Heat and Mass Transfer 40 (2004) 727735 DOI 10.

1007/s00231-003-0424-1

Heat and mass transfer through a thick bed of cocoa beans during drying
J. Nganhou

727 Abstract This article relates to the establishment of macroscopic equations of thick and xed hygroscopical porous medium allowing an analysis of couply phenomena of heat and mass transfers in drying operation. The drying is done through forced convection by imposing a circulation of hot air across the layer. The authors then make their study particular to the case of thick layer of cocoa beans grown in the region of Yaounde in cameroon. A study realized on a prototype constructed and tested in the laboratory enables the validation of the proposed model. td vg Dg x X  g keff s keff l q Fn x total drying time (m) mean velocity of gas (m/s) gas owrate (m3/s) distance (m) bulk moisture content dry base (kg/kg) volume fraction of gas-phase (1) effective heat conductivity of gas phase (W/m K) effective heat conductivity of solid phase (W/m K) dynamic viscosity (PI) density (kg/m3) normal solar ux (W/m2) moisture mass fraction (kg/kg)

Nomenclature A surface of exchange per unit volume (m2/m3) c constant pressure heat capacity (j/K Kg) dm mean diameter of beans (m) 1 Deff effective diffusivity of water in the solid-phase (m2/s) m Deff effective diffusivity em mean excentricity of ellipsoidal beans (m) h heat transfer coefcient (W/m2 K) %Hg gas relative humidity D Hv enthalpy of vaporization per unit mass (j/kg) k mass transfer coefcient (m/s) K experimental constant (l/s) L length of bed (m) Lm mean length of beans (m) _ m mass rate of evaporation per unit volume (kg/s m3 ) M mass of anhydrous cocoa (kg) m Nu Nusselt number, hd g k
Pr Q Sc Sc Sh T t prandtl number, bulk rate of evaporation (kg/s) solar collector area (m2) lg Schmidt number, q D m
g eff

Subscripts eff effective eq equilibrium in inlet g gas s solid o initial

lg cg g keff

eff

Sherwood number, temperature (K) time (s)

hdm Dl eff

Received: 12 September 2002 Published online: 15 May 2003 Springer-Verlag 2003 J. Nganhou tique, B P 8390, ENSP Yaounde -Cameroun Laboratoire dEnerge E-mail: jean_nganhou@yahoo.fr Tel.: +237-998-49-62 Fax: +237-222-45-47

1 Introduction Although the problem of drying is an old problem, it still remains current today because of the energy put at stake, the rise in the cost of energy these last decades and the problems it brings in the developed as well as the developing countries. The growing interest in this type of a very coumplex problem is characterized by an important number of publications in various domains (thermal problems, physico-chemical, mechanical) implying optimization analyses of the cost of dried products. Our work is shown as a contribution to the study of drying in forced convection in the case of a thick layer of products in the domain of granuklar, hygroscopical products. A bibliographical study [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] shows the weaknesses of proposed theoritical modelling based on the techniques of energy balance sheet and of material, often wrongly interpreting the coupling of the phenomena of transfer within a porous medium. As a matter of fact the systems of equation obtained neglect the terms of thermal conduction, as well as those of diffusion ratio in the vapour phase. In addition, if the evolution in relation to the time of the fractional ratio is negligible, this represents very debatable hypotheses. The methods of analysis using the approach of coupled transfers

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give a ne modelling of the drying process. Among the 3. We will neglect in the equations of enthalpy transpormethods found in this category, that of the like of Luikov [7] tation, the comply: gradient concentration- gradient of and Whitaker [8] have particularly caught our attention. temperature 4. We will admit that the tensors. Wgeff and Aqg can be At the seal of the product, the model of Luikov can be intensied with the unit tensor. satisfactory, but its insufciency is in the fact that it cannot allow one to describe the behaviour of air In order to lighten up the notation, we will suppress the during drying bracket <> characterising the phase average and we will That of Whitaker is more appropriate to certain types consider that all the sizes guring in this equation are the of products such as sand: for agricultural products, intrinsic averages of the phase. they necessitate an adaptation. We have thus the following system: In Whitakers model, the solid phase is formed by a single constituent: inert solid matrix without water;not deformable [8]; This sketching cannot be totally applied to agricultural products which contain water in their solid matrix and for the most part, drying is expressed by a variation of volume bringing about a mechanical deformation of the product. Granuklar agricultural products put within the drying air constitute a dispersed porous medium; the step taken by Whitaker can thus be reasonably adapted for modelling the drying of thick layer of hygroscopical granuklar products; its the aim of the present work. Solid Phase (R) ! ) @ e _ eR qR Ce Deff div grad Ce m @t eR q R 1

