may pollute: sewage and fertilisers may cause eutrophication: - an increase in the concentration of mineral ions in the water stimulates the growth of algae and / or plants - eventually the growth of the algae and / or plants results in some of these being unable to receive sufficient light for photosynthesis and these organisms die - there is a large increase in the population of microorganisms that feed on these dead organisms - the respiration of the microorganisms depletes the oxygen concentration in the water, leading to the death of aerobic organisms.

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