! ! ) @ R CpR TR eR Keff div grad Te hRg ATR Tg @t 2

Gaseous phase (g) c) Conservation of the average mass of gas

) @ qg divqg Ug eg @t

2 Transfer equations Mathematical modelling of transfer phenomena in porous medium is inspired by the classical methods of the continuous medium mechanics; methods which consist of expressing locally the laws of the conservation of mass, energy and impulse. The geometry of porous space being very complex, this modelling can be put in practice only after a change of scale whose essential step leads to dene a representative elementary volume, enabling one to establish using average and macroscopic geometrical parameters, an equivalence between the actual dispersed porous medium and a virtual continuous medium. In this way, the medium being considered as continuous, the boundaries conditions will be taken up to the external boundaries including the porous medium. Meanwhile this elementary volume must be big enough such that the physical properties of the solid particles and of gas be described there through the local average values [9]. P In a domain comprising of two phases, solid phase ( ) with two constituents (water + dry materials) and gaseous phase (g) with two constituents (air + water vapour), in which it is assumed there is no chemical reaction and that water displacement can be described by a diffusion mechanism. We can put forward the following hypotheses:

! _ m
g

d) Conservation of the mass in vapour. eg qg

) ) @ CV Ug grad CV @t

_ eg Dveff divqg grad CV 1 CV m e) Conservation of impulse @ @t

) Ug

4  

grad p lg

) D Ug

Rg ) 2 Ug d

 qg

) Sg

)  Ug

Ug 5

f) conservation of enthalpy ! ) ) @ Tg Ug grad Tg eg qg Cpg @t ! ) g eg Keff div grad Tg h g ATR Tg g) Denition of the mass ux

8) ) < je q Deff grad Ce R ) :) jv qg Dvef grad Cv 1. The medium is considered isotropic. It happens that all the tensoral physical quantities can be represented under the form of the product of scalar (whose dimension h) denition of the heat ux is that of the physical property concerned by the unit 8 ) tensor) ) <q R KRef grad TR 2. Putting it self in the case of a forced convection in ) the phase (g), we will neglect the action of :) qg Kgef grad Tg weightlessness

The boundaries conditions for the transfer of mass and enthalpy are:

for the mass transfer

_ qg K g ACvR Cv m

For the heat transfer

_ h R A T R T g h g A T R T g DH v m

10

3 Simulation of model In certain cocoa producing countries, notably countries of humid tropical climate, harvesting period coincides with rainy season: period during which the sun duration is the shortest of the year. Peasants must resort to other sources of energy such as charcoal, biogas or electrical energy. We wanted in this work to study the heat and mass transfers in a thick layer of cocoa bean functioning in forced convection, the pre-heating of air being ensured through one of the sources of energy cited earlier: (Fig. 1, 2, 3). One can thus simulate the behaviour of model when the thermal and massic conditions of the entry of air are constant; The literature gives to the topic some experimental works which are far from being exploited because the conditions of study are imprecise [11] [12]. In the same way, it shows that the theoretical studies are non existent. Complementary hypothesis 1. We neglect in the equations of the transport of enthalpy, the compling gradient of concentration gradient of temperature; this hypothesis is justied by the fact that this term is affected by a diffusion coefcient which is generally very low (%106) in our case) 2. One supposes that the uid is not compressible 3. The fractional ratios of vapour are weak in front of the unit.

4. drying air obeys to the thermodynamics of humid air 5. The partitions within equipment are supposed to be adiabatic; this shows that in cross section of the pipe, all the characteristic sizes of the problem (temperature, water content)are constant 6. The average owing rate is supposed to be constant in whole layer (forced convection current) 7. The cocoa beans with their gum taken off are treated after fermentation. 8. One supposes their structure homogenous (it means we dont consider their internal porosity inducing a porosity of the second order) 9. The cocoa beans are very humid Considering these hypotheses, the transfer equations are reduced to the following system: Solid phase (R) Conservation of mass 1 eq R @ @ 2 Ce _ C e 1 e De m eff @t @ x2 11

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Conservation of enthalpy qR CpR 1 e

2 @ R @ TR _ DH v h TR 1 eKeff m Rg @t @ x2 A Tg TR 12

Gaseous phase (g) Conservation of average mass of gas qg e @ Cv @ Cv @ 2 Cv _ q g e Dv q g eUg m eff @t @x @2x Conservation of enthalpy eqg Cpg 13

2 @ Tg @ Tg g @ Tg eqg Cpg Ug eKeff h g ATg TR @t @x @ x2 14

_ qg b ACvs Cv with m

15

Fig. 1. Average volume (whitaker)

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Fig. 2. Representative average volume

Fig. 3. Drying installation

Conservation of impulse     2 dp 1 e 2 l g Ug 1 e qg Ug 150 1 ; 75 dx e e Fm dm Fm dm 2

Shor Nu 7 10e 5e2 1 0; 7Re0;2 Sc1=3 or Pr1=3 16 1; 33 2; 4e 1; 2e2 Re0;7 Sc1=3 or Pr1=3 21 e) Equations of state We have wanted to dene a model of behaviour as precise as possible, taking into account notably of the variation of physical properties of cocoa bean and air in the course of drying. These parameters come from detailed studies that were introduced in [14], NGANHOU (1987), [15], NGANHOU (2000). f) boundaries and initials conditions

d) The coefcients of the exchange of heat and mass Drying by ventilation (or the dragging of water vapour by air current) corresponds physically to the diffusion of water vapour from the surface of the product toward the moving uid; the heat and mass transfers are controlled by the characteristic of the boundary layer which is formed at the neighbourhood of the surface of product to be dried. Heat transfer is simultaneously done through conduction and convection. In the same way, mass transfer is done through molecular diffusion and convection under the inuence of the partial pressure of water vapour in the air between the surface of the product and the external ow. It happens that the coefcients of heat transfer h gS and mass b are function of the thermal and dynamic sizes as follows h g R f Uo ; qg ; lg ; Fm dm ; Keff ; Cpg ; e b f U o ; q g ; l g ; Fm dm ; D v eff ; e
g

731

boundaries conditions
Tg x; 0; t TR x; 0; t Tge constant inx 0 Cvx 0; t CvE constant Cex 0; t Ceq Ceo Ceqekt 22 ( in x Ls
@ Tg @x @ Ce @x

@@TxR 0 @@Cv x 0

23

17

initial conditions
18 Tg x; t 0 TR x; t 0 TA at t 0 Cvx; t 0 Cvo Cex; t 0 Ceo ( 24

Let us designate by Nu and Sh the number of NUSSELT and of SHERWOOD characterising the massic and thermal transfers. 4 Nu h gR dm g Keff Sh b dm Dv eff 19

And by Pr and Sc the number of PRANBTL and SCHMIDT Pr lg Cpg

g Keff

Sc

lg q g Dv eff

Experimental study To ensure the validity of the theorical model proposed for the drying of a thick layer of cocoa bean, considering the hypotheses which have been made, we propose to understate in this paragraph an experimental study of heat and mass transfers between the cocoa bean and the ow of the drying air. 5 Description of the experimental device In order to reach the targeted objectives (follow the parameters of the Heat and mass characteristics of the drying phenomenon), we have put in place the experimental device represented as g. 4It is made up of a hot air generating system, and a drying columns. The hot air generating system is composed by:

20

One will write (19) and (under the form/ Nu f Re; Pr; e Sh f Re; Sc; e Many authors have studied the variations of Nu and Sh in function of the parameters Re, Sc, Pr and . Several authors have been able to deduce from their experiences empirical laws. We ought to note that the correlations are generally established under experimental conditions different from ours. Moreover, some authors dont even precise the validity domain of the laws proposed. Among the correlations that we have been able to bring out, those proposed by GUN [13] appear acceptable to us. In fact, they are valid for all owing rules, all forms and dimensions of particles for the numbers of Reynold going up to 105 and of porosity higher or equal to 0,35. We will therefore adopt the common law

A regulating valve for air out put A cylindrical metallic pipe of length 1,20 m of internal
diameter Di = 22 cm and external diameter De = 26 cm surrounding two air heaters composed of electrical resistance of 23 W each, that one can supply under a voltage of 117. Each resistance dissipates a power of 60 W.

a series of reduction in the owing section of 200/160,

160/75, 75/63 in P.V.C extended by a tube equally in P V C of diameter 63/53

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Fig. 4. Experimental appartus

for cocoa drying

versus t, x = 0,12 m. Dg = 13,8 m3/hr, Tg in = 57C, xg in = 9,76 103, dm = 0,009 m, L = 0,12 m

Fig. 5. Temprature Proles TS

A soft joint made of rubber (of the bellows type) with

ing a layer of fresh cocoa beans whose thickness is 12 cm. internal diameter of D = 62 mm eliminating the efforts The basket can be easily removed from the column for imposed by the mass of mounting of the previous eventual lling or emptying drying system. The vertical position of the column gives the following advantages:

One can thus carry out the weighing of the mass of cocoa beans during drying.

A thermal isolation of 15 cm thickness was realised It enables the working of the simple techniques of
around the metallic pipe with wool in the glass in order weighing the treated products. to reduce lateral thermal loss. It ensures the uniformity of the piling of the beans and The drying column perse is a vertical tube in P V C of 60 the stability of the medium during the experience. The cm of circular sectional length, whose diameter is 20 cm choice of the circular section for this column is Inside this vertical pipe, there is a basket with grilled advantageous on the plan section. We have in effect depth (circular section of 18 cm in diameter) containpresumed a monodimensional thermal macroscopical

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Fig. 6. Temprature Proles Ts

versus time for, x = 0,12 m. Dg = 13,8 m3/hr, Tg in = 57C, xg in = 9,66 103, dm = 0,009 m, L = 0,12 m

Fig. 7. Temprature proles Tg

versus time Dg = 13,8 m3/hr, Tg in = 57 C, xg in = 9,66 103, dm = 0,009 m, L = 0,12 m

Fig. 8. Bulk moisture content

(dryed basis) versus time Dg = 13,8 m3/hr, Tg in = 57C, xg in = 9,76 103, dm = 0,009 m, L = 0,12 m, Ls = 0,012 m TA = 19C HRA = 79%, CVE 9,76 103

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versus time, Dg = 13,8 m3/hr, Tg in = 57C, xg in = 9,76 103, dm = 0,009 m, L = 0,12 m, Ls = 0,012 m TA = 19C, HRA = 79%, CVE 9,76 103
Fig. 9. Outlet relative humidity

elds. To come nearer to a mono dimensional thermal conguration, we have isolated the drying column thick. In order to allow continuos weighing, the whole column + basket are on a seal balance. For an imposed air output, the push of this or the dept of the basket is constant.

This has an advantage to incorporate in the loss in value and achieve the continuous weighing without interrupting the ow. It is important to note that before the putting in place of our drying operations, we carried out tests based on References several values of outputs. We noted that for imposed JM, Henderson SM (1968) A Computational procedure output the weight of the whole column + empty basket + 1. Henderson for deep bed drying analysis. J Agric Eng Res 13: 8795 air push remained equally constant. 2. Hamdy MY, Barre JH (1970) Analysis and hybrid simulation of

ate the aptitude of this theorical model to account for the phenomena observed during drying in the thick layer of cocoa beans. The greatest gap-types observed (probably due to the delicate choice of the coefcients of transfer) being about 2C for temperatures and 0,013 for relative humidity, we can afrm that our mathematical model constitutes a means of satisfactory description of the phenomena of transfer put at stake during drying in a thick layer of cocoa beans.

6 Comparison between theorical and experimental results The numerical solutions of equations (11) to (16) associated to the boundaries and initial conditions (22) to (24) was achieved due to an implicit sketch to nite differences using the method of the GAUSS elimination.The comparison between our experimental results and our theoretical model is made on Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. On Fig. 5, 6 we represented the evolution of temperatures in different positions of layer in function to time. The agreement with the theory is particularly good up to 9 cm of the entry into the layer Fig. 7 gives us the variations of temperature at the exit of the layer of cocoa beans in function of time. The variation in water content X of the products to be dried in function of time is represented on Fig. 8. One observes an excellent agreement of theory-experiment. Finally we give the evolution of the relative humidity in function of time. (Fig. 9). One notes that for the whole of the tests made, the model considered is very greatly representative of physical reality. 7 Conclusion This study has enabled us to present elements of qualitative and quantitative comparison between a modelling of transfers and experimental results. One can thus appreci-

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